From the Indian icons shown in the bottom line (inscribing the I century n. E.), Modern numbers occurred

To designate numbers from 1 to 9 in India from the VI century to n. e. Used writing "Brahmi", with separate signs for each digit. Somewhat modified, these steel icons modern figures that we call arabic, and the Arabs themselves - indian .

A decimal comma separating the fractional part of the number from the whole is introduced by the Italian astronomer of Majini (1592) and the Neverom (1617). Previously, instead of the comma, there were other characters - a vertical line: 3 | 62, or zero in brackets: 3 (0) 62

"Two-storey" recording of ordinary fraction (for exampleIt was used by the windscrepecific mathematicians, although they recorded the denominator with an expense, and there was no fractional features. Indian mathematics moved the numerator upstairs; Through Arabs, this format was adopted in Europe. For the first time in Europe, Leonardo Pisa (1202) was introduced in Europe, but she entered use only with the support of Johann Vidman (1489).

The signs of the plus and minus came up with, apparently, in the German mathematical school of "Cososists" (that is, algebraists). They are used in the textbook of Johann Vidman "A quick and pleasant account for all merchants", published in 1489. Prior to this, the addition was indicated by the letter p. (Plus) or Latin word et. (Union "and"), and subtraction - the letter m.(Minus)

Multiplication sign introduced in 1631 by William Odd (England) as a slash. Before it was used most often the letter M, although other designations were also offered: a rectangle symbol (ERIGON, 1634), stars (Johann RAS, 1659). Later, Leibniz replaced the cross to the point (end of the XVII century), so as not to confuse him with the letter x.; Before him, such a symbolism was found in regional (XV century) and the English scientist Thomas Harryota (1560-1621).

Signs of division. Credit preferred oblique line. The colon of the division began to designate leibies.

The plus-minus sign appeared at Girard (1626) and final. True, Girard between the plus and the minus wrote with the words "or".

Erend into a degree. The modern record of the indicator of the degree was introduced by Cartes in its "geometry" (1637), however, only for natural degrees, large 2.

The amount of the amount introduced Euler in 1755.

The sign of the work introduced Gauss in 1812.

Letter i. As an imaginary unit code: Suggested Euler (1777), who took the first letter of the word Imaginarius (imaginary).

The designation of the absolute value and the module of the integrated number appeared enshtrass in 1841. In 1903, Lorenz used the same symbolism for the length of the vector.

=
The first printed appearance of the equality sign (equation is recorded)

The equality sign suggested Robert Record in1557

The Sign "Approximately" came up with the German mathematician S. Günther in 1882.

The sign is "not equal" for the first time occurs at Euler.

The author of the sign "identically equal" - Bernhard Riman (1857). The same symbol, at the suggestion of Gauss, is used in the theory of numbers as a sign of comparison in the module, and in logic - as a sign of an equivalence operation.

Comparison signs introduced Thomas Harrot in his essay, published posthumously in 1631. He wrote to him with the words: more, less.

Symbols of non-stroke comparison suggested Valis in 1670.

Symbols "Angle" and "Perpendicular" invented in 1634 French mathematician Pierre Erigon. Erigon's corner symbol resembled an icon, the modern shape was given to William End (1657).

Modern designations of angular units (degrees, minutes, seconds) are found in Almagest Ptolemy.Radian mode of corners, more convenient foranalysis , suggested in 1714 English mathematicianRoger Kotts. The term itself radian invented in 1873 James Thomson, brother of famous physicslord Kelvin.

The generally accepted designation of the number 3,14159 ... For the first time, for the first time, William Jones in 196, taking the first letter of the words of Greek. περιφρεια - circle and περμετρος -perimeter, that is, the length of the circle. This cut liked Euler, whose works fastened the designation finally.

Abbreviated designations for sinus and cosine introduced subfold in the middle of the XVII century.

Abbreviated designations of Tangent and Kotangens: Johann Bernoulli introduced in the XVIII century, they were distributed in Germany and Russia. In other countries, the names of these functions, proposed by Albert Girar, are used even earlier, at the beginning of the XVII century.

Manner denote inverse trigonometric functions using the console arc (from lat. arcus, arc) Appeared from the Austrian mathematician Karl Sherfer (it. Karl Scherffer.; 1716-1783) And it became strongly fixed. It was meant that, for example, the usual sine allows the circumference of the circumference to find her chord, and the opposite function solves the opposite task. English and German mathematical schools by the end of the XIX century were offered other designations:, but they did not fit.

The symbol of the private derivative was made commonly used by Karl Jacobi (1837), and then Weierstrass, although this designation has already met earlier in one work of the Lezander (1786).

The symbol of the limit appeared in 1787 at Simon Luilie and received the support of Cauchy (1821) . The limit value of the argument was first indicated separately, after the symbollim., not under it. Close to modern designation introduced Weierstrass, but instead of the usual arrows, he used the equality sign . The arrow appeared at the beginning of the 20th century at once in several mathematicians - for example, Hardy (1908).

The symbol of this differential operator invented William Rowan Hamilton (1853), and the name "Nabel" suggested Heviside (1892).

located on the Internet in free access

http://goo.gl/wcu0ss.

who invented the first sign of punctuation? What was this sign called? What was his appointments?

Punctuation (from lat. Punctus - dot) - signs that share words on a group convenient for perception, bringing order into these groups and helping to correctly perceive or at least prevent false interpretation of words and expressions.
However, until the middle of the XVII century. "Punctuation" was called the prostation of points around consonants to designate vowels in the text in Hebrew, while writing signs in the Latin text was called the expansion of points. Somewhere around 1650, these two words exchanged their values.
2000 years ago, the exposure of points for the division of the text did not exist, as did not exist and the rules to divide the words with spaces. Apparently, some Greek writers used separate punctuation marks already in V c. BC e. For example, the Dramaturgome of Euripid noted the change of the speaking face with a pointed sign, and the philosopher Plato sometimes ended the section of the Book of the colon.
The first sign of punctuation was invented by Aristotle (384-322 BC.) In order to designate a change in the semantic value. It was called paragraph (recording on the side) and was a short horizontal line at the bottom of the stitch. In i century The Romans who have already enjoyed points began to celebrate paragraphs by writing a few first letters in the fields. In the late Middle Ages, at this place began to put the letter "C" as a reduction in the word Capitulum (chapter). As noted above, the modern practice of separating paragraphs in the form of indents and row skipping was accepted only in the XVII century.
The use of signs for the separation of small semantic segments of the text began in about 194 to n. E. When Grammar Aristophane Alexandrian invented a three-time system for breaking the text to large in size, medium and small segments. So, the point standing below and called "Comma", he put at the end of the shortest segment, the point at the top (periodos) shared the text into large segments, and the point in the middle (column) is on average. It is likely that it was Aristophan who introduced a hyphen to write composite words, and an inclined line that stated near words with an unclear meaning.
Although all these innovations were not widespread, they sporadically used to the VIII century. By this time, scribes began to divide the words in the proposal, as well as using uppercase letters. Since with letters changing the size, reading the text without punctuation was rather uncomfortable, Anglo-Saxon Scientist Alquin (735-804), who led the court school in Aachen (Germany), several reformed the Aristrophan system, making a number of additions. Some of them reached England, where to the X century. The signs of punctuation appeared in manuscripts to designate a pause and change intonation.
For the first time, punctuation signs, in the form in which they have survived to this day, were introduced at the end of the XV century. Venetian Program Alt Manucy. It was his books that put the road to most signs used in our days - a point, point with a comma and a colon. After 60 years, the grandson of the printer of Alde Manuica Jr. first determined the role of punctuation signs as auxiliary to determine the proposal structure.

This symbol is familiar to any user of the Internet. But he did not appear in the age of universal computer literacy, the symbol that we call the "dog" was known in the Middle Ages, and he had several different appointments. The versions of his origin are also a few, they are all interesting and deserve attention.

The symbol @ is known at least from the XV centuryBut it is possible that he was invented before. Until now, it is not fixed, how and where he appeared, and the first mention time is defined only approximately. According to one of the versions, the sign @ first began to use the monks in the letter, which made transfers of treatises that were written in the Latin. In Latin there is an exclusion "AD", and in the font adopted at the time for the letter, the letter "D" wrote down with a small tail, twisted up. With a quick letter, the pretext looked like a @ icon.

Thanks to the Florentine merchants, from the XV century, the @ icon began to be used as a commercial symbol. He indicated the measure of weight equal to 12.5 kg. - AMFORA, and on the then tradition of the letter "A", which was marked by the weight, was decorated with curls and looked like everyone else known today. The Spaniards, Portuguese and French are their own version of the origin of the designation - from the word "ardarroba" - an old-visuous weight measure of about 15 kg, which was denoted in the letter to the conditional sign @, also taken from the first letter of the word.

In the modern commercial language, the official name of the sign @ - "Commercial AT" occurred from accounting accounts, where marked the pretext of "B, on, by, K", and in Russian translation looked approximately so - 5pcs. $ 3 (5 widgets @ $ 3 Each). Since the symbol was used in trading, it was placed on the keyboards of the first typewriters, from where it moved to the computer keyboard.

On the Internet, the @ symbol appeared thanks to Tomlinson email. Why he chose this sign to split the name of the user and the Email server Tomlinson explained simply - he was looking for a sign that would not meet in names or in the names and could not make confusion into the system. In different countries, the symbol is called differently as a dog is known only in Russian. Versions of the appearance of this funny name are several. According to one of them, the sound of the English "AT" resembles a dog Lai, on the other - the icon himself reminds a small dog rolled out. But the most popular is associated with one of the first text games. According to the story, the player had an assistant, a faithful dog, who helped to seek the treasure, defended from different monsters, went to the intelligence and in the catacombs. And of course, the dog was signable for @.

By the way, the symbol @ in many countries anyway, users associate with animals - the Germans and Poles are a monkey, the Italians - a snail, in America and Finland - a cat, in Taiwan and in China - a mouse. In other countries, the symbol means something delicious - cinnamon bun at the Swedes, strudel in the Israelis. Only disciplined Japanese are far from romantic comparisons and prefer to call the "Attomark" sign, as it sounds in English, and do not come up with their names for him.

All about everything. Volume 5 Likum Arkady

Who came up with road signs?

Who came up with road signs?

Do you know that the organization of the movement was a problem long before the emergence of cars. Julius Caesar was probably the first ruler in history that introduced the rules of the road. He, for example, adopted a law on which women had no right to drive chariots in Rome.

With the emergence of cars, the first adjustments appeared, who stood on the roads and hand showed the direction of movement. Then they were given signal lamps. But they could not solve all the problems. Because the transport stream is changing during the day, and there are very tense hours of movement. Until 1920, automatic traffic lights did not exist.

In 1927, two people patented an "automatic regulator". The first traffic lights were installed at the intersections to streamline traffic. One of the traffic lights, invented by Harry Hau from the University of Yael's university, was in New Haven, Connecticut, Waprele 1928. This mechanism, which operated through pressure, pointed out traffic on the roads. The machine, approaching such a pointer, gave the signal to the signal booth, and from there the command came to enable the allowing signal for the machine. This type of traffic lights, but only now with the use of a light signal exists in our day.

Charles Adler in 1928 also invented the road regulator in which the microphone was used to supply the signal to the signal booth. Driver, seeing red light blowing into the horn. The microphone transmits the sound into the signal booth, from there comes the response signal to change the color of the traffic light. Nowadays, there are different types of road regulators that also react to the sound to switch the traffic light.

From the book these strange Australians author Hunt Kent.

Road incidents The subject of the perverted pride of Ozvey is the statistics of road accidents. The media is regularly and in detail about the number of dead. Dictors, liketing sports commentators, declare the number of dead in the year in

From the book how to travel by the author Shanin Valery

Travel checks to take cash on the road is not very convenient. Large amounts (from $ 3000) need to declare, and most importantly - the wallet with money can be lost, or what is more likely to be stolen. If the documents can still be returned, then cash is lost irretrievably. As a solution

From the book of the Cheat Sheet for the right of intellectual property Author Perepovova Victoria Evgenievna

45. Trademarks and maintenance signs ... 27 Trademarks are an instrument for the individualization of goods, works and services of the entity entrepreneurial activity. Trademarks and maintenance signs - designations that serve to individualize goods performed

From the book Rules of Russian spelling and punctuation. Full academic reference book Author Lopatin Vladimir Vladimirovich

Punctuation signs at the end and at the beginning of the offer. Ultimate signs in the middle of the offer signs of punctuation at the end of the sentence § 1. Depending on the purpose of the message, the presence or absence of emotional color of the statement at the end of the sentence is the point

BSE

From the book Big Soviet Encyclopedia (up) author BSE

From the book Big Soviet Encyclopedia (up) author BSE

From the book Big Soviet Encyclopedia (up) author BSE

From the book Big Soviet Encyclopedia (ST) author BSE

From the book what to do in extreme situations Author Sitnikov Vitaly Pavlovich

"Road work" in any case, slow down - even if there are no work: first, workers can be behind road machinery, secondly, work can be conducted by turning,

From the book full control by Parks Li.

Road conditions The condition of the canvas also strongly affects the grip, like the tires. Rain, dust, sand, oil, markup - all this reduces tire clutch with expensive. In such cases, tires behave differently. As a rule, tourist tires are better coping with

From the book of the weakness of a strong floor. Aphorisms Author Doshenko Konstantin Vasilyevich

Road traffic jams of the freeway - a moving prison. Clifton Fadiman * * * If at five pm you fell into a road traffic jam, the best thing you can do is to gain patience and try not to get into the six-hour news. Nn * * * in small major major advantage

From the book a full meeting of the laws of Murphy by fleas Arthur

Road racing Oliver's law about the location and dependent on where you are going, you are there. The first law on the journey there always requires more time than the road back. The way of the road of life everything goes to you towards you, you are not going on that way.

From the book of goods: crib Author author unknown

12. Information marks and marks of conformity Information signs - Legend designed to evaluate properties and identify product characteristics. Information signs notify: 1.) About enterprise (firm) - manufacturer (Trademarks and signs

Author Zhulnev Nikolai

Appendix 1 To the rules of the Road Movement of the Russian Federation Road signs (according to GOST R 52289-2004 and GOST R 52290-2004) The mark is a label, the subject is denoted by something. Explanatory Dictionary S. I. Ozhegova

From book Road rules with comments and illustrations Author Zhulnev Nikolai

Road signs warning signs priority signs forbidding signs prescribing signs signs of special regulations Information signs service signs of additional information

And within the city, and outside the city you need to adjust transport. Not everywhere a good road and there are no dangerous turns or any other potential dangers. How about them to inform the driver and pedestrian?

You can hang a healthy information shield. And you can put a very big, but no less informative conditional sign that will be understood by everyone who is a little familiar with the rules of the road.

According to the official wording, the road sign is a standardized graphic pattern, installed by the road for a message of certain information by road participants. And they establish them in strictly defined places, often - next to traffic lights or not far from them.

History and evolution

Of course, road signs in the modern sense of the word appeared not so long ago: 110 years ago at the very beginning of the 20th century - in 1903. But we will not run forward, let's start from the very beginning.

Long ago, when in Southern Europe, they still went to the items ... In general, it was in ancient Greece and no less ancient Rome. It was in the ancient times for the first time they thought about the introduction of road signs and generally rules of the road.

Today, on any track through each kilometer, there are columns with an indication of which kilometer it is. In ancient times, the distance was measured in other units, but it does not change the essence. In Greece, for example, along the roads at certain intervals, special poles were put - the Germes (they received their name on behalf of God Hermes, who among other things was considered a patron of travelers). After some time, the sculptural images of politicians and prominent philosophers began to place on these pillars, and then the inscriptions.

Where it was founder to approach this issue of Romans. Near one of the main temples of the city, a special mile pillar was installed, from which all the roads of the Empire were referred. On the most significant transport highways of the Empire, special pillars of cylindrical shape were installed. They accommodated special informational inscriptions that report about the distance from the Roman Forum.

Even further went Julius Caesar. The eternal city by that time was already the most real metropolis (although antique), the incredible number of people were moved along the streets, among whom were visiting, merchants, and local residents. So that no one cries no one, it took to regulate at least some points:

• Streets with one-sided movement appeared.
• The passage of private chariots, wagons and crews in Rome was banned from sunrise to the end of the "working day", which approximately corresponded to two hours before it comes.
• Nonresident were obliged to leave their transportation for a feature of the city and could move on the streets only on foot or in hired palanquins.

For compliance with these rules, a specially created service was followed. In her ranks they recruited, mainly freely, which were previously performed by firefighters.

The vest poles were installed not only in Greece and Rome. With the king Fedor Ivanovich, the vest poles began to put on the roads of the Russian state. In Peter, the installation of roadside pillars was fixed by law. Prescribed and place an inscription on them with an indication of directions and distances to one or another settlement.

With the development of the automotive industry, a new problem arose: how to prevent traffic accidents. It is clear that the accidents occurred during the time of horse crews, but horses, still, living beings and can react without waiting for the Action Action. But one driver, and even on an unfamiliar road ... In the end, three road signs were installed on the streets of Paris: "cool descent", "dangerous turn", "uneven way".

To determine how to secure a traffic in 1906, European motorists gathered and developed the "International Convention regarding car movement".

This document contained the requirements for the car itself and the basic rules of the road. In addition, four road signs were introduced: "uneven road", "winding road", "Crossroads", "Crossing with the railway".

Set signs followed 250 meters to a dangerous area. A little later, after ratifying the Convention, road signs appeared in Russia. And the first Russian motorists did not bother attentive attitudes towards these signs.

Varieties of road signs

The last of the documents in which all the subtleties associated with road signs are prescribed is the Vienna Convention, adopted on November 8, 1968. The Convention was developed during the UNESCO Conference from October 7 to November 8, 1968 in Vienna and entered into force on June 6, 1978.

According to this Convention, eight groups of road signs stand out:

• Warning signs.
• Signs of preferential travel right.
• Prohibiting and limiting signs.
• Prescribing signs.
• Signs of special prescriptions.
• Information signs, signs denoting objects and service signs.
• Directions and informational signs.
• Additional signs.

Signs in different countries

Despite the existence of an international standard, in different countries of the world, road signs are quite significantly different. In a number of countries, they even publish special guidelines for visiting drivers.

In the United States, for example, in many marks instead of symbols, inscriptions are used, which makes it difficult to perceive. On Japanese road signs that are partially close to the international standard, hieroglyphs are often used.

Some signs even have their homeland. For example, the habitual sign of the pedestrian transition "composed" in the USSR. Today, in Russia alone, more than 250 road signs are used and the system is constantly developing and improved.

Frankly funny moments happened and frankly: for some time the "uneven road" sign disappeared from the list. We returned it to the list only in 1961. What is due to its exclusion from the set - not clear. Whether the roads suddenly became smooth, whether their condition was so sad that there was no particular sense to put a warning.

• Road signs of the Russian Federation (GOST R 52289-2004, GOST R 52290-2004 and Art. 12.16 of the Code
• Rules of the RF road (GOST 10807-78, GOST R 51582-2000, GOST 23457-86)
• Free electronic encyclopedia Wikipedia, section "Road Sign".
• Free electronic encyclopedia Wikipedia, section "Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals".
• Free electronic encyclopedia Wikipedia, section "Comparison of Europe Road Signs".