On the topic: "The concept of the method and methodology of scientific research

Scientific research is a targeted knowledge, the results of which are in the form of a system of concepts, laws and theories. Describing a scientific study, usually indicate the following distinguishing features:

This is a necessarily targeted process, achieving a conscious target, clearly formulated tasks;

This is a process aimed at finding a new, creativity, to open an unknown, on the nomination of original ideas, to the new coverage of the issues under consideration;

It is characterized by systematic: here are ordered, the process of research and its results are listed, and its results;

It is inherent in strict evidence, a consistent justification of the generalizations and conclusions made.

The object of scientific and theoretical research is not just a separate phenomenon, a specific situation, but a whole class of similar phenomena and situations, their aggregate.

The goal, the immediate tasks of the scientific and theoretical study are to find a common in a number of single phenomena, to open the laws under which there are such a phenomena, that is, to penetrate their deep essence.

Fixed assets of scientific and theoretical research:

A combination of scientific methods, comprehensively substantiated and reduced into a single system;

A combination of concepts, strictly defined terms related to each other and forming a characteristic language of science.

The results of scientific studies are embodied in scientific works (articles, monographs, textbooks, dissertations, etc.) and only then, after their comprehensive assessment, used in practice are taken into account in the process of practical knowledge and in the removal, generalized form are included in the steering documents.

The activities of people in any kind (scientific, practical, etc.) is determined by a number of factors. The final result depends not only on the one who operates (subject) or what it is directed (object), but also from how this process occurs, which methods, techniques are applied. These are the problems of the method.

Method (Greek - a way of knowledge) - in the broadest sense of the word - "way to something", the method of activity of the subject in any form.

The concept of "methodology" has two main values: a system of certain methods and techniques used in a particular field of activity (in science, politics, art, etc.); The teaching about this system, the general theory of the method, theory in action.

The history and modern state of knowledge and practice convincingly show that far from every method, not any system of principles and other means of activity ensure the successful solution of theoretical and practical problems. Not only the result of the study, but the path leading to it should be true.

The main function of the method is the internal organization and regulation of the process of knowledge or practical transformation of one or another object. Therefore, the method (in one form or another) is reduced to the combination of certain rules, techniques, methods, norms of knowledge and action.

He is a system of prescriptions, principles, requirements that should focus in solving a specific task, achieving a certain result in a particular field of activity.

It disciplines the search for truth, allows (if proper) save strength and time, move to the goal with the shortest way. The true method serves as a kind of compass, in which the subject of knowledge and action paves its path, makes it possible to avoid mistakes.

F. Bacon compared the method with the lamp that illuminates road road In the dark, and believed that it was impossible to count on success in learning a question, going false.

In this method, he considered induction that requires science to proceed from empirical analysis, observation and experiment in order to know the causes and laws on this basis.

Cartert called "accurate and simple rules", the observance of which contributes to the increasing knowledge, allows you to distinguish false from the true. He said that it was better not to think about finding any truths than to do this without any method, especially without deductive rationalistic.

The problems of the method and methodologies occupy an important place in modern Western philosophy - especially in its directions and currents, as the philosophy of science, positivism and postpositivity, Stucutrils and post-structuralism, analytical philosophy, hermeneutics, phenomenology and other.

Each method will be ineffective and even useless if they are not used as a "leading thread" in the scientific or other form of activity, but as a finished template for reprovement of facts.

The main purpose of any method is based on the relevant principles (requirements, prescriptions, etc.) to ensure the successful decision of certain cognitive and practical problems, the increment of knowledge, the optimal functioning and development of certain objects.

It should be borne in mind that the issues of the method and methodology cannot be limited only by philosophical or internal scientific frameworks, but should be put in a wide sociocultural context.

This means that it is necessary to take into account the connection of science with production at this stage social Development, the interaction of science with other forms of public consciousness, the ratio of the methodological and value aspects, the "personal characteristics" of the subject of activity and many other social factors.

The use of methods can be a spontaneous and conscious. It is clear that only the conscious use of methods based on the understanding of their capabilities and borders makes the activities of people, with other things being equal, more rational and efficient.

Methodology As the general theory of the method was formed in connection with the need to summarize and developing those methods, means and techniques that were opened in philosophy, science and other forms of activity of people. Historically, the problems of the methodology were developed in the framework of philosophy: the dialectical method of Socrates and Plato, the inductive method of F. Bekon, the rationalistic method of Descartes, the dialectical method of Gegel and K. Marx, the phenomenological method E. Gusserly. Therefore, the methodology is closely related to philosophy - especially with its sections such as Gnosheology (the theory of knowledge) and dialectics.

Methodology in a certain sense "wider" dialectics, as it studies not only in general, but also other levels of methodological knowledge, as well as their relationship, modifications, etc.

The close relationship of the dialectic methodology does not mean the identity of these concepts and the fact that the materialistic dialectic acts as a philosophical methodology of science. Materialistic dialectic is one of the forms of dialectics, and the latter is one of the elements of the philosophical methodology, along with metaphysics, phenomenology, hermeneutics, etc.

The methodology in a certain sense of "already" the theory of knowledge, since the latter is not limited to the study of forms and methods of knowledge, but studying the problems of the nature of knowledge, the relationship of knowledge and reality, the subject and the object of knowledge, the possibility and boundaries of knowledge, the criteria for its truth, etc. On the other hand, the methodology is "wider" gnosetology, as it is interested in not only the methods of knowledge, but also of all other forms of human activity.

Logical study of science is the means of modern formal logic that are used to analyze the scientific language, identifying a logical structure scientific theories and their components (definitions, classifications, concepts, laws, etc.), study of opportunities and completeness of formalization scientific knowledge.

Traditionally logical tools were used mainly to analyze the structure of scientific knowledge, then the Center for Methodological Interests shifted to the problem of growth, changes and development of knowledge.

This change of methodological interests can be considered in the following two angles.

The task of time logic is to build artificial (formalized) languages \u200b\u200bcapable of making more clear and accurate, and consequently, more fruitful reasoning about objects and phenomena existing in time.

The task of logic changes - the construction of artificial (formalized) languages \u200b\u200bcapable of making more clear and accurate reasoning about changing the object - transition from one state to another, on the formation of an object, its formation.

At the same time, it should be said that really great achievements of formal logic spawned the illusion, as if only its methodological problems of science could be solved only by its methods. Especially for a long time, this illusion was supported by logical positivism, the collapse of which showed limitations, one-sidedness of a similar approach - with all its importance "within its competence".

Any scientific method is developed based on a certain theory, thereby acts as its necessary prerequisite.

Efficiency, the strength of one or another method is due to the content, depth, the fundamentality of the theory, which is "compressed into the method".

In turn, "The method is expanding into the system", i.e. it is used to further develop science, deepening and deploying theoretical knowledge as a system, its materialization, objectivation in practice.

Thus, the theory and method are simultaneously identical and different. Their similarity lies in the fact that they are interrelated and in their unity reflect actual reality.

Being one in its interaction, the theory and method are not separated rigidly from each other and at the same time not directly the same thing.

They are intelligent, intelligent: theory, reflecting reality is converted, transformed into the method through the development, formulation of principles, rules, techniques arising from it, which are returned to the theory (and through it in practice), because the subject applies them as regulators, regulations, in the course of knowledge and change around the world according to its own laws.

Therefore, the statement that the method is the theory facing practice scientific researchis not accurate, for the method is also addressed to the practice itself as a sensual-subject, socially transformative activity.

The development of the theory and improvement of research methods and the transformation of reality is essentially the same process with these two inextricably linked parties. Not only the theory is summarized in the methods, but the methods are deployed to theory, have a significant impact on its formation and the course of practice.

The main differences in theory and method are as follows:

a) theory - the result of the previous activity, the method is the source point and the subsequent activities;

b) the main functions of the theory - explanation and prediction (in order to search for truth, laws, reasons, etc.), the method is regulation and orientation of activities;

c) theory - a system of ideal images reflecting the essence, objects of the object, the method is a system of regulators, rules, prescriptions, speaking as an instrument of further knowledge and change of reality;

d) Theory is aimed at solving a problem - which represents this item, the method is to identify the methods and mechanisms of its research and transformation.

Thus, theories, laws, categories and other abstractions do not yet make up the method. To perform a methodological function, they must be appropriately transformed, transformed from the explanatory provisions of the theory in Orіntatsіin-active, regulatory principles (requirements, prescriptions, installations) of the method.

Any method is determined not only by previous and jointly use two at the same time with it by other methods and not only the theory on which it is based.

Each method is due primarily to its subject, that is, what exactly is investigated (individual objects or their classes).

Method as a way of research and other activities cannot remain unchanged, always equal to itself in all respects, but should change in its content along with the subject to which it is directed. This means that it should be true not only the final result of knowledge, but also leading to it, that is, the method, comprehending and holding precisely the specifics of this subject.

The method of any level of generality has not only purely theoretical, but also practical: it arises from the real vital process And again goes into it.

It should be borne in mind that in modern science the concept of "subject of knowledge" is used in two main values.

First, as the subject area - the parties, properties, the attitude of reality, which have relative completion, integrity and opposing the subject in its activities (object of knowledge). For example, the subject area in zoology is a variety of animals. Various sciences about the same object have various objects of cognition (for example, anatomy studies the structure of organisms, physiology - the functions of its organs, etc.).

Items of knowledge can be both material and perfect.

Secondly, as a system of laws, which is subject to this object. It is impossible to separate the subject and method, to see in the latter only the external agent in relation to the subject.

The method is not imposed on the subject of knowledge or action, but changes in accordance with their specificity. The study involves careful knowledge of the facts and other data relating to its subject. It is carried out as a movement in a certain material, studying its features, connections, relationships.

Method method (method) and is that the study should be mastered in detail with a specific material (actual and conceptual), analyze various forms of its development, trace their internal communication.

The variety of human activity causes a diverse spectrum of methods that can be classified according to the most different criteria.

First of all, it is necessary to single out the methods of spiritual, ideal (including scientific) and methods of practical, material activity.

Currently, it became obvious that the method of methods, the methodology could not be limited only to the science of scientific knowledge, it should go beyond its limits and must necessarily include in its orbit and the sphere of practice. In this case, it is necessary to keep in mind the close interaction of these two spheres.

As for the methods of science, the grounds for their division into groups can be several. Thus, depending on the role and place in the process of scientific knowledge, it is possible to distinguish methods formal and meaningful, empirical and theoretical, fundamental and applied, research methods and presentation.

The content of objects studied by science serves as a criterion for the difference in methods of natural science and methods of socio-humanitarian sciences. In turn, the methods of natural sciences can be divided into methods for studying inanimate nature and methods for learning wildlife. High-quality and quantitative methods, methods of direct and indirect knowledge, original and derivatives are also distinguished.

To the number characteristic signs The scientific method is most often attributed to: objectivity, reproducibility, heuristic, necessity, concreteness, etc.

In modern science, a multi-level concept of methodological knowledge is quite successfully working. In this regard, all methods of scientific knowledge can be divided into the following main groups.

1. Philosophical methods, among which the most ancient are dialectical and metaphysical. Essentially, each philosophical concept has a methodological function, is a peculiar way of mental activity. Therefore, philosophical methods are not exhausted by two named. These methods as analytic (characteristic of modern analytical philosophy), intuitive, phenomenological, etc. also include methods.

2. Nearby approaches and research methods that have gained widespread development and application in science. They act as a peculiar interim methodology between philosophy and the fundamental theoretical and methodological provisions of Special Sciences.

In general scientific concepts, such concepts such as information, model, structure, function, system, element, optimality, probability are most common.

Based on general scientific concepts and concepts, appropriate methods and principles of cognition are formulated, which provide communication and optimal interaction of philosophy with special scientific knowledge and its methods.

The general scientific principles and approaches include systemic and structural-functional, cybernetic, probabilistic, modeling, formalization, and a number of others.

Especially vigorously B. lately Such a general scientific discipline is developing as synergetics - the theory of self-organization and the development of open holistic systems of any nature - natural, social, cognitive.

Among the basic concepts of synergetics, such as order, chaos, nonlinearity, uncertainty, instability can be called.

Synergetic concepts are closely related and intertwined with a number of philosophical categories, especially such as being, development, formation, time, integer, chance, possibility.

3. Privatnonaukovі Methods are a set of ways, the principles of knowledge, research techniques and procedures used in one or another science corresponding to this basic form of motion of matter. These are methods of mechanics, physics, chemistry, biology and socio-humanitarian sciences.

4. Disciplinary methods - a system of receptions used in a particular scientific discipline, which is included in any branch of science or arising from sciences. Each fundamental science is a complex of disciplines that have its own specific subject and its peculiar research methods.

5. Methods of interdisciplinary research - a set of a number of synthetic, integrative methods aimed mainly at the joints of scientific disciplines. Wide use of these methods found in the implementation of integrated scientific programs.

Thus, the methodology cannot be reduced to some one, even a very important method.

The methodology is also not a simple amount of individual methods, their mechanical unity. Methodology is a complex, dynamic, holistic, subordinated system of methods, techniques, principles of different levels, sphere of action, orientation, heuristic possibilities, contents, structures.

The method of scientific research is a way of knowledge of objective reality. The method is a specific sequence of actions, techniques, operations.

Depending on the content of the objects studied, the methods of natural science and methods of socio-humanitarian study distinguish.

Research methods are classified by branches of science: mathematical, biological, medical, socio-economic, legal, etc.

Depending on the level of cognition, methods of empirical, theoretical and metatoretory levels are distinguished.

To methods empirical level Observation, description, comparison, account, measurement, questionnaire, interview, testing, experiment, modeling, etc.

TO methods of theoretical level An axiomatic, hypothetical (hypothetical and deductive), formalization, abstraction, overall methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy), etc. are calculated.

Metacheoretical level methods They are dialectical, metaphysical, hermeneutic, etc. Some scientists for this level include the system analysis method, and its other includes in the number of overallogial methods.

Depending on the scope of application and the degree of community, methods are distinguished:

a) universal (philosophical), operating in all sciences and at all stages of knowledge;

b) general scientific, which can be used in humanitarian, natural and technical sciences;

c) private - for related sciences;

d) special - for specific science, the field of scientific knowledge.

From the concept of the method under consideration, the concepts of technology, procedures and methods of scientific research should be degraded.

Under the studies of the study understand the totality of special techniques for the use of a method, and under the study procedure - a certain sequence of actions, a method of organizing research.

The technique is a combination of methods and techniques of knowledge.

Any scientific research is carried out by certain techniques and methods, according to certain rules. The doctrine of the system of these techniques, methods and rules is called the methodology. However, the concept of "methodology" in the literature is used in two values:

a combination of methods used in any field of activity (science, politics, etc.);

the doctrine of the scientific method of knowledge.

Each science has its own methodology.

There are the following levels of methodology:

1. A general methodology, which is universal in relation to all sciences and in the content of which includes philosophical and general scientific methods of knowledge.

2. Private research methodology, for example, for a group of related legal sciences, which form philosophical, general scientific and private methods of knowledge, for example, state-legal phenomena.

3. The methodology of scientific research of specific science, in the content of which philosophical, general scientific, private and special methods knowledge.

Among universal (philosophical) methodsthe most famous are dialectical and metaphysical. These methods can be associated with various philosophical systems. Thus, the dialectical method of K. Marx was connected to materialism, and G.V.F. Hegel - with idealism.

Russian lawyers for the study of state-legal phenomena are used by the dialectical method, because the laws of dialectics are universal importance, inherent in the development of nature, society and thinking.

When studying objects and phenomena, dialectic recommends proceed from the following principles:

1. To consider the objects studied in the light of dialectical laws:

a) unity and struggle opposites

b) the transition of quantitative changes to high-quality,

c) denial denial.

2. Describe, explain and predict the studied phenomena and processes, based on the philosophical categories: common, special and single; content and forms; essence and phenomena; opportunities and reality; required and random; Causes and consequences.

3. Treat the object of the study as an objective reality.

4. Consider the studied items and phenomena:

Comprehensively

in universal communication and interdependence,

in continuous change, development,

specifically historically.

5. Check the knowledge gained in practice.

Everything general scientific methodsfor analysis, it is advisable to distribute into three groups: overall, theoretical and empirical.

Overall methodsare analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy.

Analysis- This is the dismemberment, decomposition of the object of the study to the components. It underlies the analytical research method. The varieties of analysis are classification and periodization.

Synthesis- This is the connection of individual sides, parts of the object of the study in a single whole.

Induction- This is the movement of thought (knowledge) from the facts, individual cases to the overall position. Inductive conclusions "suggest" for thought, for general.

Deduction -this is the derivation of a single, private from any common position, the movement of thought (knowledge) from general statements to allegations of individual subjects or phenomena. Through deductive conclusions, a certain thought from other thoughts.

Analogy- This is a way to obtain knowledge of objects and phenomena on the basis that they have similarities with others, the reasoning, in which the similarities of the objects under study are made in some signs of their similarity and in other signs.

To methods theoretical level calculate axiomatic, hypothetical, formalization, abstraction, generalization, climbing from abstract to a specific, historical, system analysis method.

Axiomatic method -the study method that is that some statements are accepted without evidence and then the remaining knowledge is derived from certain logical rules.

Hypothetical method -way of research using scientific hypothesis, i.e. assumptions about the reason that causes this investigation or on the existence of a certain phenomenon or subject.

A kind of this method is a hypothetical-deductive method of research, the essence of which is to create a system of deductive interconnected hypotheses, of which statements on empirical facts are derived.

The structure of the hypothetical and deductive method includes:

a) nomination of guesses (assumptions) about the reasons and patterns of studied phenomena and objects,

b) selection from the many guesses of the most likely, plausible,

c) derived from the selected assumption (parcel) of the investigation (concluding) with the help of deduction,

d) Experimental verification of derived from the hypothesis of the consequences.

Formalization- Displays the phenomenon or object in the iconic form of any artificial language (for example, logic, mathematics, chemistry) and the study of this phenomenon or subject by operations with the corresponding signs. The use of an artificial formalized language in a scientific study allows to eliminate such disadvantages of a natural language, as a multi-consciousness, inaccuracy, uncertainty.

When formalizing, instead of reasoning about objects, research is operated with signs (formulas). By operations with artificial languages, you can get new formulas, prove the truth of any position.

Formalization is the basis for algorithm and programming, without which computerization of knowledge and research process can do.

Abstraction- mental distraction from some properties and relations of the subject of the subject and allocating the properties of interest to the researcher and relationships. Usually, when abstraction, the secondary properties and links of the object under study are separated from essential properties and connections.

Types of abstraction: identification, i.e. the allocation of common properties and relationships of the subjects under study, the establishment of identical in them, abstraction from the differences between them, combining objects into a special class; Isolation, i.e. Allocation of certain properties and relationships that are considered as independent research objects. Other types of abstraction are distinguished in theory: potential feasibility, relevant infinity.

Generalization- establishing common properties and relationships of objects and phenomena; The definition of a general concept in which the essential, basic signs of objects or phenomena of this class are reflected. At the same time, the generalization can be expressed in the allocation of not significant, and any signs of the subject or phenomenon. This method of scientific research is based on the philosophical categories of common, special and isolated.

Historical methodit is to identify historical facts and on this basis in such a mental reconstruction of the historical process, in which the logic of its movement is revealed. He involves studying the emergence and development of research objects in chronological sequence.

Climbing from abstract to concreteas a method of scientific knowledge is that the researcher first finds the main connection of the subject of the subject (phenomenon), then tracing how it is modified in various conditions, opens up new connections and in this way displays its essence in its entirety.

System methodit is a study of the system (i.e. a certain set of material or ideal objects), the links of its components and their connections with the external environment. It turns out that these relationships and interactions lead to the emergence of new properties of the system that are missing from the components of its objects.

TO methods of empirical levelinclude: observation, description, account, measurement, comparison, experiment, modeling.

Observation- This is a way of knowledge based on the direct perception of properties of objects and phenomena with the help of sense organs. As a result of observation, the researcher receives knowledge of external properties and relationships of objects and phenomena.

Depending on the position of the researcher, in relation to the study object, there is a simple and enabled observation. The first is to observe from the side when a researcher is an extraneous person who is not a member of the activities of the observed. The second is characterized by the fact that the researcher openly or incognito is included in the group, its activities as a participant.

If the observation was carried out in a natural setting, it is called the field, and if environmental conditions, the situation was specially created by the researcher, it will be considered a laboratory. The results of the observation can be recorded in protocols, diaries, cards, on film and in other ways.

Description- This fixation of the signs of the object under study, which are established, for example, by observing or measuring. Description happens:

immediately when the researcher directly perceives and indicates signs of the object;

indireced when the researcher notes signs of an object that were perceived by other persons.

Score- This is determined by the quantitative relationship of research objects or parameters characterizing their properties. The quantitative method is widely used in statistics.

Measure- This is determined by a numerical value of a certain value by comparing it with a standard. In criminalistics, the measurement is used to determine: distances between objects; velocity of vehicles, human or other objects; Duration of certain phenomena and processes, temperature, size, weight, etc.

Comparison- This is a comparison of the signs inherent in two or several objects, the establishment of the difference between them or the found in them in common.

In a scientific study, this method is used, for example, to compare the state-legal institutions of various states. This method is based on studying, comparison of similar objects, identifying common and different in them, advantages and disadvantages.

Experiment- This is artificial reproduction of the phenomenon, the process in the given conditions, during which the advanced hypothesis is checked.

Experiments can be classified on various reasons:

by sectors of scientific research - physical, biological, chemical, social, etc.;

according to the nature of the interaction of the research tool with the object - ordinary (experimental means directly interact with the object under study) and the model (the model replaces the object of the study). The latter are divided into mental (mental, imaginary) and material (real).

The classification is not exhaustive.

Modeling- This is the acquisition of knowledge about the object of study using its substitutes - analogue, models. The model is understood as a mentally represented or materially existing analogue of the object.

Based on the similarity of the model and the simulated object, the conclusions about it are transferred by analogy to this object.

In the theory of modeling distinguish:

1) ideal (mental, symbolic) models, for example, in the form of drawings, records, signs, mathematical interpretation;

2) material (attendant, real - Physical) models, such as layouts, donges, objects-analogs for experiments during examinations, reconstruction of the external appearance of a person according to MM method Gerasimova.

Federal Agency for Education

Moscow State Regional University

Krivshenko L.P.,

Vindorf-Sysoeva M.E., Yurkin L.V.

Methodology and methods of scientific research

Moscow 2007.

Methodology and methods of scientific research

Tutorial

Reviewer: DP, prof. Lyamzin M.A.

annotation

The manual talks about the methodology and methods of organizing a scientific research to solve the tasks of enhancing the training of schoolchildren and students of primary and secondary vocational education. Research methods, experiments, most often, in the unprepared audience are associated with technical and natural sciences, and in these areas there really exist theoretical and guidelines. This manual discloses the specifics of experimental activities in the humanitarian sphere, paying particular attention to psychology and pedagogy - as the main toolkit of the teacher - the head of the experiment. The Annex contains the methods of personality research. The manual may be wondering both teachers and students and parents.

Topic 1. Science as a system of knowledge of reality. four

Topic 2. Concept of scientific research 10

Topic 3. Scientific research methodology 25

Topic 4. Features of scientific research in psychology and pedagogy 38

Topic 5. Psychology in the system of scientific knowledge 53

Topic 6. Methods of research in psychology 59

Topic 7. Pedagogy in the system of scientific knowledge 68

Topic 8. Methods of research in pedagogy 75

Topic 1. Science as a system of knowledge of reality.

Principles of science

Formation of scientific knowledge

System of scientific knowledge

Science as social Institute

To be clever to prove something, one mind is not enough.

F. Chesterfield

Since ancient times, humanity sought to identify the patterns of functioning of the surrounding reality and on their basis to reproduce the picture of the world. Society requests dictated to obtaining new knowledge and use them to correct reality. To comply with these requests, the ideas about the world were to meet several requirements. : objectivity, generalization, reliability and ability to broadcast knowledge. Throughout the path of development of civilization, social institutions have been formed, contributing to the receipt and broadcasting of ideas about the world, but they did not immediately reach scientific level. In various epochs, social institutions of production, conservation and broadcasting of knowledge served religious institutions, philosophical and medical schools. At the same time, there was a system of dockbook and ordinary knowledge, in which various systems of scientific knowledge of the world began to emerge.

The very first science, still in antiquity, was philosophy, however, an understanding of it was then significantly different from the modern - philosophy was considered a comprehensive wisdom that united all the knowledge of the world known to the specific era. Then, as learning from philosophy expands, individual scientific systems gradually began to stand out.

In Hu11-Hu111 centuries. The formation of science as a social institution began - specially designed to obtain reliable and reliable ideas about the world. During this period, universities, national academies were created, as well as scientific periodic journals, which ensured the open nature of scientific knowledge, in contrast to the occult characteristic of the previous eras.

Why began any science - with the fact that some kind of sage saw the problem for research and knowledge. The problem is traditionally considered a clash of knowledge and ignorance. If we are talking about a collision of personal knowledge and ignorance is an educational problem, i.e. The problem is for a separate person or group of people, but not for humanity as a whole. And if, universal knowledge faces universal ignorance, we can talk about

scientific problem. Scheme 1 demonstrates the level of problem.

However, the allocation of the problem area from the mass of philosophical knowledge does not yet indicate the appearance of science. If researchers turn a certain reservoir of phenomena to scientific knowledge, including the description of the facts and their possible explanation, this does not give the status of science. What gives it? In science there is no place for subjective knowledge, household knowledge and not only. It is known that the craft, although learning him and requires hard work, time, study, and sometimes talent, is not science, as it is a skill without the theoretical base. But the religion having theoretical schemes is also not science, since its reasoning has never been tested by practice, and the more it was not confirmed by it. What does scientific research involve? Oddly enough, science begins with a descriptive stage, but it is still not science on it. At this stage, the facts are described, then they are systematized and explained. On this basis there is a theoretical base - a system of reliable knowledge about reality (which is where the practice checks). The theoretical base will be imperfect if it does not allow to bring certain laws - stable, repeating connections of phenomena. Very important for the status of science is the prognostic function, without it, science is also untenable. This can be summarized with a circuit 2.

Scientists in different ways determine the concept of law and patterns. We are closer to the idea that the law is an unconditional, repeating, sustainable connection of phenomena and events. Naturally, any law has a certain application framework in which it works. Conversations about universal laws are sufficiently conditional. In addition, laws are most often told in the system of natural, accurate sciences, in the system of humanitarian knowledge - it is customary to talk about regularities - repetitive, sustainable, but conditional relations of phenomena and events. This convention is determined primarily by the manifold and complexity of a person - the area of \u200b\u200bresearch.

Scheme 2.

To date, science is defined as the sphere of human activity, the functions of which are: development and theoretical systematization of objective knowledge of reality; the use of theoretical developments in practice; The ability to predict the development of research and their results. The possibility of implementing these functions exists due to the multi-pavement of the scientific phenomenon:

science as a social institution (community of scientists, a set of scientific institutions and auxiliary structures);

science as a result - scientific knowledge, system of ideas about the world;

science as a process - directly scientific research, the process of obtaining generalized, reliable, objective and translated information;

Formation of science as a social institution. The most important goal of science is the acquisition of new knowledge in accordance with both already formulated and only possible in the future demands of society. To meet these requests, knowledge should have such properties as generalization, reliability, reporting, objectivity.

Throughout the history of the human society, social institutions have been formed, providing these properties of knowledge. Social Institute -the concept denoting a steadily reproducing system of values, norms, rules (formal and informal), principles; The beginning, organizing members of society into the system of relations, roles and status. Social institutions should be distinguished from specific organizations. However, science as a social institution unites specific organizations leading research work - This is, first of all, higher educational institutions (academy, universities, institutes), sectoral institutes, institutes of increasing qua-defense, etc.

No scientific work is impossible without the relevant infrastructure. These are the so-called organs and organizations of scientific services: scientific publishing houses, scientific journals, scientific instrument maternity, etc., - which are by subproduces of science as a social institution.

Science as a social institution can function only if there are specially prepared qua-informed scientific personnel. The preparation of scientific personnel is carried out through the AS-Pyranturance or awareness of the scientific level of the candidate of science. From among the candidates, sciences through doctoral studies or co-sewn are preparing scientific personnel of higher qualifications - at the level of a scientific degree of Doctor of Science. At the level of the world scientific community, a Ph.D., a doctor of philosophy, and the doctor of the doctor of science - Doctor professor of technology or philosophy, respectively, in technical or humanitarian sciences, corresponds to the doctors of Philosophy.

Along with scientists with degrees, teachers of higher educational institutions, qualification institutions are assigned scientists of the titleas the steps of their pedagogical qualifications: associate professor (mainly from the number of candida dates, if there is a teaching experience in high school and published scientific papers) and professors (mainly from the number of doctors of science in the presence of major scientific works - textbooks, monographs, etc.) . In industry scientific institutes, the title of associate professor in the department corresponds to the title of senior researcher or associate professor in the specialty, and the title of professor at the Department is a professor in the specialty.

Currently, many secondary educational institutions are at-headed scientific and pedagogical personnel from universities or scientific organizations. This trend is extremely promising, as well as the preparation of scientific and pedagogical personnel from the heads and teachers of the educational institutions themselves. The fact that in secondary schools, gymnasiums, in ledge institutions of primary and secondary professional approximations, more and more candidates and doctors of science are working, says that these educational institutions will be increasingly involved in research activities.

Topic 2. Concept of scientific research

research

requirements for scientific research

terminology of scientific research

"All existing has sufficient

the basis for its existence "

Labnitz

The specificity of scientific research largely depends on the science area in which it is carried out. But there are general features that make it possible to understand that it is a scientific study. Scientific research is associated primarily with independent creative search for researcher. However, this creative search is based on a detailed and thorough study of past scientific experience. As mentioned below, it is important to understand the level of problem of scientific research. If you put a problem without studying previous achievements of science, it may be a learning task, it's easiest to mention the invention of a bicycle. The continuity in the development of scientific theories, ideas and concepts, methods and means of scientific knowledge is necessary. Each big-high level in the development of science arises on the basis of the previous stage while maintaining the entire valuable thing, which was accumulated earlier.

However, science is developing different paths, continuity is not a mandatory, indispensable development option. In the development of science, the periods of relatively quiet (evolutionary) development and the turbulent (re-volurative) breaking of the theoretical foundations of the science, the system of its concepts and ideas can be distinguished. The evolutionary development of on-uki is the process of gradual accumulation of new facts, experimental data within the framework of existing theo reticities, in connection with which there is expanding, clarification and revision of the previously adopted theories, theories, principles. Revolutions in science are coming when the root break and restructuring of previously established views, the revision of fundamental positions, laws and principles as a result of the accumulation of new data, the opening of new phenomena, not stacked in the framework of previous views. But the breakdown and the discarding of the previous knowledge, and their incorrect interpretation, for example, the incorrect university of laws and principles that have only relative in action are limited in action.

In addition, knowledge must be true. For scientific knowledge, it is characteristic that it is not easy to communicate about the truth of one or another content, but the grounds for which this content is true (for example, the results of the experiment, proof of the theorem, a logical conclusion, etc.). Therefore, as a trait that characterizes the truth of scientific knowledge, indicate the requirement of its sufficient substantiated. Thus, scientific and religious systems can be differentiated - suggesting that these are two different ways to know the world. One - science - based on the proof of truth, and the other is religion - on faith in truth, which does not require evidence by definition. There is another system of knowledge of the world between these poles, first of all the spiritual, sensual world of a person is art. Art, as it seems to us, is a kind of mix of the proof and faith in the truth of certain ideas about a person. This can be illustrated by the scheme.

Scheme 3. Methods for obtaining representations about reality

Naturally, it is necessary to imagine that the components of this scheme are not mutually exclusive - these are different views on the world and man, and anyone who encountered research activities is clear - that the opportunity to evaluate the same thing with different eyes and from various angles - makes a picture more reliable . This scheme speaks only that science can not rely on the blind faith or adolescence before authorities, and for religion it is this - the norm.

The conditionality of developing science needs of pre-historical practice dictates the main directions of scientific research. This is home driving force, or the source of science development. At the same time, the undercode, which is due to it is not just the needs of Praki, such as pedagogical, educational, and names, but - social and historical practice. Each conk-a record study may not be conditioned by specific practice requests, and to flow out of the logic of the development of the science itself or, for example, to be determined by the personal interests of the scientist. However, it is not necessary to simplify the picture. Scientific research can be calculated on both the nearest (applied), so, and, to the remote perspective (fundamental). The question of their primaryness is unresolved, each of the regions is necessary. The scientific competence of a scientist depends largely on its ability to see the expectant for the unprepared viewer. Here manifests the relative independence of science development. What specific tasks Nor put practice in front of science, the solution of these tasks can be carried out only by achieving the science of a certain corresponding level, certain steps of the development of the process of cognition of reality. At the same time, a certain courage often requires a certain courage when his scientific views, his scientific construction comes a contraction with the setting traditions, with installations.

In a scientific study, you need to pay attention to the interaction and interconnectedness of all branches of science, as a result of which the subject of one branch of science can and should be examined by the techniques and methods of other science. As a result, the necessary conditions are created for a more complete and deep disclosure of the essence and concerns of qualitatively different phenomena.

The urgency of scientific research is the freedom of criticism, a unimpeded discussion of the science of science, an open and free expression of various opinions. Since the dialectically controversial characteristics of phenomena and processes in nature, in society and the person is revealed in science not immediately and not directly, only certain contradictions of the studied processes are reflected in the struggling me and views. As a result of this struggle, the initial inevitable one-sense of various views on the object of study is overcome and a single view is produced, to date, the more adequate reflection of the reality itself.

Finally, the beginning of the researcher needs to pay attention to the language of science. Many terms are understood by us on the household level, otherwise than in scientific knowledge. Consider the main of them.

Fact (Synonym: Event, result). The scientific fact includes only such events, phenomena, their properties, communications and relationships that are definitely fixed, registered. Facts make up the fun-donam of science. Without a certain set of facts, it is not possible to build an effective scientific theory. It is known statement by I.P. Pavlova that facts are the air of the scientist. Fact as the scientific category is distinguished from the phenomenon. Phenomenon - objective reality, Outfit event, and the fact - a collection of many phenomena and communication, their generalization. The fact largely there is a sum of the generalization of all similar phenomena, their information in some specific class of phenomena;

Position - scientific assertion, formulate-bathd thought;

P onyatia - Thought reflecting in a generalized and ab-stairous form of objects, phenomena and relationships between them by fixing common and specific at-signs - properties of objects and phenomena. For example, the concept of "students" includes students of social schools and professional education institutions - students, cadets, listeners, etc.

In science, they often talk about developing concept, under-understanding that the content of the concept as scientific data accumulates and the development of scientific theories is becoming everything with new and new features and properties. So, for example, the concept of "pedagogical process" has recently been supplemented with new content - pedagogical technologists, diagnosis, testing, and the like. The concept is necessary to distinguish between the term, which is only a but-satel, the way of referring to the concept. For example, Terr-min "Pedagogical process". The concept of "pedagogical process" is all that the pedagogical science is known about the goals, content, forms, methods and means of learning and education of students, etc.

The concept among other forms of the organization of scientific knowledge occupies a special place, since the facts, provisions, principles, laws, theories are expressed through the words-concepts and relationships between them, since the highest form of man-based thinking is the conceptual, verbal-lo-gicha thinking. (A.M. Novikov 2006). As Hegel wrote, to understand - it means to express in the form of concepts.

Term "evidence" Can be used in several values. First, under the proof, the fact-you understand, with the help of which the truth or fellowship of one or another judgment is substantiated.

Secondly, proof means sources of information

on the facts: the chronicles, the stories of witnesses, memoirs, documents, etc. Thirdly, the proof is the process of mph. In logic, this term is used precisely in this meaning.

So, the proof is a logical reasoning, in the process of which the truth or the falsity of any thought is justified with the help of other provisions tested by science and specific practice.

The proof is related to the conviction, but not identical to him: The proof should be based on the data of science and the specific practice of beliefs can be founded, for example, on faith, on prejudices, on the admission of people in certain matters, on various kind of logical errors.

Proof As a special logical way of justification, the truth has its own structure. All proof is included thesis, arguments, demonstration. Each of these elements in the logical structure of the proof performs its special functions, Therefore, none of them cannot be ignored when building logically correct evidence.

We give a logical characteristic to each of the specified elements.

Thesis the proof is called the situation, the truth or the felt of which is required to prove. If there is no thesis, then there is nothing to prove. Therefore, all the evidence argument is entirely subordinated to the thesis and serves to under-hardening (or refutation). In the pre-prosecution: the main goal of all reasoning is the thesis, it is under-trust or refutation.

Thesis can be formulated both at the beginning of the proof, and at any other time. The thesis is often expressed in the form of categorical judgment, for example: "Position, which I prove, consists in the following", "Here is my thesis", "There is a task in front of me", "Here is my polo", "I" Deeply convinced that ... ", etc. Often the thesis is form-muling and in the form of a question.

The evidence is simple and complex. The main difference is that in complex proof, the main thesis and private abstracts have.

Basic thesis - This is the provision to which the rationale for a number of other provisions is subordinated. Private thesis - This is the situation that becomes the thesis only because it is proved by the main thesis. Private thesis, being proven, then becomes the argument for disagreement of the main thesis.

Arguments (or foundations) The proof is called the judgments that are given to confirm or refute the thesis. To prove the thesis means to bring the same judgments that would be sufficient to justify the truth or the falsity of the posted thesis.

As arguments, in case of proof of the thesis, any true thought may be given, unless it is connected with the thesis, justifies it. The main types of Argumen-Tov arefacts, laws, axioms, definitions, documentual evidence, etc.

As the basis of evidence, the same axioms are used. Axiom - This is a position that does not require priority. The truth of the axioms underlying the proof is not certified in each case because the verification of this truth was repeatedly carried out earlier, confirmed by practice. Axioms are quite widely used as grounds in jurisprudence. The role of axiom here is performed by presumption.

Presumption - This is the position that is considered installed and not in need of proof. She is not obvious and is accepted for the truth, not because its correctness is prevented by indisputable and follows from the situation itself, composed by the content of the presumption. Presumption is a position that formulating any most common, the most common attitude.

Demonstration (or the form of evidence) is a way of logical connection of the thesis with arguments. Thesis and Arguments of the evidence are in their logical form by judgments. Pronounced in grammatical proposalsThey are perceived by us directly: the thesis and arguumen, you can see if they are written; Hear if they pronounced.

Macroevna I. method Identification of social strata based on the expenditure strategy. IN scientificresearch J.p. Writer developed .... - Almaty: ғyl, 2004. - 216 p. 2. Methodology and technique scientificresearch. - Almaty: ғyl, 2005. - 353 p. 3. ...

Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine

Tavrichesky National University. IN AND. Vernadsky

Faculty of Economics

Department of Finance

Extramural

Discipline: "Methods of scientific research"

on the topic: "The concept of the method and methodology of scientific research"

Simferopol, 2009

1. The essence of scientific knowledge. The concept of the research method and scientific method

2. The concept of methodology

3. Philosophical and general scientific research methods

4. Private and special scientific research methods

List of sources used

The essence of scientific knowledge. The concept of the research method and scientific method

Science is the same area of \u200b\u200bprofessional human activity, like any other - pedagogical, industrial, etc. The only specific quality of science is that if knowledge obtained by science is used in other industries of human activity, the science is the area of \u200b\u200bactivity where the main goal is to obtain the scientific knowledge.

The science and is defined as the sphere of human activity, the function of which is the development and theoretical systematization of objective knowledge of reality.

Science as a phenomenon is an extremely multi-speed phenomenon. In any case, speaking of science, it is necessary to keep in mind, at least three of its main aspects, in each particular case, clearly distinguishing, as we are talking about:

science as a social institution (community of scientists, a set of scientific institutions and structures of scientific services);

science as a result (scientific knowledge);

science as a process (scientific activity).

"The unity of all science," Karl Pearson wrote in his "grammar of science", is only in its method, and not in its material. " Generally speaking, the scientific method is a continuous process of verification, changes and development of ideas and theories in accordance with the existing actual data. In a certain extent, the scientific method is simply the development of a conventional rational approach based on common sense.

The direction of scientific research is definitely a large extent depends on the circle of interests of individual scientists and their inquisitiveness, but a variety of public factors have no less important. The presence of money and scientific equipment, the atmosphere contributing to the conduct of scientific research, the needs of society - all this largely determines what problems need to be engaged and what - no. All these questions go beyond the discussion of the scientific method as such.

The scientific method is the main and most powerful means of rational knowledge. However, it serves only a means to achieve the goal. And the goals are not selected on a rational basis.

Considering in detail the use of the scientific method in any situation, a number of clearly distinguishable and interrelated steps can be distinguished. The first stage is the stage of observations, which can be called "natural historical". At this stage, it is simply accumulated by the huge mass of heterogeneous material, the character of which mainly depends on the random interests of one or more researchers; Part of it is based on accurate measurements, and the other part represents only fragmentary descriptive data. Then an attempt is made to systematize existing facts and, it is possible to obtain some systematic description of the entire totality of data.

People accustomed to identify the concepts of "knowledge" and "Science", so that they do not think of other knowledge, except for scientific. What is his essence and features? The essence of the scientific method can be explained quite simply: this method allows you to extract such knowledge of the phenomena that can be checked, save and convey to another. It follows that science does not study all sorts of phenomena, but only those that are repeated. Her main task is to find the laws according to which these phenomena proceed.

At different times, science reached this goal in different ways. The ancient Greeks carefully observed phenomena and then with the help of tremendous, they tried to penetrate the harmony of the nature of the power of intelligence, based on the data of the senses accumulated in memory. During the Renaissance, it became obvious that the goal could not be achieved only with the help of five senses - it is necessary to invent devices that there is nothing but to continue and deepen our senses. At the same time, two questions immediately occurred: how to trust the instruments readings and how to save the information obtained with their help. The second challenge was soon resolved by the invention of typography and the consistent use of mathematics in the natural sciences. It was much more difficult to resolve the first question - about the accuracy of the knowledge obtained using instruments. Essentially, it is not solved yet, and the whole history of the scientific method is the history of constant recess and modification of this issue. Pretty soon, scientists understood that the instrument testimony, as a rule, can be trusted, that is, they reflect something real in nature, existing independently of the instruments. Over time, knowledge is improved and allow scientists to correctly predict more subtle phenomena of nature.

The facts and concepts of science may seem random if only because randomly installed by random people and often under random circumstances. But, taken together, they form a single natural system in which the number of connections is so great that it cannot be replaced by any link, not touched upon all the others. Under the pressure of new facts, this system is continuously changing and specified, but never loses wholeness and peculiar finishes. Taken as a whole, the system of scientific concepts is a product of long evolution: for many years, the old links in it were replaced with new, more perfect, and completely new concepts always arose taking into account and on the basis of the previous ones.

Science (in the current understanding of this word) there are no more than 300-400 years. For such an insignificant period, she completely changed the lifestyle of civilized peoples, their attitude to the world, a way of thinking and even moral categories. Modern science is developing in a very rapid pace, currently the volume of scientific knowledge is doubled every 10-15 years. About 90% of all scientists ever who lived on Earth are our contemporaries. The whole world around us shows what progress has reached humanity. It was the science that was the main reason for such a rapidly flowing HTR, the transition to the post-industrial society, the widespread introduction of information technologies, the emergence of a "new economy", for which the laws of the classical economic theory began to transfer human knowledge into electronic form, so convenient for storage, systematization, Search and processing, and MNF. All this convincingly proves that the main form of human knowledge is the science today to become more and more significant and substantial part of reality. However, science would not be so productive if it did not have such an inherent developed system of methods, principles and imperatives of knowledge. It is the correctly chosen method along with the talent of a scientist helps him to know the deep connection of phenomena, open their essence, discover laws and patterns. The number of methods that develop science for the knowledge of reality is constantly increasing. The exact amount is perhaps difficult to determine. Indeed, there are about 15,000 sciences in the world and each of them has its own specific methods and subject matter. At the same time, all these methods are in a dialectical connection with general scientific methods, which they, as a rule, contain in various combinations and with a universal, dialectic method. This circumstance is one of the reasons that determine the importance of the availability of philosophical knowledge from any scientist. After all, it is a philosophy as a science "On the most common laws of the life and development of the world" is engaged in studying the trends and ways to develop scientific knowledge, its structure and research methods, considering them through the prism of their categories, laws and principles. In addition, philosophy gives a scientist to the universal method, without which it is impossible to do in any field of scientific knowledge.

The main features of scientific knowledge are:

1. The main task of scientific knowledge is the detection of objective laws of reality - natural, social (public), the laws of the most knowledge, thinking, etc. "The essence of scientific knowledge is in a reliable generalization of the facts, in the fact that it finds the necessary, natural, for A single - general and on this basis makes an anticipation of various phenomena and events. " Scientific knowledge To strive to open the necessary, objective connections that are recorded as objective laws. If this is not, then there is no science, for the very concept of scientific involves the opening of laws, deepening in the essence of studied phenomena.

2. The immediate goal and the highest value of scientific knowledge is the objective truth, comprehended mainly by rational means and methods, but, of course, not without the participation of living contemplation. Hence the characteristic feature of scientific knowledge - objectivity, elimination of subjectivist moments in many cases to implement the "purity" of the consideration of its subject. Einstein wrote: "What we call science has its exceptional task to firmly establish what is." Its task is to give a true reflection of processes, an objective picture of what is. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that the activity of the subject is the most important condition and prerequisite for scientific knowledge. The latter is impracticable without a constructive critical attitude to reality, excluding cosmy, dogmatism, apologetics.

3. Science is more than other forms of knowledge oriented to be embodied in practice, to be a "leadership to action" to change the surrounding reality and management of real processes. The life sense of scientific research can be expressed by the formula: "Know to anticipate, to foresee, to practically act" - not only in the present, but also in the future. All the progress of scientific knowledge is associated with an increase in the strength and range of scientific foresight. It is precondition that makes it possible to control the processes and manage them. Scientific knowledge opens up the possibility of not only the foresight of the future, but also the conscious formation. "The orientation of science on the study of objects that may be included in the activity (or relevant, or potentially, as possible objects of its future development), and their study as obeying the objective laws of operation and development is one of the most important features of scientific knowledge. This feature distinguishes it from other forms of cognitive activity of man. " An essential feature of modern science is that it has become such a force that predetermines the practice. Many modern production processes were born in scientific laboratories. Thus, modern science not only serves production requests, but increasingly acts as a prerequisite for the technical revolution. The great discoveries over the past decades in leading areas of knowledge have led to a scientific and technological revolution that covered all elements of the production process: comprehensive automation and mechanization, the development of new types of energy, raw materials and materials, penetration into a micrometer and into space. As a result, the prerequisites for the gigantic development of the Company's productive forces were developed.

4. Scientific knowledge in the gnoseological terms is a complex controversial process of reproduction of knowledge, forming a holistic developing system of concepts, theories, hypotheses, laws and other ideal forms enshrined in the language - natural or - more characteristic - artificial (mathematical symbolism, chemical formulas, etc. .P.). Scientific knowledge does not simply record their elements, but continuously reproduces them on its own basis, forms them in accordance with their norms and principles. In the development of scientific knowledge, revolutionary periods, the so-called scientific revolutions, which lead to the change of theories and principles, and evolutionary, calm periods, during which knowledge is deepened and detailed. The process of continuous self-renewal of the science of its conceptual arsenal is an important indicator of scientific.

5. In the process of scientific knowledge, such specific material products are used as instruments, tools, other so-called "scientific equipment", often very complex and expensive (synchrophasotrons, radio telescopes, rocket and space equipment, etc.). In addition, for science, more than for other forms of knowledge is characterized by the use of such ideal (spiritual) funds and methods, such as modern logic, mathematical methods, dialectics, systemic, hypothetical and deuctive and other general scientific techniques and methods (see about it below).

6. Scientific knowledge is inherent in strict evidence, the validity of the results obtained, the accuracy of the conclusions. At the same time, there are a lot of hypotheses, guesses, assumptions, probabilistic judgments, etc. That is why the logical and methodological training of researchers, their philosophical culture, continuous improvement of their thinking, the ability to correctly apply his laws and principles is important.

The concept of the method (from the Greek word "method" - the path to something) means a set of techniques and operations of practical and theoretical development of reality.

The method is arming a person with the system of principles, requirements, rules, guided by which it can achieve the target target. The possession of the method means for a person knowledge of how, in what sequence to make certain actions to solve certain tasks, and the ability to apply this knowledge in practice.

The method (in one form or another) is reduced to the combination of certain rules, techniques, methods, norms of knowledge and action. It is a system of prescriptions, principles, requirements that orient the subject in solving a specific task, achieving a certain result in this field of activity. It disciplines the search for truth, allows (if proper) save strength and time, move to the goal with the shortest way. The main function of the method is the regulation of cognitive and other forms of activity. The research methods are divided into empirical (empirical - literally perceived by means of senses) and theoretical.

Regarding research methods, it is necessary to note the following circumstance. In the literature on gnoseology, methodology is everywhere, as it were, the dual partition, separation of scientific methods, in particular, theoretical methods. So, the dialectical method, theory (when it acts in the function of the method - see below), detection and resolution of contradictions, the construction of hypotheses, etc. It is customary to be called, without explaining why (at least, the authors failed to find such explanations in the literature), methods of knowledge. And such methods are as an analysis and synthesis, comparison, abstraction and concretization, etc., that is, the main thinking operations - methods of a theoretical study.

A similar separation takes place with empirical methods of research. So, V.I. Zagognaminsky shares empirical methods of study into two groups:

1. Workers, private methods. These include: the study of lee-teratura, documents and performance activities; observation; survey (oral and written); The method of expert assessments, testing.

2. Complex, general methods that are built on the use of one or more private methods: survey; monitoring; study and summarizing experience; experienced work; experiment.

There are certain approaches to the classification of the study method (Fig. 1.).

Fig. 1 - Approaches to the classification of the study method

The empirical level methods include observation, description, comparison, account, measurement, questionnaire, interview, testing, experiment, modeling, etc. An axiomatic, hypothetical, formalization, abstraction, overall methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy) and other, metatoretical levels are dialectical, metaphysical, hermeneutic, etc. And it is included in the number of overall methods.

Depending on the scope of application and the degree of generality, methods are distinguished (Fig. 2.).

Fig. 2 - Classification of the study method depending on the scope of application

a) General methods concern any object of nature, any science. These are the various forms of the dialectical method, which gives the opportunity to bind all directions of the process of knowledge, all its steps, for example, the method of climbing from the abstract to a specific and other.

b) Special methods concern not its subject matter as a whole, but only one of its parties (phenomena, entity, quantitative side, structural links) or a certain study of research: analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction. Special methods are: observation, experiment, comparison and as its own case of measurement.

c) Private methods are special methods that act or only within a separate industry, or outside the industry where they arose. Thus, physics methods led to the creation of astrophysics, crystal physics, geophysics, chemical physics and physical chemistry, biophysics. The distribution of chemical methods led to the creation of crystalochemistry, geochemistry, biochemistry and biogeochemistry. Often, a complex of interrelated private methods is used to study one object, for example, molecular biology simultaneously uses methods of physics, mathematics, chemistry, cybernetics in their relationship.

During the progress, methods can move from a lower category to higher: private - to turn into special, special - in general.

There is a whole area of \u200b\u200bknowledge, which is specially engaged in the study of methods and is customary to refer to the methodology. The methodology literally means "the doctrine of methods" (for this term occurs from two Greek words: "Method" method and "Logos" - doctrine). Each science uses various methods that depend on the nature of the tasks solved in it. However, the originality of scientific methods is that they are relatively independent of the type of problems, but are dependent on the level and depth of the scientific research, which is manifested primarily in their role in research processes.

The method of scientific research is a way of knowledge of objective reality. The method is a specific sequence of actions, techniques, operations.

From the concept of the method under consideration, the concepts of technology, procedures and methods of scientific research should be degraded.

Under the studies of the study understand the totality of special techniques for the use of a method, and under the study procedure - a certain sequence of actions, a method of organizing research.

The technique is a combination of methods and techniques of knowledge. For example, under the methodology of criminological studies, the system of methods, techniques, collecting, processing, analysis, analysis and evaluation of information on crime, its causes and conditions, personality of the criminal and other criminological phenomena is understood.

2. The concept and essence of the methodology

Any scientific research is carried out by certain techniques and methods, according to certain rules. The doctrine of the system of these techniques, methods and rules is called the methodology. However, the concept of "methodology" in the literature is used in two values:

1) a set of methods used in any field of activity (science, politics, etc.);

2) the doctrine of the scientific method of knowledge.

Consider modern general definitions of the methodology (Table 1).

A source	Definition
	"Methodology (from" method "and" logic ") - the doctrine of the structure, logical organization, methods and means of activity"
	"Methodology - system of principles and methods of organization and construction of theoretical and practical activity, as well as the doctrine of this system"
	"The doctrine on the methods of activity (method and" Logos "- doctrine)"
	"Methodology - 1) a set of research techniques used in any science; 2) The doctrine of the method of knowledge and conversion of the world "
	"The concept of" Methodology "has two main meanings: a system of certain methods and techniques used in a particular field of activity (in science, politics, art, etc.); Teaching about this system, general method theory, theory in action "
	"The main goal of the science methodology is the study of those methods, means and techniques, with the help of which new knowledge in science is purchased and justifies. But, besides this main task, the methodology also examines the structure of scientific knowledge at all, place and role in it various shapes Cognition and methods for analyzing and building various systems of scientific knowledge "
	"The methodology is a discipline about general principles and forms of organization of thinking and activity "
	General approach to solving tasks of a class
V.V. Kraevsky)	Methodology as a method, a means of communicating science and practice
ON THE. Masicovuk, a group of specialists, calling themselves "methodologists", began to form "methodologists", and the scientific direction of the "systemovership activity" methodology. These groups of methodologies (OS Anisimov, Yu.V. Gromyko, P.G. Shchedrovitsky, etc.) became in conducting "organizational and activity games" with teams of workers first in the field of education, then agriculture, with political scientists and t .d, aimed at understanding innovation, which brought them quite widely known. In parallel with this, the publications began to appear the publications of scientists devoted to the analysis and scientific substantiation of innovation activities - in education, in engineering, in economics, etc. . In recent years, the term "methodology" has spread among the programmers at all in the new "sound." Under the methodology, programmers began to understand one or another type of strategy, that is, one or another general method of creating computer programs. So, along with the research methodology, a new direction began to be formed - the methodology of practical activity. Methodology is the doctrine of the organization of activities. Such a definition is definitely determined and the subject of the methodology is the organization of activities. It is necessary to consider the content of the concept of "organization". In accordance with the definition of data in, organization - 1) internal orderliness, coherence of the interaction of more or less differentiated and autonomous parts of the whole, due to its structure; 2) a set of processes or actions leading to the formation and improvement of relationships between parts of the whole; 3) Combining people jointly implementing a certain program or target and valid on the basis of certain procedures and rules. Note that not any activity needs an organization, in the application of the methodology. As you know, human activity can be divided into activities reproductive and productive (see, for example,). Reproductive activities are a cast, copy from the activities of another person, or a copy of its own activities, mastered in the previous experience. Productive activities are aimed at obtaining an objectively new or subjectively new result. In the case of productive activities and there is a need for its organization, that is, there is a need to apply the methodology. If you proceed from the classification of activities on target orientation: a game-work, then we can talk about the next direction of the methodology: Gaming Methodology Training methodology; Working methodologies, professional activity. Thus, the methodology considers the organization of activity (activities - targeted human activity). Organize activity means arrange it into a holistic system with clearly defined characteristics, logical structure and process of its implementation - the time structure (the authors come from a pair of categories of dialectics "historical (time) and logical"). The logical structure includes the following components: subject, object, object, shape, means, activity methods, its result. The following characteristics of the activity are external with respect to this structure: features, principles, conditions, norms. Structure Scheme Methodologists contains the following essential components (Fig. 5). General diagram of the structure of the methodology Fig. 5 - general diagram of the structure of the methodology Such an understanding and construction of the methodology makes it possible to summarize various approaches and intercomposition of the concept of "methodology" and its use in a wide variety of activities in a single logic. Each science has its own methodology. Ultimately, lawyers and philosophers under scientific research methodologies understand the doctrine of methods (method) of knowledge, i.e. On the system of principles, rules, methods and techniques intended for the successful solution of cognitive tasks. Accordingly, the methodology of legal science can be determined as a doctrine on the methods of studying state-legal phenomena. The following levels exist (Table 2). Table 2 - Main Dummy Methodologists 3. Philosophical and general scientific research methods Among universal (philosophical) methods are the most well-known are dialectical and metaphysical. When studying objects and phenomena, dialectic recommends proceed from the following principles (Fig. 6.). Fig. 6 - Compliance with the principles of a dialectic in scientific research All general scientific methods in scientific research are advisable to distribute into three groups (Fig. 7). Fig. 7 - Classification of general scientific research methods Overtiseral methods are the analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy. Let us give the detailed characteristic of overall methods of research in Table 3. Table 3 - Characteristics of overall research methods Method name Dismemberment, decomposition of an object of study on components. The varieties of analysis are classification and periodization. The connection of individual parties, parts of the object of the study in a single integer. Induction Movement of thought (knowledge) from facts, individual cases to the general provision. Inductive conclusions "suggest" for thought, for general. For example, the induction method is used in jurisprudence to establish causes of ties between phenomena, actions and on-scheduled consequences. Deduction Removal of a single, private from any common position; Movement of thought (knowledge) from general statements to approval about individual subjects or phenomena. Through deductive conclusions, a certain thought from other thoughts " Analogy The method of obtaining knowledge about objects and phenomena based on the fact that they have similarities with others; The argument in which the similarities of the objects studied in some signs are concluded about their similarity and in other signs. The methods of theoretical level include axiomatic, hypothetical, formalization, abstraction, generalization, climbing from abstract to a specific, historical, system analysis method. We give the characteristics of the essential content of these methods in Table 4. Table 4 - Characteristics of the theoretical level methods Method name Axiomatic method The study method that is that some approval (axioms, postulates) are accepted without evidence and then the remaining knowledge is derived from certain logical rules. Hypothetical method Way of research using scientific hypothesis, i.e. assumptions about the reason that causes this investigation or on the existence of a certain phenomenon or subject. A kind of this method is a hypothetical-deductive method of research, the essence of which is to create a system of deductive interconnected hypotheses, of which statements on empirical facts are derived. Formalization Displays the phenomenon or object in the iconic form of any artificial language (for example, logic, mathematics, chemistry) and the study of this phenomenon or subject by operations with the corresponding signs. The use of an artificial formalized language in a scientific study allows to eliminate such disadvantages of a natural language, as a multi-consciousness, inaccuracy, uncertainty. When formalizing, instead of reasoning about objects, research is operated with signs (formulas). Formalization is the basis for algorithm and programming Abstraction Mooked distraction from some properties and relationships of the subject of the subject and the allocation of the properties of interest to the researcher and relationships. Usually, when abstraction, the secondary properties and links of the object under study are separated from essential properties and connections. Generalization Establishing common properties and relationships of objects and phenomena; The definition of a general concept in which the essential, basic signs of objects or phenomena of this class are reflected. At the same time, the generalization can be expressed in the allocation of not significant, and any signs of the subject or phenomenon. This method of scientific research is based on the philosophical categories of common, special and isolated. Historical method It is to identify historical facts and on this basis in such a mental reconstruction of the historical process, in which the logic of its movement is revealed. He involves the study of the occurrence and development of research objects in chronological sequence System method It is a study of the system (i.e. a certain set of material or ideal objects), the links of its components and their connections with the external environment. It turns out that these interrelations and interactions lead to the emergence of new properties of the system that are missing from the components of its objects The methods of empirical level include: observation, description, score, measurement, comparison, experiment, modeling. Describe the entity of these methods using Table.5. Table 5 - characteristics of the methods of the empirical level Method name Observation The method of knowledge based on the immediate perception of the properties of objects and phenomena with the help of sense organs. As a result of observation, the researcher receives knowledge of external properties and relationships of objects and phenomena. It is used, for example, to collect sociological information in the field of law. If the observation was carried out in a natural setting, it is called fields, and if environmental conditions, the situation was specially created by the researcher, it will be considered laboratory Description Fixing the features of the object under study, which are established, for example, by observing or measuring. The description happens: 1) directly when the researcher directly perceives and indicates the signs of the object; 2) indirect when the researcher notes signs of an object that were perceived by other persons Determining the quantitative ratios of research objects or parameters characterizing their properties For example, legal statistics studies the quantitative side of mass and other legally significant phenomena and processes, i.e. Their magnitude, the degree of prevalence, the ratio of individual components, change in time and space. Measure Determining the numerical value of a certain value by comparing it with the standard. Comparison Comparison of signs inherent in two or several objects, establishing the difference between them or to find in them in common. This method is based on studying, comparison of similar objects, identifying common and different in them, advantages and disadvantages. In this way, the practical tasks of improving state institutions can be solved. Experiment Artificial reproduction of the phenomenon, the process in the specified conditions, during which the advanced hypothesis is checked. Experiments can be classified on various reasons: by sectors of scientific research - physical, biological, chemical, social, etc.; According to the nature of the interaction of the research tool with the object - the experimental means, directly interact with the object under study) and the model (the model replaces the object of the study). Modeling Getting knowledge about the object of study using its substitutes - analogue, models. The model is understood as a mentally represented or materially existing analogue of the object. Based on the similarity of the model and the simulated object, the conclusions about it are transferred by analogy to this object. 4. Private and special scientific research methods There are private and special methods of scientific research. Private, usually used in related sciences, have specific features depending on the object and conditions of knowledge. Special research methods are used only in one branch of scientific knowledge or their application is limited to several narrow areas of knowledge. For example, private methods of state studies and legal entities are: 1) formal legal (special legal); 2) Specifically sociological. The formal legal method is a special system of methods and techniques for the study of state-legal phenomena. It includes: a) description of the rules of law; b) the establishment of legal signs of certain phenomena; c) the production of legal concepts; d) classification of legal concepts; e) establishing their nature from the point of view of the provisions of legal science; e) their explanation at an angle of view of legal theories; g) description, analysis and generalization of legal practice. This method is applicable and in the study of the forms of the state, determining the competence of its bodies, etc. Specifically sociological methods are based on the application of specific sociology methods for the study of state-legal phenomena. Specific sociological research is a scientific study, analysis and systematization of social facts, phenomena and processes relating to various areas of society. The methods of specific sociological research include: studying documents (documentary method), surveys in the form of survey and interviews, the method of expert assessments and others. Not only methods for obtaining information about phenomena, but also methods for their collection, processing and evaluation are important. In this regard, in sociology, for example, the following methods are distinguished: registration of single events (observation, survey, study of documents, etc.); data collection (solid, selective or monographic examination); data processing and analyzing (description and classification, typological system, system analysis, statistical analysis etc.). Consider the essence of the most common methods of specific sociological studies of phenomena using Table 6. Table 6 - The essence of common methods of sociological research Method name Poll methods The survey can be carried out in absentia by distribution, collection and processing of questionnaires (questionnaire) or in person in the form of a conversation with the interviewed (interviewing). The survey method often requires a questionnaire Interview Interviewer's conversation with respondent for a specific plan. An interview can hold the researcher or his assistants. Interviewer, using the questionnaire, plan, a blank or a card, asks questions, directs a conversation, records the responses of the respondents. Expert assessment method. Lies in learning opinions of specialistsWith deep knowledge and practical experience in a certain area. As experts, both scientific and practical workers are selected (no more than 20-30 people). Grouping It is to dismember the statistical indicators on qualitatively homogeneous groups for essential features Correlation analysis. To measure the statistical links between the signs of the studied phenomenon When conducting specific sociological studies of phenomena, other methods are used: sociometry, tests, biographical, psychological and logical and mathematical. List of sources used Archibald R.S. Management of high-tech programs and projects. - M.: DMK Press, 2002. Bezrukova V.S. Pedagogy. Projective pedagogy. - Ekaterinburg: Business book, 1996. Great Soviet Encyclopedia. 3rd edition. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1968-1979. Descartes R. reasoning about the method. The beginning of philosophy. - M.: Pepha, 1998. Kagan M.S. Human activity. - M.: Politicize, 1974. Kanke V.A. The main philosophical directions and concepts of science. Results of the twentieth century. - M.: Logos, 2000. Kotarbinskaya T. Treath about good work. Per. with Polish. - M.: Economy, 1975. Kochergin A.N. Methods and forms of knowledge. - M.: Science, 1990. Kraevsky V.V. Scientific research methodology: manual for students and graduate students of humanitarian un-tov. - SPb.: SPb. GUP, 2001. Kraevsky V.V., Polonsky V.M. Methodology for teacher: theory and practice. - Volgograd: Change, 2001. Leskevich T.G. "Philosophy of Science: Traditions and Novation" M.: Prior, 2001 Masyukova N.A. Design in education. - Minsk: Technoprint, 1999. Methodological problems of modern science. - M.: Science, 1978. Methodology: Yesterday, today, tomorrow. In 3 tt. Red.-Cost. Krylov G.G., Chromchenko M.S. - M.: Publishing House of School of Cultural Policy, 2005. Nikitin V.A. Organizational types modern culture: Dissence Abstract. Dr. culturalology. - Tolyatti, 1998. New philosophical encyclopedia: in 4 tons. - M.: Thought, 2000. Novikov A.M., Novikov D.A. Methodology. M.: Syntg, 2007. Novikov A.M., Novikov D.A. Educational project / Methodology of practical educational activities. - M.: EGVES, 2004. Novikov A.M. Russian education in a new epoch: heritage paradoxes; Vectors of development. - M.: Egvez, 2000. Basics of Science Philosophy: Study Guide for Aspirants / V.P. Kohanovsky and others - ed. 2nd. - Rostov N / D: Phoenix, 2005. Ruzavin G.I. Scientific research methodology: studies. Handbook for universities. - M.: Uniti-Dana, 1999. Soviet encyclopedic dictionary. - M.: Large Russian Encyclopedia, 2002. Philosophy // under. ed. Kohanovsky V.P. Rostov - N / D.: Phoenix, 2000 Philosophical dictionary. Ed. MM Rosenthal. Ed. Third. - M.: Publishing House of Political Literature, 1972. Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. - M.: OV. Encyclopedia, 1983. Shchedrovitsky P.G. To analyzing the topics of organizational and activity games. - Pushchino, 1987. scientific research. Concepts Method AND Methodology Scientific Research Method scientific research ... Methods scientific research (3) Tutorial \u003e\u003e Philosophy Methods scientific research Maintenance concepts scientific- Inheritance work Aspect - angle of view ... Case, 2000. 2. Mogilevsky V.D. Methodology Systems. -M.: Economics, 1999. 3. Ruzavin G.I. Methodology scientific research. -M.: Uniti, 1999. 4. 4. Tatarova ... Methods scientific research (4) Lecture \u003e\u003e Physical Culture and Sport ... methodology scientific research ... Concept method scientific research and its classification 5.2. Methodological functions of philosophy in scientific- research activities 5.3. General scientific (overall) methods 5.1. Concept method scientific research ... Methods scientific research (4) Abstract \u003e\u003e Pedagogy Chapter Sh. METHODOLOGY Scientific Research § one. Concepts Method Immetodology "Scientific Research Method scientific research - This is a way to know objective reality. ... Four levels of research: 1. The general-industry level of significance - work, the results of which have an impact on the entire field of one or another science 2. The disciplinary level of significance characterizes the research, the results of which contribute to the development of individual scientific disciplines 3. The general level of significance has research, results which change the existing scientific views on a number of important problems within one discipline 4. A special level of significance, the results of which change scientific views on individuals PhaseStadiaphea Phase design conceptual stage Detection of contradictions Formulation of the problem Determination of the purpose of the study Choice of criteria Stage of modeling (constructing a hypothesis) 1. Construction of the hypothesis; 2. Clarification (specification) of the hypothesis. Stage of design of research 1. Decomposition (definition of research tasks); 2. Study of conditions (resource capabilities); 3. Building a study program. Stage of technological preparation of the study The technological phase of the study stage Theoretical stage The empirical stage of the stage of registration of results 1. Approbation of the results; 2. Registration of results. Reflexive phase The formulation of a problem under a scientific problem is a matter of the answer to which is not contained in the accumulated scientific knowledge. The problem is a specific form of organization of knowledge, the object of which is not the immediate subject matter, but a state of scientific knowledge about this reality. Subjects of the formulation of the problem 1. The formulation of the problem is the formulation of issues. Elimination of the central problem. 2. Problem Evaluation - Definition required conditions, resource support, research methods. 3. Justification of the problem is the proof of the need to solve it, the scientific and / or practical value of the expected results. 4. Structuring Problems - Decomposition - Search for additional issues (grades), without which it is impossible to get an answer to the central - problem - the question. Object and subject of research The object of the study is what opposes a learning subject in his cognitive activity - that is, this is the part of the surrounding reality with which the researcher is dealing. The subject of the study is that side, the aspect, the point of view, the "projection", with which the researcher learns a holistic object, highlighting the main, most significant (from the point of view of the researcher) signs of the object. New results can be obtained: 1. New (in fig. It is indicated by shading), the subject area (Fig.A); 2. To the previously studied subject area, new technologies were applied - methods or means of knowledge (Fig. B.) 3. At the same time, a new subject area is investigated using new technologies (Fig. In). Option (Figure) is fundamentally impossible! Pattern: the wider the subject area, the more difficult it is to obtain the general scientific results "weak" sciences, the most minimal limiting assumptions are introduced (and then they do not introduce them at all) and receive the most blurred results. "Strong" sciences introduce many limiting assumptions, but they receive clearer, more substantiated results, the scope of which, however, is very ejected (more precisely, it is clearly limited to the assumptions entered). "The principle of uncertainty" can be conventionally located various sciences on the plane (see the following slide): "The validity of the results" is "the scope of their applicability (adequacy)", and formulate (again conditionally, by analogy with the principle of uncertainty V. Geisenberg) Next " The principle of uncertainty ": The current level of development of science is characterized by certain joint limitations on the" validity "of the results and their field of applicability The topic of research in the very first approximation the topic of the study is formulated at its beginning. But the completed view of it acquires, as a rule, when the subject of the study is formulated - after all, in the overwhelming majority of cases, the topic of the study and indicates the subject of the research, and the keyword or phrase in the study topic indicates, most often, on its object. Research approaches 2 Values \u200b\u200b1. In the first sense, the approach is considered as some source principle, the initial position, the main position or belief: a holistic approach, an integrated approach, a functional approach, a systematic approach, an integrated approach, personal approach, an activity approach (personal-active approach) . Research Approaches 2 Values \u200b\u200b2. In the second value, the research approach is considered as the direction of studying the subject of the study and are classified according to pair categories of dialectics, reflecting the polar parties, the direction of the research process: meaningful and formal approaches; logical and historical approaches (logic- historical and historical and logical approaches); high-quality and quantitative approaches; phenomenological and essential approaches; Single and general (generalized) approaches. 2 in the 5th degree \u003d 32 options! Determining the purpose of the study based on the object and the subject of the study is determined by its goal. The purpose of the study is that in the most general (generalized) form must be achieved upon completion of the study. It is understood that upon completion of the study, the problem of study in the framework defined by its subject, purpose and delivered tasks should be fully solved (see below). Criteria for assessing the reliability of research results 1. Criteria for assessing the reliability of the results of theoretical research. The result of the theoretical study - theory, concept or any theoretical construction - designs must meet the following criteria for any industries of scientific knowledge: 1. Subject; 2. fullness; 3. consistency; 4. Interpretability; 5. Checking; 6. Reliability. Criteria for evaluating the reliability of the results of research 2. Evaluation evaluation assessment of results empirical research: 1. Criteria should be objective (as much as possible in this scientific field). 2. Criteria must be adequate, valid, that is, to estimate exactly what researcher wants to evaluate. 3. Criteria should be neutral with respect to the studied phenomenon. 4. A combination of criteria with sufficient completeness should cover all the essential characteristics of the studied phenomenon, the process. The hypothesis of the hypothesis is a model of future scientific knowledge (possible scientific knowledge). The scientific hypothesis acts in a twofold role: either as an assumption of one or another communication form between the observed phenomena and processes, or as an assumption about the relationship between the observed phenomena, processes and their internal basis. The hypothesis of the first kind is called descriptive, and the second is explanatory. Conditions of consistency of the hypothesis: 1. The hypothesis should explain the entire circle of phenomena and processes, for the analysis of which it is extended. 2. The principal verifiability of the hypothesis. 3. The applicability of the hypothesis to the possibility of a wider circle of phenomena. 4. The maximum possible principal simplicity of the hypothesis. The stage of determining the tasks of the study by the task is to be given in certain specific conditions the goal of activities. The research tasks act as private, relatively independent research objectives in specific conditions of verification of the formulated hypothesis. Stage of building a program (methodology) Studies research methodology - a document that includes a description of the problem, object, subject matter, its goals, hypothesis, tasks, methodological foundations and research methods, as well as planning, that is, the development of a time-on schedule for the scheduled work. The study stage of the study is to prepare the experimental documentation, the preparation of the form of observation protocols, questionnaires; the acquisition or manufacture of the necessary experimental equipment, creating the necessary software, etc. Study of technological training studies specifically for each specific scientific work. The technological phase of the study is to directly check the constructed scientific hypothesis in accordance with the construction of work materials and equipment developed at the stage of design and technological preparation. The technological phase consists of two stages: 1) conducting research 2) design results. Stage of the study includes two stages: theoretical stage (analysis and systematization of literary data, the development of the conceptual apparatus, the construction of the logical structure of the theoretical part of the study); The empirical stage is to conduct pilot experimental work. Requirements for classification: 1. Each classification can be carried out only one base. 2. The volume of classification members should be exactly equal to the volume of the entire classified class. 3. Each object can only get into one subclass. 4. Classification members must mutually exclude each other. 5. The division into subclasses should be continuous. As a central system-forming element (link) theory can be: concept, idea, a single research approach, an axiom system or an axiomatic requirements system, etc. In a number of branches of science, for example in chemistry, pharmacy, microbiology, etc., the fact of obtaining a new system can act as a central system-forming link. chemical substance, new medication, new vaccine, etc. Central system-forming element theory Structural elements of the theory: algorithm, apparatus (didactic, conceptual devices, etc.); classification; criteria; techniques; methods; mechanisms (mechanisms classes); models (basic, prognostic, graph, open, closed, dynamic, complexes of models, etc.); directions; Justifications; bases; basics; paradigms; parameters; periodization; approaches; concepts (developing concepts, concepts of concepts, etc.); techniques; principles; programs; procedures; solutions; systems (hierarchical systems, generalized systems, etc.); content; methods; funds; schemes; structures; strategies; phases; essence; taxonomy; trends; technologies; typology; Requirements; conditions; phases; Factors (system-forming factors, etc.); forms (aggregate of forms, etc.); functions; characteristics (essential characteristics, etc.); goals (sets of goals, hierarchies of goals); Stages, etc. There are still theorems, lemmas, approval in the sectors of sciences of the strong version. Empirical stage. Experimental work experienced experimental work, although it often occupies significant, and sometimes most The budget of the time of the researcher, serves only to confirm or refutate the theoretical constructions pre-made them, starting with the hypothesis. Stage of registration of the results of the study stage of test results. Approbation is carried out in the forms of public reports and speeches, discussions, as well as in the form of written or oral review. Stage design results. Upon completion of the approbation, the researcher proceeds to the literary design and publication of the results of its research. Scientific research is completed by a reflexive phase - "appeal back": with comprehension, comparison, evaluation of the initial and end states: - the object of scientific activity - the final assessment (self-esteem) of the study of the study of activity, i.e. Himself - Reflection - System of Scientific Knowledge - Scientific Reflection Scientific research methodology on the site In contact with Facebook. Twitter. Google+ My world Materials from the section Aspirin What are useful for sunflower seeds, their harm and calorie What day after ovulation is conceived