main idea IN AND. Vernadsky lies in the fact that the highest phase of the development of matter on Earth - life - determines and subordinates other planetary processes to itself. In this regard, he wrote that it is possible without exaggeration to assert that the chemical state of the outer crust of our planet, the biosphere, is entirely under the influence of life and is determined by living organisms.
If all living organisms are evenly distributed on the surface of the Earth, then they form a 5 mm thick film. Despite this, the role of living matter in the history of the Earth is no less than the role of geological processes. The entire mass of living matter that was on Earth, for example, for 1 billion years, already exceeds the mass crust.
The quantitative characteristic of living matter is the total amount of biomass. IN AND. Vernadsky, after conducting analyzes and calculations, came to the conclusion that the amount of biomass is from 1000 to 10 000 trillion tons. It also turned out that the Earth's surface is slightly less than 0.0001% of the Sun's surface, but the green area of its transformation apparatus, i.e. the surface of leaves of trees, stems of grasses and green algae, gives numbers of a completely different order - in different periods of the year it fluctuates from 0.86 to 4.20% of the Sun's surface, which explains the large total energy of the biosphere. V last years similar calculations using the latest equipment were carried out by the Krasnoyarsk biophysicist I. Gitelzon and confirmed the order of numbers, determined by V.I. Vernadsky.
A significant place in the works of V.I. Vernadsky's biosphere allotted to the green living matter of plants, since only it is autotrophic and is able to accumulate the radiant energy of the Sun, forming with its help primary organic compounds.
A significant part of the energy of living matter goes to the formation of new vadose (unknown outside of it) minerals in the biosphere, and part is buried in the form of organic matter, ultimately forming deposits of brown and coal, oil shale, oil and gas. “We are dealing here,” wrote V.I. Vernadsky, - with a new process, with a slow penetration into the planet of the radiant energy of the Sun, which has reached the surface of the Earth. In this way, living matter changes the biosphere and the earth's crust. It continuously leaves in her a part of those who passed through it. chemical elements, creating huge strata of unknown, besides him, vadose minerals or permeating the inert matter of the biosphere with the finest dust of their remnants. "
According to the scientist, the earth's crust is mainly the remnants of bygone biospheres. Even its granite-gneiss layer was formed as a result of metamorphism and remelting of rocks that once arose under the influence of living matter. He considered only basalts and other basic igneous rocks to be deep and not related to the biosphere in their genesis.
In the doctrine of the biosphere, the concept of "living matter" is fundamental. Living organisms transform cosmic radiant energy into terrestrial, chemical energy and create an endless variety of our world. By their breathing, nutrition, metabolism, death and decay, lasting hundreds of millions of years, by the continuous change of generations, they give rise to a colossal planetary process that exists only in the biosphere - the migration of chemical elements.
Living matter, according to the theory of V.I. Vernadsky, is a biogeochemical factor of a planetary scale, under the influence of which it transforms as the surrounding abiotic environment and the living organisms themselves. Throughout the entire space of the biosphere, the incessant movement of molecules, generated by life, takes place. Life decisively affects the distribution, migration and dispersion of chemical elements, determining the fate of nitrogen, potassium, calcium, oxygen, magnesium, strontium, carbon, phosphorus, sulfur and other elements.
The epochs of life development: Proterozoic, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic reflect not only the forms of life on Earth, but also its geological record, its planetary fate. biosphere vernadsky biogenic living
In the theory of the biosphere, organic matter, along with the energy of radioactive decay, is considered as a carrier of free energy. Life is viewed not as a mechanical sum of individuals or species, but as a matter of fact - a single process that encompasses all the matter of the upper layer of the planet.
Living matter has changed during all geological eras and periods. Therefore, as V.I. Vernadsky, modern living matter is genetically related to living matter of all past geological eras. At the same time, within significant geological periods of time, the amount of living matter is not subject to noticeable changes. This pattern was formulated by the scientist as a constant amount of living matter in the biosphere (for a given geological period).
Living matter performs the following biogeochemical functions in the biosphere: gaseous - absorbs and releases gases; redox - oxidizes, for example, carbohydrates to carbon dioxide and reduces it to carbohydrates; concentration - concentrating organisms accumulate nitrogen, phosphorus, silicon, calcium, magnesium in their bodies and skeletons. As a result of the performance of these functions, the living substance of the biosphere from the mineral base creates natural waters and soils, it created in the past and maintains the atmosphere in a state of equilibrium.
With the participation of living matter, the weathering process takes place, and rocks are included in geochemical processes.
Gas and redox functions of living matter are closely related to the processes of photosynthesis and respiration. As a result of the biosynthesis of organic substances by autotrophic organisms, a huge amount of carbon dioxide was extracted from the ancient atmosphere. As the biomass of green plants increased, the gas composition of the atmosphere changed - the content of carbon dioxide decreased and the concentration of oxygen increased. All oxygen in the atmosphere is formed as a result of the vital processes of autotrophic organisms. Living matter has qualitatively changed the gas composition of the atmosphere - the geological shell of the Earth. In turn, oxygen is used by organisms for the breathing process, as a result of which it re-enters the atmosphere. carbon dioxide.
Thus, living organisms created in the past and maintain the atmosphere of our planet for millions of years. The increase in oxygen concentration in the planet's atmosphere affected the rate and intensity of redox reactions in the lithosphere.
Many microorganisms are directly involved in the oxidation of iron, which leads to the formation of sedimentary iron ores, or to the reduction of sulfates with the formation of biogenic sulfur deposits. Despite the fact that the composition of living organisms includes the same chemical elements, the compounds of which form the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere, organisms do not completely repeat the chemical composition of the environment.
A living substance, actively performing a concentration function, selects from the environment those chemical elements and in such an amount that it needs. Due to the implementation of the concentration function, living organisms have created many sedimentary rocks, for example, chalk and limestone deposits.
The earth's surface does not contain a more powerful, constantly acting, dynamic force than living organisms. According to the doctrine of living matter, a cosmic function is assigned to this shell, which acts as a connecting link between the Earth and outer space. Taking part in the process of photosynthesis, metabolism and transformation of natural substances, living matter performs unimaginable chemical work.
V.I. Vernadsky's concept of living matter
The concept of living matter was developed by the renowned scientist V.I. Vernadsky, who separately considered biological mass among the totality of other types of organic substances that form the biosphere of the globe. According to the researcher, living organisms make up an insignificant part of the biosphere. However, it is their vital activity that most tangibly affects the formation of the surrounding world.
According to the scientist's concept, the living matter of the biosphere consists of both organic and inorganic substances. The main specific feature of living matter is the presence of a huge energy potential. In terms of the release of free energy in the inorganic environment of the planet, only volcanic lava flows can be compared with living matter. The main difference between inanimate and living matter is the flow rate chemical reactions, which in the latter case occur millions of times faster.
Based on the teachings of Professor Vernadsky, the presence of living matter in the earth's biosphere can manifest itself in several forms:
- biochemical (participation in the exchange of chemicals, the formation of geological shells);
- mechanical (direct impact of biomass on the transformation of the material world).
The biochemical form of the "activity" of the planet's biomass is manifested in the continuous exchange of substances between the environment and organisms during the digestion of food, building the body. The mechanical effect of living matter on the surrounding world consists in the cyclical movement of substances in the course of the life of organisms.
Biochemical principles
To get a complete picture of the "volume of work" that a living substance carries out in the process of life, several scientific provisions, known as biochemical principles, allow:
- the movement of atoms of chemicals during biogenic migration always tends to achieve the maximum possible manifestations;
- the evolutionary transformation of species is moving in a direction that enhances the migration of atoms of elements;
- the existence of biomass is due to the availability of solar energy;
- the living matter of the planet is enclosed in a continuous cycle of exchange chemicals with a space environment.
Reflection of the vital activity of living matter on the functioning of the biosphere
Life arose in the form of a biosphere due to the ability of organic matter to reproduce, grow and evolve forms. Initially, the living shell of the planet was a complex of organic substances that form the circulation of elements. In the course of the development and transformation of living organisms, living matter acquired the ability to function not only in the form of a continuous flow of energy, but also to evolve as a complex system.
New types of organic shell of the Earth do not just find their roots in the previous forms. Their occurrence is due to the course of specific biogenic processes in the natural environment, which, in turn, affects all living matter, the cells of living organisms. Each stage in the evolution of the biosphere is characterized by noticeable changes in its material and energy structure. Thus, new systems of inert and living matter of the planet arise.
The growth in the impact of biomass on the change in the inert systems of the planet is noticeable in the study of all epochs without exception. This is due, first of all, to an increase in the accumulation of solar energy, as well as an increase in the intensity and capacity of the biological cycle of elements. A change in the environment always predetermines the emergence of new complexly organized forms of life.
Functions of living matter in the biosphere
For the first time, the functions of biomass were considered by the same Vernadsky when writing the famous work called "Biosphere". Here, the scientist identifies nine functions of living matter: oxygen, calcium, gas, oxidative, reducing, destructive, concentration, reducing, metabolic, and respiratory.
The development of modern concepts about the living matter of the biosphere has led to a significant reduction in the number of functions of living matter and their unification into new groups. It is about them that will be discussed below.
Energy functions of living matter
Energy flows emanating from the Sun are a real gift of electromagnetic nature for plants. More than 90% of the energy entering the biosphere of the planet is absorbed by the lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere, and is also directly involved in the course of chemical processes.
The functions of living matter, aimed at converting energy by green plants, are the main mechanism of living matter. Without the presence of processes of transmission and accumulation of solar energy, the development of life on the planet would be in question.
Destructive functions of living organisms
Ability to mineralize organic compounds, chemical decomposition rocks, dead organic matter, the involvement of minerals in the circulation of biomass - all these are destructive functions of living matter in the biosphere. The main driving force behind the destructive functions of the biosphere are bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms.
Dead organic compounds decompose to the state of inorganic substances (water, ammonia, carbon dioxide, methane, hydrogen sulfide), returning to the original circulation of matter.
The destructive effect of organisms on rocks deserves special attention. Due to the circulation of substances, the earth's crust is replenished with mineral components released from the lithosphere. Taking part in the decomposition of minerals, living organisms thereby include a whole complex of the most important chemical elements in the cycle of the biosphere.
Concentration functions
The selective accumulation of substances in nature, their distribution, the circulation of living matter - all this forms the concentration functions of the biosphere. Among the most active concentrators of chemical elements, microorganisms play a special role.
The construction of skeletons of individual representatives of the animal world is due to the use of dispersed mineral substances. Vivid examples of the use of concentrated natural elements are molluscs, diatoms and calcareous algae, corals, radiolarians, and flint sponges.
Gas functions
The basis gas properties living matter is the distribution of gaseous substances by living organisms. Based on the type of gases being converted, a number of separate gas functions are distinguished:
- Oxygen-forming - restoration of the planet's oxygen supply in free form.
- Dioxide - the formation of biogenic carbonic acids as a result of respiration of representatives of the animal world.
- Ozone - the formation of ozone, which helps to protect biomass from the destructive effects of solar radiation.
- Nitrogen - the creation of free nitrogen during the decomposition of substances of organic origin.
Environment-forming functions
Biomass has the ability to transform physical and chemical parameters environment to create conditions that meet the needs of living organisms. As an example, we can single out the plant environment, the vital activity of which contributes to an increase in air humidity, regulation of surface runoff, and enrichment of the atmosphere with oxygen. To a certain extent, the environment-forming functions are the result of all the aforementioned properties of living matter.
The role of man in the formation of the biosphere
The appearance of a person as a separate kind reflected in the emergence of a revolutionary factor in the evolution of biological mass - a conscious transformation of the surrounding world. Technical and scientific progress is not just a phenomenon of the social life of a human being, but in some way refers to the natural processes of evolution of all living things.
From time immemorial, mankind has transformed the living matter of the biosphere, which was reflected in an increase in the migration rate of atoms of the chemical environment, the transformation of individual geospheres, the accumulation of energy flows in the biosphere, and a change in the appearance of the Earth. Currently, man is considered not just as a species, but also as a force capable of changing the shells of the planet, which in turn is a specific factor in evolution.
The natural tendency to increase the number of the species led the human species to the active use of renewable and non-renewable resources of the biosphere, energy sources, substances buried in the shells of the planet. The displacement of individual representatives of the animal world from their natural habitats, the destruction of species for consumer purposes, the technogenic transformation of environmental parameters - all this entails the disappearance essential elements biosphere.
The concept of the biosphere is based on the concept of living matter. More than 90% of all living matter is accounted for by terrestrial vegetation (98% of land biomass). Living matter- the most powerful geochemical and energetic factor, the leading force of planetary development. The main source of biochemical activity of organisms is solar energy, which is used in the process of photosynthesis by green plants and some microorganisms to create organic matter. Organic matter provides food and energy to other organisms. Photosynthesis led to the accumulation of free oxygen in the atmosphere, the formation of an ozone layer that protects against ultraviolet and hard cosmic radiation, it maintains the modern gas composition of the atmosphere. Life on Earth has always existed in the form of complexly organized complexes of various organisms (biocenoses). At the same time, living organisms and their habitat form integral systems - biogeocenoses. Nutrition, respiration and reproduction of organisms and the processes associated with the creation, accumulation and decay of organic matter provide a constant circulation of matter and energy. This cycle is associated with the migration of atoms of chemical elements through living matter. So, all atmospheric oxygen turns around through living matter in 2000 years, carbon dioxide in 300 years. The composition of the organisms themselves is characterized by a wide variety of organic and chemical compounds. Thanks to living matter, soils and organic mineral fuels (peat, coal, possibly even oil) were formed on the planet.
Studying the processes of migration of atoms in the biosphere, V.I. Vernadsky approached the question of the genesis (origin) of chemical elements in the earth's crust, and then to the need to explain the stability of the compounds that make up organisms. Analyzing the problem of migration of atoms, he came to the conclusion that organic compounds, independent of living matter, do not exist anywhere. “Under the name of living matter,” wrote V.I. Vernadsky in 1919, "I will mean the totality of all organisms, vegetation and animals, including humans."
Thus, living matter is a set of living organisms of the biosphere, numerically expressed in elementary chemical composition, mass and energy. In the 1930s. IN AND. Vernadsky singles out humanity from the total mass of living matter as its special part. This separation of man from all living things became possible for three reasons.
First, humanity is not a producer, but a consumer of biogeochemical energy. This thesis required a revision of the geochemical functions of living matter in the biosphere. Secondly, the mass of humanity, based on demographic data, is not a constant amount of living matter. And thirdly, its geochemical functions are characterized not by mass, but by production activity.
If man did not stand out from the natural animal world, then his number would be about 100 thousand. Such prototypes would live in a limited area, and their evolution would be determined by slow processes occurring as a result of population genetic changes characteristic of speciation. However, with the advent of man, a qualitative leap took place in the development of nature on Earth. There is every reason to believe that this new quality is associated with the mind and consciousness of homo sapiens. Thus, the main distinctive feature of a person is his mind, and it is thanks to consciousness that humanity has developed in its own way. This was reflected in the process of human reproduction, since the formation of socially mature forms of consciousness requires long time- at least 20 years.
What are characteristics are inherent in living matter? First of all it is huge free energy. In the process of species evolution, biogenic migration of atoms, i.e. the energy of the living matter of the biosphere, has increased many times and continues to grow, for living matter processes the energy of solar radiation, atomic energy radioactive decay and cosmic energy of scattered elements coming from our Galaxy. Living matter is also inherent in high rate of chemical reactions in comparison with non-living matter, where similar processes are thousands and millions of times slower. For example, some caterpillars can process food 200 times more per day than they weigh themselves, and one tit per day eats as many caterpillars as it weighs itself.
It is characteristic of living matter that its constituent chemical compounds... the most important of which are proteins, are stable only in living organisms. After the end of the life process, the original living organic substances decompose to chemical constituents.
Living matter exists on the planet in the form of a continuous alternation of generations, due to which the newly formed generation is genetically related to the living matter of past eras. It is the main structural unit of the biosphere, which determines all other processes on the surface of the earth's crust. Living matter is characterized by the presence of an evolutionary process. The genetic information of any organism is encrypted in each of its cells. These cells are originally destined to be themselves, with the exception of the egg, from which the whole organism develops. Thus, living matter is essentially immortal.
IN AND. Vernadsky noted that living matter is inseparable from the biosphere, is its function and at the same time "one of the most powerful geochemical forces of our planet." The circulation of substances V.I. Vernadsky called biogeochemical cycles. These cycles and circulation provide essential functions living matter as a whole. The scientist identified five such functions:
Gas function - carried out by green plants that release oxygen during photosynthesis, as well as by all plants and animals that release carbon dioxide as a result of respiration;
Concentration function - manifests itself in the ability of living organisms to accumulate many chemical elements in their bodies (in the first place - carbon, among metals - calcium);
Redox function - expressed in chemical transformations of substances in the process of life. As a result, salts, oxides, and new substances are formed. This function is associated with the formation of iron and manganese ores, limestones, etc .;
Biochemical function - is defined as reproduction, growth and movement in space of living matter. All this leads to the circulation of chemical elements in nature, their biogenic migration;
The function of human biogeochemical activity - associated with the biogenic migration of atoms, which is greatly enhanced under the influence of human economic activity. Man develops and uses for his needs a large number of substances of the earth's crust, including such as coal, gas, oil, peat, shale, many ores. At the same time, there is an anthropogenic entry into the biosphere of foreign substances, and in quantities exceeding permissible value... This led to a crisis confrontation between man and nature. The main reason the impending environmental crisis is considered a technocratic concept that considers the biosphere, on the one hand, as a source of physical resources, on the other, as a sewer for waste disposal.
All ecological processes take place in systems that include living matter, so it is important to be able to distinguish living matter from other types of substances (inorganic, inert, bioinert, etc.).
Living matter is what forms the totality of the bodies of all, regardless of their belonging to one or another systematic group. The total mass (dry) of living matter on the planet Earth is (2.4-3.6) * 10 12 tons.
Living matter is inseparable from and is its function, as well as one of the most powerful geological forces on. It is an indissoluble molecular biological unity, a systemic whole with characteristic features, common to the entire epoch of its existence, as well as to each separate geological epoch. The destruction of individual components of living matter can lead to disruption of the system as a whole, that is, to an ecological catastrophe and the death of the system of living matter as a whole.
Let's consider some of the most common substances, regardless of the geological era of its existence.
1. A system consisting of living matter (an organism) is capable of growth, that is, it increases in size.
2. An organism (living) during its existence retains its most typical characteristics and is capable of transmitting these characteristics by inheritance, that is, it is a carrier and transmitter.
3. A living organism in the course of its life is capable of development, which is divided into two periods - embryonic and postembryonic.
4. Living matter as a separate organism is capable of reproduction, due to which the existence of this species is ensured for a long (from historical point of view) time.
5. A directed metabolism is characteristic of living matter.
Organizational levels of living matter
Living matter as a set of all organisms living on Earth consists of several kingdoms (Prokaryotes, Animals, Plants, Mushrooms), which are in complex relationships. Living matter has a complex structure and different levels of organization. Let's consider some of them in order of complication.
1. Molecular-gene (suborganic) - a special form of organization of living things, inherent in all organisms without exception, which is a set of various organic and inorganic substances, interconnected by a certain structure and a system of biochemical processes, allowing to preserve this set of compounds as an integral system capable of growth, development, self-preservation and reproduction during the entire period of existence of this organism, that is, until death.
2. Cellular - all living things (except for non-cellular life forms) are formed by special structures - cells, which have a strictly defined structure, inherent in both organisms from the plant kingdom and organisms from the kingdoms of Animals and Mushrooms; some organisms consist of one cell, therefore such organisms at the cellular level correspond to a new level of organization - the organismic one (see the fifth level of organization).
3. Tissue - characteristic of complex multicellular organisms, in which there was a specialization of cells according to their functions, which led to the formation of tissues - a set of cells having the same origin, similar structure and performing the same or similar functions; distinguish between plants and animals, so, in plants, integumentary, basic, mechanical, conductive tissues and meristems (growth tissues) are distinguished; in animals - integumentary, nervous, muscle and connective tissues.
4. Organ - in highly organized organisms, tissues form structures designed to perform certain functions, which are called organs, and the organs are combined into organ systems (for example, the stomach is part of the digestive system).
5. Organizational - organ systems are combined into, during the functioning of which the vital activity of a particular living creature is realized; it is known that in nature exists big number unicellular organisms.
6. Population-specific - individuals of one species form special groups living in a given specific territory and occupying a certain ecological niche, which are called populations, and populations of the same organisms form subspecies and species.
7. Biogeocenotic - this level of organization of living matter is associated with the fact that a certain number of populations live on this territory different types(both animals and plants, fungi, prokaryotes and non-cellular life forms), which are interconnected with each other by various connections, including food.
8. Biosphere is the highest level of organization of life on planet Earth, which is the entire totality of living beings living on it, which are interconnected with each other by the planetary circulation of chemical elements and chemical compounds; violation of this cycle can lead to global catastrophe and even to the death of all living things.
Consequently, 1-5 levels of organization are characteristic for a single organism, and 6-8 - for a set of organisms. It must be remembered that man is an integral part of living matter on planet Earth, but his activity, due to the presence of reason, differs significantly from the activity of other organisms, and, nevertheless, he is an integral part of nature, and not its "king".
Brief description of the chemical composition of living matter
Living matter is a complex system of bioorganic, organic and inorganic compounds. Almost all stable chemical elements are found in the composition of living matter, known to man but in different quantities... These are divided into biogenic and non-biogenic, based on their role in living organisms.
The basis of living matter is bioorganic and organic compounds. Bioorganic substances include nucleic acids, vitamins, etc. These substances are called bioorganic because these compounds are produced in organisms and without these substances life is fundamentally impossible (this is especially true for proteins and nucleic acids). An example of organic substances that make up living matter are organic acids (malic, acetic, lactic, etc.), urea, and other chemical compounds.
General characteristics of cellular organisms, their classification by the presence of a nucleus in a cell
Cellular organisms predominate over non-cellular ones and have a complex classification. When studying the structure of the cell, it was found that most of the cellular forms of organisms in the composition of cells necessarily contain a special organoid - the nucleus. However, in the cells of some organisms, the nucleus is absent. That's why cellular organisms divided into two large groups- nuclear (or eukaryotes) and non-nuclear (or prokaryotes). In this subsection, we will consider prokaryotes.
Organisms whose cells do not have a separately formed nucleus are called prokaryotes (non-nuclear).
Non-nuclear organisms include bacteria and blue-green algae, which form the kingdom of Drobyanka, which is part of the super-kingdom of the Prenuclear, or Prokaryotes. In practical terms, bacteria are of the greatest importance.
The body of bacteria consists of one cell of different shapes, which has a membrane and cytoplasm. There are no pronounced organelles; the cell contains one DNA molecule; it is closed in a ring, its location in the cytoplasm is called a nucleoid.
According to the shape of the cell, bacteria are divided into cocci (spherical), bacilli (rod-shaped), vibrios (arcuate), spirilla (curved in the form of a spiral).
Bacteria multiply ordinary division(in favorable conditions, each division is carried out in 20-30 minutes). On the offensive unfavorable conditions the bacterial cell turns into a spore that is highly resistant to the effects of various factors - temperature, humidity, radiation. Once in favorable conditions, the spores swell, their membranes break and bacterial cells become vital.
In relation to oxygen, anaerobic (they live in environments where there is no molecular oxygen) and aerobic (they need O 2 for their life) are distinguished; there are also bacteria that can live in both aerobic and anaerobic environments.
Species, its criteria and ecological characteristics
Living matter in nature exists in the form of separate discrete taxonomic units - species (biological species).
A biological species (species) is a set of individuals with common morphophysiological characteristics, biochemical, genetic (hereditary) similarity, freely interbreeding with each other and giving fertile offspring, adapted to similar conditions of existence, occupying a certain area (distribution area) in nature, i.e. e., occupying the same ecological niche.
Species are formed by populations and subspecies (the latter is not typical for all species). The biological species is characterized by the following criteria:
1) genetic, i.e. all individuals of a given species have the same set of chromosomes;
2) biochemical, i.e. all individuals of this species are characterized by the same chemical compounds (nucleic acids, etc.), which differ from similar compounds of other species;
3) morphophysiological, that is, organisms of the same species have common features external and internal structure and are characterized by the same processes that ensure their vital activity;
4) ecological, that is, individuals of a given species enter into the same (different from other species) relationships with the natural environment;
5) historical - individuals of this species have the same origin and in the process intrauterine development they go through the same cycle of this development according to the biogenetic law;
6) geographical - individuals of this species live in a certain territory and are adapted to exist in this territory.
In the science of "ecology" the following varieties of the term "species" are widely used.
1. A harmful species - causing economic damage to a person or disease-causing; the concept is relative, since any species living on the planet occupies a certain ecological niche and performs a certain ecological role; for example, a wolf can cause great damage to human economic activity, but it is a "nurse" of nature, plays a large role in the "culling" of non-viable individuals of the species that it feeds on.
2. An extinct species is a species that has disappeared as a result of evolutionary processes, such as the pterodactyl.
3. An endangered species is a species whose properties do not correspond to modern conditions existence and genetic possibilities for adaptation to life in new conditions are practically exhausted; such species can survive only as a result of its complete cultivation (entered in the Red Book).
4. Endangered species - a species of organisms threatened with extinction due to the fact that the number of surviving individuals is insufficient for the reproduction of the species, but genetically the species has favorable opportunities for adaptation to environmental conditions (it is listed in the Red Book as an endangered species).
5. Protected species - a species, the deliberate harm to individuals of which and the violation of its habitat is prohibited by certain legislative acts of different ranks (international, state, local), for example, sable, etc.
The structure of the species is that it is formed by separate individuals combined in populations and subspecies. The presence of subspecies is typical only for those species that have large ranges, characterized by a variety of conditions.
Population is a group of individuals of a given species, capable of crossing and producing full-fledged offspring, living in a given territory that has natural boundaries with other territories, which makes it difficult for individuals of this population to cross with individuals of another. It should be remembered that the ecological unit of a species is the population.
Populations different types living in this territory form a biocenosis, in which these populations are connected with each other by various connections, including food.
Inorganic substances and their role in living matter
Living matter, like any other substance, is formed by atoms of chemical elements that make up inorganic and organic compounds, the totality of which forms living matter, which is qualitatively different from both inorganic and organic individual chemical compounds.
Inorganic substances are called substances that do not contain carbon atoms (except for carbon itself, its oxides, carbonic acid, its salts, rhodane, hydrogen thiocyanate, thiocyanate, cyanide, hydrogen cyanide, cyanides).
Organisms include water, some salts of sodium, potassium, calcium and other chemical elements.
Brief description of the role of some oxides, hydroxides and salts in living matter
From oxides in organisms great importance has carbon dioxide (carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide (IV), carbon dioxide (dioxide)). This substance is one of the products of respiration (for all organisms!). When dissolved in water (for example, in the cytoplasm, blood plasma, etc.), carbon dioxide forms carbonic acid, which, upon dissociation, decomposes into bicarbonate ions (HCO 3) and carbonate ions (CO 2- 3), forming (together ) a carbonate buffer system that stabilizes the reaction of the environment. Excess CO 2 is removed from the body as a result of processes occurring during (in all organisms: both in plants and in animals).
The most important hydroxides contained in living matter are carbonic (H 2 CO 3), phosphoric (H 3 PO 4) and some other acids. As indicated above (for example, carbonic acid), these hydroxides contribute to the creation of buffer systems in aqueous solutions, which leads to the stabilization of the reaction of the medium in protoplasm or in other liquid media contained in the body. Phosphoric acid plays a huge role in the formation of various phosphorus-containing compounds (for example, in the formation of ADP from AMP or ATP from ADP; ATP - adenosine triphosphate, ADP - adenosine diphosphate, AMP - adenosine monophosphate; these substances play an important role in the processes of dissimilation and assimilation).
Hydrochloric (hydrochloric) acid (HCl) is also important for organisms. It is contained in gastric juice or in solutions that aid in the digestion of food (for example, in the human stomach).
In organisms they are in a dissociated state, that is, in the form of ions. Consider the biological role of some anions (negatively charged ions) and cations (positively charged ions) in living matter.
Brief description of the biological role of cations
In living matter, the following cations are of greatest importance: K +, Ca 2+, Na +, Mg 2+, Fe 2+, Mn 2+ and some others.
1. Sodium cations (Na +). These ions create a certain osmotic pressure(Osmotic pressure arises in aqueous solutions and is the force under the influence of which osmosis is carried out, i.e. one-sided diffusion of substances through a semipermeable membrane). In addition, together with potassium cations (K +) due to different permeability cell membrane, they create a membrane equilibrium, in which a difference in biochemical potentials arises, which ensures the conductivity of the cells and tissues of the body; participate in water and ion exchange of the body as a whole. They enter the body (cell) in the form aqueous solution sodium chloride. In animals and humans, as a result of perspiration, a large amount of sodium chloride can be lost, which sharply reduces their performance. These ions, together with some organic and inorganic anions, regulate the acid-base balance (for example, with HCO ions - 3, CH 3 COO - and others).
2. K + cations. These ions, together with Na + ions, create membrane equilibrium. They activate protein synthesis, and in the organisms of higher animals and humans affect the biorhythms of the heart. K + ions are included in the composition of macro-fertilizers - potash and significantly affect the productivity of agricultural plants.
3. Ca 2+ cations. These ions are antagonists of K + ions (i.e., they exhibit the opposite effect compared to the latter). They are part of membrane structures, form pectin substances that form intercellular substance in plant organisms. These ions in the composition of calcium salts are involved in the formation of the most important connective tissue- bone, which forms the skeleton of vertebrates and humans and some other organisms (for example, coelenterates, etc.). They regulate the processes of cell formation, participate in the implementation muscle contractions, play an important role in blood coagulation and other processes.
4. Cations Mg 2+. The role of these ions is similar (in some cases) to the role of Ca 2+ ions and they are contained in organisms in certain proportions. In addition, Mg 2+ ions are part of the most important photosynthetic pigment of plants - chlorophyll, activate DNA synthesis and participate in the implementation of energy metabolism.
5. Ions Fe 2+. They play an important role in the life of many animals, as they are part of the most important respiratory pigment - hemoglobin, which is involved in the respiration process. They are part of the muscle protein - myoglobin, take part in the synthesis of chlorophyll, i.e. Fe 2+ ions are the basis of compounds through which many redox processes are realized.
6. Ions Cu 2+, Mn 2+, Cr 3+ and a number of other ions also take part in redox processes in various organisms (these ions are part of complex organometallic compounds).
Brief description of the biological role of some anions
The most important anions are H 2 PO - 4, HPO 2-4, Cl -, I -, PO 3 - 4, Br -, F -, HCO - 3, NO - 3, SO 2 - 4, and a number of others. the role of some of these ions in various organisms.
1. Nitrate and nitrite ions (NO - 3, NO - 2, respectively).
Ions containing nitrogen play an important role in plant organisms, since they contain bound nitrogen in their composition and are used (along with ammonium cations - NH + 4) for the synthesis of nitrogen-containing "substances of life" - proteins and nucleic acids. When an excess of these ions enter the plant organism, they accumulate in them and, getting (as part of food) in the human and animal organism, can cause disturbances in the metabolism of these organisms ("nitrate and nitrite poisoning"). This makes the optimal use of nitrogen fertilizers necessary when applying them to the soil.
2. Hydro- and dihydrogen phosphate ions (HPO 2-4, H 2 PO 4 - respectively).
These ions are involved in metabolism and are necessary in the synthesis of nucleic acids, mono-, di- and triadenosine-phosphates, which play an important role in energy exchange and the synthesis of organic substances in various organisms (plants, animals, etc.). These ions are involved in maintaining the acid-base balance, maintaining the constancy of the reaction of the medium within certain limits.
3. Sulfate ions (SO 2 4) - a source of sulfur required for the synthesis of sulfur-containing natural alpha-amino acids used in the production of proteins. Necessary for the processes of synthesis of certain vitamins, enzymes (in plant organisms). In animal organisms, sulfate ions are a product of reactions to neutralize chemical compounds formed in the liver.
4. Halide ions (Cl - - chloride ions, Br - bromide ions, I - - iodide ions, F - - fluoride ions). They are counterions for cations (especially Сl -), that is, they create a neutral system with cations. The system of ions (cations and anions), together with water, creates osmotic pressure and turgor; chloride ions are macronutrients for animals, and the rest of halide ions are trace elements, i.e. are necessary for any organisms in small (micro-) quantities. The significance of iodide ions is that they are part of the most important hormone - thyroxine, and an excess and deficiency of these ions leads to the appearance of various diseases in humans (myxidema and Graves' disease). Fluoride ions affect the exchange in bone tissue teeth, bromide ions are part of the chemical compounds contained in the pituitary gland.
General characteristics and classification of organic compounds that make up living matter, and their ecological role
Substances that contain carbon atoms (excluding carbon, its oxides, carbonic acid, its salts, rhodane, hydrogen thiocyanate, rhodanides, cyanide, hydrogen cyanide, cyanides, carbonyls and carbides) are called organic.
Organic matter has a very complex classification. Some of these substances are not found in organisms (neither living nor dead). They were obtained artificially and do not occur in nature. A number of organic compounds are not "assimilated" by organisms, i.e. does not decompose in nature under the influence of decomposers and detritivores. These compounds include polyethylene, SMS (synthetic detergents), some pesticides, etc. Therefore, when using organic substances obtained by man chemically, it is necessary to take into account their ability to undergo various transformations in natural conditions, that is, the "assimilation" of these substances by the biosphere ...
Organic substances contained in the body are of great ecological importance, the lack, excess or absence of one or another substance leads either to various diseases, or to the death of this organism. Of greatest importance are nucleic acids, carbohydrates, fats and vitamins.
The concept of organic or inorganic matter becomes too small and is replaced by the concept living matter of the biosphere.
At the beginning of the 20th century V.I. Vernadsky gave a definition to this concept.
Living matter - the whole set of bodies of living organisms in, regardless of their systematic affiliation.
The definition did not come from scale.
The mass of living matter is relatively small and is estimated at 2.4-3.6 · 10 12 tons (in dry weight) and is less than 10 -6 masses of other shells of the Earth. But this is one of the "most powerful geochemical forces on our planet."
Basic properties of living matter of the biosphere
- Ability to quickly master free space. it related to both the ability to reproduce, especially in the simplest organisms, and with the fact that many organisms significantly increase the surface of the body during growth (plants, for example, or the area of the community).
- Active and passive movement.Active movement of living matter of the biosphere- independent movement of organisms, requiring energy consumption: fish can swim against the current, birds fly, overcoming the force of gravity, etc. Passive movement of living matter of the biosphere- movement that does not require energy consumption - under the influence of natural forces - gravity, gravity, etc.
- Stability of living matter(organisms) during life and rapid decomposition(due to the action of reducers) after death.
If we talk about chemical elements, then it is precisely due to this property of living matter that they participate in various -, etc. - A high degree of adaptation of the living matter of the biosphere to environmental conditions. The fact that living organisms have mastered all 3 environments - terrestrial, water and air, no longer surprises anyone. In addition, there are microorganisms that can withstand both high and very low temperatures.
- High rate of biochemical reactions of living matter. Indeed, the rate of reactions in living organisms is no more than a few minutes, the rate of carbon cycle is several years (no more than 10).
Vernadsky believed that sedimentary rocks are formed mainly by the products of the vital activity of living organisms. And this layer is about 3 km thick!
High rate of renewal of living matter... It is estimated that on average for the biosphere it is 8 years, while for land it is 14 years, and for the ocean, where organisms with a short life span (for example, plankton) predominate, it is 33 days. As a result of the high rate of renewal in the entire history of the existence of life, the total mass of living matter that has passed through the biosphere is approximately 12 times the mass of the Earth. Only a small part of it (a fraction of a percent) is conserved in the form of organic residues (in the words of V. I. Vernadsky, “went into geology”), the rest was included in the processes of circulation.
Functions of the living matter of the biosphere
- Energy function
Producers consume solar energy, converting inorganic substances into organic ones, decomposers decompose organic substances to inorganic ones. Some of the energy is converted into heat in the process. - Concentration of living matter
As a result of the vital activity of organisms, certain substances accumulate. - Destructive
This is a consequence of the energy function - organic matter decomposes as a result of the circulation of substances and turns into a mineral (inorganic) form. - Environment-forming function of living matter
Living matter changes, transforms the environment. Transport
Food interactions of living matter lead to the movement of huge masses of chemical elements and substances against gravity and in a horizontal direction.
