The concretization of the concept of "being" is carried out, first of all, in the concept of "matter". It is clear that the problems of matter, including her concept, were developed primarily by philosophers-materialists from the ancients to modern. The most complete and in-depth development of these problems is contained in the works of contemporary materialists. In the materialistic philosophy "Matter" acts as the most common, fundamental category in which the material unity of the world is fixed; A variety of forms of being are considered as generated by matter during its movement and development. The definition of the concept of "matter" was given by V. I. Lenin in his work "Materialism and empiriocritism" (1909).
"Matter," Lenin wrote, "there is philosophical category For notation objective reality, which is given to a person in sensations, which is copied, photographed, is displayed by our sensations, existing independently of them. "
Consider more this definition. Category "Matter" means an objective reality. But what does "objective reality" mean? This is all that exists outside the consciousness of man and regardless of him. So, the main property of the world fixed with the help of the "matter" category is its independent, independent of the person and from the knowledge of the existence. In determining the matter, essentially, the main issue of philosophy is solved, the question of the relationship between matter and consciousness. And while the priority of matter is approved. She is prim than in relation to consciousness. Primary in time, for consciousness arose relatively recently, and the matter exists forever; Primary and in the fact that consciousness is a historically emerging property of highly organized matter, a property that appears from socially developed people.
Matter is prim than to display the reflection object as the model is primary in relation to its copy. But we know that the main question of philosophy has the second side. This is the question of how thoughts about the world belong to the world itself, the question of whether the world is known. In the definition of matter, we find the answer and this question. Yes, they know the world. Lenin in its definition focuses on sensations as a primary source of knowledge. This is due to the fact that in the named work, Lenin criticizes empiricriticism, philosophy, for which the problem of sensation was of particular importance. Although essentially we are talking about the problem of the knowledge of the world, the knowledge of matter. Therefore, it is possible to give a shorter definition of matter: matter - this is a learned objective reality.
Of course, such a definition is very general and does not indicate any other properties of matter, except for the existence of it outside and independently of consciousness, as well as its cognitiveness. However, we are entitled to talk about some of the properties of matter that have the nature of the attributes, that is, such properties that are always inherent in both matter and any material objects everywhere. Such are space, time and movement. Since all things exist in space, move in space, and at the same time the very existence of a person and the surrounding things proceeds in time, the concepts "space" and "time" were formulated and used for quite a long time.
Categories "Space" and "Time" refer to the number of fundamental philosophical and general scientific categories. And naturally, they are as follows, first of all, because they reflect and express the most general condition of being.
Time characterizes primarily the presence or absence of being of those or other objects. There was a time when I writing these lines (as, however, and you, dear reader), simply was not. Now we are. But the time will come when I won't be. State sequence: non-existence - being - non-existence and fixes the category of time. The other Party of Being is the simultaneous existence of different objects (in our simple example This is my and yours, reader), as well as their simultaneous non-existence. Time also records the relative terms of being, so for some objects it can be large (longer), and for others, less (less long). In the famous parable of " Captain's daughter"A. S. Pushkin The time of the Crow's life was determined in three hundred years, and eagle - thirty. In addition, time allows you to fix periods in the development of a particular object. Childhood - adolescence - Youth - Mature age - Old age - All these phases in the development of a person have their own temporary framework. The time is part of an integral part in the characteristic of all the processes of existence, changes, movement of objects, without taking any of these characteristics. It is this circumstance that makes it difficult to understand the time as a universal form of being.
The situation is somewhat easier with the understanding of the space, if it is taken in an ordinary sense, as a compatibility of all things and processes. More complex problems associated with the evolution of the physical concepts of space and time will be discussed below.
Philosophical analysis of the problems of space, time and movement we find in antique philosophy. These problems have become considered in more detail and discussed in science in the XVII century., In connection with the development of mechanics. At that time, the mechanic analyzed the movement of macroscopic bodies, i.e., such that were quite large so that they can be seen and followed by both in the natural state (for example, when describing the movement of the moon or planets) and in the experiment .
Italian scientist Galileo Galilee (1564-1642) was the founder of experimental-theoretical natural science.
He examined in detail the principle of relativity of movement. The body movement is characterized by speed, i.e. the path of the path passed per unit of time. But in the world of moving bodies, the speed turns out to be a value relative and dependent on the reference system. For example, if we are going to the tram and pass through the cabin from the back door to the driver's cabin, then our speed is about passengers sitting in the cabin, will, for example, 4 km per hour, and relative to houses, by which the tram passes, she It will be 4 km / h + speed tram, for example, 26 km / h. That is, the determination of the speed is associated with the reference system or the definition of the reference body. IN conventional conditions For us, such a body of reference is the ground surface. But it is worth going beyond its limits, as the need arises to establish that object, the planet or that star, relative to which the speed of the body is determined.
Considering the task of determining the movement of the body in general, English scientist Isaac Newton (1643-1727) went along the path of maximum abstraction of the concepts of space and time expressing the conditions of movement. In his main work "Mathematical starts of natural philosophy" (1687), he puts the question: can I specify the body in the universe that would serve as an absolute reference body? Newton understood that not only the Earth, as it was in the old geocentric systems of astronomy, cannot be accepted for such a central, the absolute point of reference, but the sun, as was customary in the Copernicus system, cannot be considered as. The absolute point of reference cannot be specified. But Newton put the task to describe the absolute movement, and not be limited to the description of the relative speeds of the tel. In order to solve such a task, he took a step, apparently, just as ingenious, how wrong. He put forward abstractions that were not used in philosophy and in physics: absolute time and absolute space.
"Absolute, true, mathematical time in itself and by its most essence, without any relation to anything external flows evenly and otherwise called durability," wrote Newton. Similarly, it determined the absolute space: "The absolute space at its very essence is irrepare to anything external remains always the same and fixed." With absolute space and time, Newton contrasted sensually observed and fixed relative types of space and time.
Of course, space and time as universal forms of existence of matter cannot be reduced to one or another specific objects and their states. But it is impossible to tear the space and time from the material objects, as Newton did. Pure container of all things that exists in itself, a certain box in which you can put land, planets, stars - this is what is the absolute space of Newton. Since it is motionless, any of its fixed point can be a point of reference to determine the absolute movement, it is necessary only to verify its clock with an absolute duration, existing again independently and from the space and from any things in it. Things, material objects studied by mechanics, turned out to be called with space and time. All of them in this system act as independent, in no way affecting each other, composite elements. Cartesian physics, identifying matter and space that did not recognize the emptiness and atoms as the forms of the existence of things, was completely discarded. Successes in the explanation of nature and the mathematical apparatus of new mechanics provided the ideas of Newton a long domination that lasted before the beginning of the XX century.
In the XIX century The rapid development of others began natural Sciences. In physics, great success was achieved in the field of thermodynamics, the doctrine of the electromagnetic field was developed; The law of preserving and turning energy was formulated in general. Chemistry quickly progressed, table was created chemical elements Based on the periodic law. Further development received biological sciences, was created evolutionary theory Darwin. All this created the basis for overcoming the former, mechanistic ideas about movement, space and time. A number of fundamental fundamental provisions on the movement of matter, space and time was formulated in the philosophy of dialectical materialism.
In the controversy with Düning F. Engels defended the dialectic and materialistic concept of nature. "The main forms of being," Engels wrote, - the essence of space and time; Being beyond time is the same greatest nonsense as being outside space. "
In the work of "Dialectics of Nature", Engels examined in detail the problem of movement and developed the doctrine of the forms of movement, which corresponded to the level of development of the science of that time. "Movement," Engels wrote, - considered in the general sense of the word, that is, understood as a way of existence of matter, as an internally inherent attribute, hugs all changes in the universe and processes, ranging from simple movement and ending with thinking. "
A simple movement in Engels space considered the most common form of motion of the matter, over which, as in the pyramid, other forms are extended. This is a physical and chemical form of motion of matter. The carrier of the physical form, by Engels, are molecules, and the chemical - atoms. Mechanical, physical and chemical motion forms are the foundation of a higher form of motion of matter - biological, the carrier of which is a living protein. And finally, the highest form of motion of matter is a social form. Its carrier is human society.
"Dialectics of Nature" saw the light only at the end of the 20s - early 30s. Our century, and therefore could not have an impact on science at the time when it was created. But the methodological principles that were used by Engels when developing the classification of the forms of motion of matter, retain their value up to the present. First, Engels corresponds to the form of movement and shape or types of structural organization of matter. With the advent of a new type of structural organization of matter appear and the new kind Movement. Secondly, a dialectically understood principle of development is laid into the classification of forms of movement. Different forms of movement are associated between themselves genetically, they do not simply coexist, but also arise from each other. At the same time, the highest forms of movement include lower as components and conditions necessary for the appearance of a new, higher form of motion of matter. And finally, thirdly, Engels resolutely objected to attempts to reduce completely qualitatively peculiar higher forms of movement towards the lower forms.
In the XVII and XVIII centuries. There was a strong tendency to reduce all the laws of nature to the laws of mechanics. This trend was called "Mechanism". But later, the same word began to denote the attention of biological and social processes, for example, to the laws of thermodynamics. Sociologists appeared with the emergence of Darwinism, inclined to explain the phenomena of public life to one-sidedly interpreted biological law. All this manifestation of mechanism.
Here we face contradictions inherent in the process of developing knowledge, when the features inherent in one types of structural organization of matter are transferred to other types. However, it should be borne in mind that during the study different species Organizations of matter and different forms of movement are detected by some common, previously unknown circumstances and patterns characteristic of the interaction of different levels of matter of matter. As a result, theories arise covering a wide range of objects relating to different levels of matter of matter.
End XIX - early XX century. He became the time of the steep breakdown of ideas about the world - time when the mechanistic picture of the world was overcome, which was dominated in natural science within two centuries.
One of the most important events in science was the opening of the English physicist J. Thomson (1856-1940) of the electron - the first intra-large particle. Thomson investigated the cathode rays and found that they consist of particles with electric charge (negative) and very low mass. The mass of the electron, according to the calculations, turned out to be more than 1800 times less than the mass of the easiest atom, the hydrogen atom. The discovery of such a small particle meant that the "indivisible" atom could not be considered as the last "brick of the universe". The study of physicists, on the one hand, confirmed the reality of atoms, but on the other - it was shown that the real atom is not at all the atom, which was previously considered an indivisible chemical element, from which all famous person of that time things and body of nature.
In fact, atoms are not simple and indivisible, but consist of some particles. The first of them was opened electron. The first model of the atom created by Thomson received the joking name "Pudding with raisins". Pudding corresponded to a large, massive, positively charged part of the atom, while a raisum is small, negatively charged particles - electrons, which, according to the Culon law, were held on the surface of the "pudding" by electrical forces. And although this model was fully consistent with the presentations of physicists that existed at the time, it did not become a long-liver.
Soon it was supplanted by a model, although he configured the usual ideas of physicists, but corresponding to new experimental data. This is the planetary model E. Rostford (1871-1937). The experiments on which were discussed, were delivered in connection with another fundamentally important discovery - the discovery at the end of the XIX century. Radioactivity phenomena. This phenomenon itself also testified to the complex internal structure of atoms of chemical elements. Rutherford applied the bombing of targets made of foil of different metals, the flow of ionized helium atoms. As a result, it turned out that the atom has a size of 10 V -8 degrees, and a heavy mass carrying a positive charge, only 10 to a degree 12 cm.
So, in 1911, Rutherford opened the atomic core. In 1919, he was subjected to bombardment of alpha-particles of nitrogen and opened a new intra-large particle, the kernel of the hydrogen atom, which he called "Proton". Physics joined the new world - the world of atomic particles, processes, relationships. And immediately found that the laws of this world differ significantly from the laws of the macromir us. In order to build a model of a hydrogen atom, it was necessary to create a new physical theory - quantum mechanics. Note that in the short historical period of physics found a large number of microparticles. By 1974, they were almost twice as much as chemical elements in the periodic Mendeleev system.
In search of the foundations of the classification of such large number Physics microparticles appealed to the hypothesis, according to which the manifold of microparticles can be explained if we assume the existence of new, subnuclear particles, and various combinations of which are known as well-known microparticles. It was a hypothesis about the existence of quarks. She was expressed almost simultaneously and independently of each other in 1963. Theoretical physicists M. Gell-Man and Tsweig.
One of the unusual features of quarks should be that they will have a fractional (if compared with electron and protons) Electric charge: or -1/3 or +2/3. The positive charge of the proton and the neutron zero charge is easily explained by the quark composition of these particles. True, it should be noted that physicists failed either in the experiment, nor in observations (in particular, in astronomical) to detect individual quarks. I had to develop the theory explaining why now the existence of quarks outside the hadrons is impossible.
Another fundamental discovery of the XX century, provided a huge impact On the whole picture of the world, the creation of the theory of relativity was. In 1905, Albert Einstein, young and nobody, the young and theoretical physicist (1879-1955) published an article in a special physical journal under a speedy headline "to electrodynamics of moving bodies". This article presents the so-called private theory of relativity. Essentially, it was a new idea of \u200b\u200bspace and time, and, accordingly, he developed a new mechanic. Old, classical physics quite consistent with the practice that was dealing with macotels moving with not very large speeds. And only research electromagnetic wavesFields and related other types of matter forced to take a fresh look at the laws of classical mechanics.
The experiments of Michelson and the theoretical works of Lorentz served as the basis for a new vision of the world of physical phenomena. This applies primarily by space and time, fundamental concepts that determine the construction of the whole picture of the world. Einstein showed that the abstraction of absolute space introduced by Newton and absolute time should be left and replaced by others. First of all, we note that the characteristics of space and time will be different in the systems of fixed and moving relative to each other.
So, if you measure the rocket on Earth and establish that its length is, for example, 40 meters, and then to determine the size of the same rocket, but moving at high speed relative to the Earth, it turns out that the result will be less than 40 meters. And if you measure the time current on Earth and on the rocket, it turns out that the readings of the clock will be different. At the rocket moving at high speed, in relation to the earth, it will flow slower, and the slower, the higher the speed of the rocket, the more it will approach the speed of light. From here, some relationships are followed, which from our usual practical point of view are paradoxical.
Such is the so-called twin paradox. Imagine twin brothers, one of which becomes a cosmonaut and goes into a long-term space trip, the other remains on Earth. Time passes. Spaceship returns. And there is approximately such a conversation between the brothers: "Hello," says that remained on Earth, "I'm glad to see you, but why didn't you change you at all, why are you so young, because from the moment you flew, thirty years have passed." "Hello," the cosmonaut answers, "and I am glad to see you, but why did you try so much, because I flew just five years." So, on the earth's clock, thirty years have passed, and only five cosmonauts. This means that time does not flow equally throughout the universe, its changes depend on the interaction of moving systems. This is one of the main findings of the theory of relativity.
The German mathematician Minkowski, analyzing the theory of relativity, concluded that it should generally abandon the idea of \u200b\u200bspace and time as separately from each other of the existing characteristics of the world. In fact, Minkowski claimed, there is a single form of existence of material objects, inside which space and time cannot be allocated, separate. Therefore, it is necessary for the concept that this unity expresses. But when it came to designate this concept in a word, then the new word was not found, and then from old words formed a new one: "space-time".
So, you need to get used to the fact that real physical processes occur in a single space-time. And it itself, this space-time, acts as a single four-dimensional manifold; Three coordinates characterizing space, and one coordinate characterizing time cannot be separated from each other. And in general, the properties of space and time are determined by the cumulative effects of one events to others. An analysis of the theory of relativity demanded the clarification of one of the most important philosophical and physical principles - the principle of causality.
In addition, the theory of relativity met with significant difficulties in considering the phenomenon. This phenomenon was not amenable to explain. It took a lot of work to overcome theoretical difficulties. By 1916, A. Einstein developed "the general theory of relativity!. This theory provides a more complex structure of space-time, which is dependent on the distribution and movement of material masses. The general theory of relativity became the basis on which in the future, the models of our universe began to build. But about this later.
In formation general view Astronomy played a major role in the world. Changes that occurred in astronomy in the XX century. Wore a truly revolutionary character. We note some of these circumstances. First of all, thanks to the development of atomic physics, astronomers learned why stars shine. Opening and studying of the world elementary particles Allowed astronomers to build theories in which the process of the evolution of stars, galaxies and the entire universe is revealed. Millennies existing ideas about the unchanging stars went to history forever. The developing universe is the world of modern astronomy. The point here is not only in the general developmental principles of development, but also in fundamental facts that opened humanity in the XX century, in the creation of new advisory theories, primarily the general theory of relativity, in new devices and new possibilities of observations (radio astronomy, extraterrestrial astronomy) and finally In the fact that humanity carried out the first steps to the outer space.
On the basis of the general theory of relativity, the models of our universe began to be developed. The first such model was created in 1917. Einstein himself. However, in the future it was shown that this model has drawbacks and abandoned it. Soon the Russian scientist A. A. Friedman (1888-1925) proposed the model of the expanding universe. Initially, Einstein rejected this model, as she considered that it had erroneous calculations. But in the future acknowledged that the Friedman model is generally quite well justified.
In 1929, American astronomer E. Hubble (1889-1953) opened the presence of the so-called red displacement in the spectra of galaxies and formulated the law, which makes it possible to establish the speed of movement of galaxies relative to the Earth and the distance to these galaxies. So, it turned out that the spiral nebula in the constellation Andromeda represents the galaxy, according to its characteristics, close to the one in which our solar system is located, and the distance to it is relatively small, only 2 million light years.
In 1960, a radio-beactic spectrum was obtained and analyzed, which turned out to be removed from us at a speed of 138 thousand kilometers per second and is at a distance of 5 billion light years. The study of galaxies led to the conclusion that we live in the world of running galaxies, and some jokester, remembering, apparently, Thomson's model, suggested an analogy with a raisin's cake, which is in the oven and slowly expands, so each raismin -galactic is removed from all others. However, today such analogy can no longer be accepted, since the computer analysis of the results of observation of galaxies leads to the conclusion that the part of the Universe of the Galaxy form a non-network or cellular structure. Moreover, the distribution and density of galaxies in space differ significantly from the distributions and density of stars inside the galaxies. So, apparently, both the galaxies and their systems should be considered by various levels of the structural organization of matter.
An analysis of the inner mutual relationship between the world of "elementary" particles and the structure of the Universe sent the thought of researchers and on such a way: "What would it be if those or other properties of elementary particles differ from the observed?" There are many models of the universes, but it seems that they all turned out to be the same in one - in such universes there are no conditions for a living, similar to that world of living, biological creatures that we observe on earth and to which it belongs.
There was a hypothesis of the "anthrop" universe. This is our universe, the consistent stages of the development of which were such that the prerequisites for the occurrence of the living were created. Thus, astronomy in the second half of the XX century. Calls upon us to look at ourselves as a product of the multi-billion dollar development of our universe. Our world is the best of the worlds, but not because, according to the Bible. God created him as he saw himself that it was good, but because it formed such relations inside the systems of material bodies, such laws of their interaction and development, which separate parts This world could have the conditions for the emergence of life, man and mind. At the same time, a number of events in the history of the Earth and Solar system You can evaluate as "happy randomness".
American astronomer Carl Sagan proposed a visual model for the development of the universe in time oriented on a person. All the existence of the universe, he suggested regarding as one ordinary earthly year. Then 1 second of the cosmic year will be equal to 500 years, and the whole year is 15 billion world years. All begins S. Big bangSo astronomers call the moment when the history of our universe began.
So, according to the model of the Sagan, from the whole year of the development of the Universe on our human story there are only about one and a half hours. Of course, the question of other "lives" immediately arises, about other places in the universe, where life could be, this special form of the organization of matter.
The most complete problem of life in the Universe was delivered and discussed in the book of the Russian scientist I. S. Shklovsky (1916-1985) "Universe. A life. The mind ", whose sixth publication was in 1987. Most researchers, both natural resources and philosophers, believe that both in our galaxy, and in other galaxies there are many oasis life that there are numerous extraterrestrial civilizations. And, of course, before the onset of the new era in astronomy, before space Era On Earth, many considered inhabited the nearest planets of the solar system. Mars and Venus. However, neither the devices sent to these planets nor American astronauts landed on the moon did not find any signs of living in these celestial bodies.
So taxing the planet should be considered the only inhabitable planet of the solar system. Considering the stars closest to us within the radius of about 16 light years, which may have planetary systems that satisfy some general criteria Opportunities for their lives, astronomers allocated only three stars, near which such planetary systems may be. In 1976 I. S. Shklovsky spoke with an article, obviously sensational in its direction: "On the possible uniqueness of a reasonable life in the universe." With this hypothesis, most astronomers, physicists and philosophers do not agree. But in recent years there has not been any facts that disprove it, and at the same time failed to detect any traces of extraterrestrial civilizations. Unless the newspapers sometimes appear "witness of eyewitnesses" who have direct contact with aliens from space. But these "testimonies" cannot be taken seriously.
The philosophical principle of material unity of the world underlies the ideas about the unity of physical laws operating in our universe. This encourages to look for such fundamental bonds by which it would be possible to derive the physical phenomena and processes observed in the experience. Soon after the creation of the general theory of relativity, Einstein set itself the task of unification electromagnetic phenomena and gravity on some single basis. The task was so difficult that Einstein was not enough to solve the remaining life. The problem was also complicated by the fact that during the study of the microme revealed new, before unknown relationships and interactions.
So modern physics have to solve the problem of combining four types of interactions: strong, at the expense of which the nucleons are tightened into the atomic core; electromagnetic, repelling the eponymous charges (or attracting variemeless); The weak, registered in the processes of radioactivity, and, finally, the gravitational, determining the interaction of the masses. The forces of these interactions are significantly different. If you take a strong one, then the electromagnetic will be 10 into degree -2, weak - 10 into degree -5. And gravitational - 10 c degree -39.
Back in 1919, one German physicist proposed Einstein to introduce the fifth dimension to combine gravity and electromagnetism. In this case, it turned out that the equations were described by five-dimensional space coincide with the Maxwell equations describing the electromagnetic field. But Einstein did not accept this idea, believing that the real physical world is four-dimensional.
However, the difficulties faced by physics, solving the task of combining four types of interaction, cause them to return to the idea of \u200b\u200bthe space-time of higher measurements. And in the 70s and in the 80s. Theoretical physicists appealed to calculate such space-time. It was shown that in the initial point of time (determined by the unimaginably low value - 10 to the degree -43 C from the beginning of the Big Bang) The fifth dimension was localized in the area of \u200b\u200bspace, which cannot be clearly imagined, since the radius of this region is determined at 10 to the degree -33 cm.
Currently, at the Institute of Higher Research in Princeton (USA), where Einstein lived in the last years of his life, the young professor Edward Whitten, who created the theory, overcoming the serious theoretical difficulties, with which the quantum theory and the overall theory of relativity still faced. He managed to do this through joining the well-known and observed four-dimensional space-time ... six measurements.
Thus, something similar to the usual, but only a completely unusual, ten-dimensional world, whose properties are determined by the whole world of elementary particles and gravity, and, consequently, the macromir of the usual things for us, and MegaMir stars and galaxies. The case is for "small": it is necessary to find a method that expresses the transition from 10-dimensional to the 4-dimensional world. And since so far this task is not solved, many physicists consider Whitten's theory as a game of imagination, mathematically impeccable, but not relevant to the real world. Well conscious of the complexity and unusualness of the theory, called the theory of strings, Whit-Ten says that the theory of strings is part of the physics of the XXI century, which accidentally fell in XX. Apparently, it is the physics of the XXI century. He will sentence his sentence the theory of strings, as well as physics XX carried its theory of relativity and quantum theory.
Science in the XX century. It was so far that many theories of modern scientists confirmed by practice would seem just fantasies with the Scientific XIX century. And seem to be fantastic most people who are not related to science. This also applies to advocacy theories describing space, time, causality in different areas The material world, at different stages of the structural organization of matter and at different stages of the evolution of the universe.
So, we see that in the development process scientific knowledge Significantly change, the ideas about matter and its attributes are expandable and complicated: space, time and motion. At each level of the structural organization of matter, their characteristics are detected in the movement and interaction of objects, their specific forms of the spatial organization and the course of temporary processes. Therefore B. lately Increasingly, they began to pay attention to these features and talk about as if different "times" and different "spaces": space-time in physical processes, space and time in biological processes, space and time in social processes. But to take the concepts of "biological time", "Social Time" is necessary with reservations. After all, time is the form of existence of matter, expressing the duration of the existence and the sequence of state change in any material systems, and the space is a form of existence of matter, characterizing the length, structurality, the topology of any material systems. And in this sense, space, time and movement there are as common and abstract concepts, as well as matter, which, of course, does not exclude the specific conditions of relationships in the material systems of various species. As higher forms of the organization are adjusted during the development process over simpler, not excluding these latter, but including them in themselves and the corresponding forms of movement, becoming more complicated, generate new types of relationships in these more complex material systems. Building the hierarchy of systems, we highlight primarily a microworld, macromir and megamir.
And on our land, in addition, the world of living beings, which are a carrier of a new, biological form of motion of matter, and the world of man - society, with its features and its specific patterns.
The matter should be considered primarily as a substance, on and due to which all relations and changes are being built in the world, including consciousness.
Category of matter itself, like any general concept, is abstraction, creating clean thought. But this is not nonsense, but scientific abstraction. Besleless attempt to find matter in general as a kind of real or disembodied initially. When the goal is to find a uniform matter as such, it creates a situation like Thai, if they wanted to see the fruit instead of cherry, pears, apples to see the fruit as such, instead of cats, dogs and oats, etc. - mammal as such, gas as such, metal as such, chemical compound as such, movement as such. In the modern philosophical concept of matter, universal features of an infinite set of sensually perceived things should be reflected. Matter does not exist in addition to things, their properties and relationships, but only in them through them. It is important that it is important to fix such properties of matter that would fundamentally distinguish it within the framework of the main issue of philosophy from consciousness as their own opposite. Such a definition of matter is proposed by V.I. Lenin in the book "Materialism and empiricriticism": "Matter has a philosophical category to designate an objective reality, which is given to a person in sensations, which is copied, photographed, is displayed by our sensations, existing independently of them." In this definition, the idea was completed, which was already outlined at the Golbach and was developed yet in some thinkers (in particular, N.G. Chernyshevsky and G.V. Plekhanov).
Here matterium is determined through the comparison of the spiritual and material. Matter eternal, exists outside of human consciousness and is completely indifferent to what we think about it. The concept of matter is only an approximate reflection of this objective reality. That is, the concept of matter in general is not a formal designation, not a conditional symbol for a plurality of things, but the reflection of the essence of each of them and their entire combination, the basis of being existing in everything and generates all the existing philosophy / ed. Yu.A. Harina. - Mn., 2006 ..
So, the matter is primarily a reality, the reality is objective, existing outside and independently of the person, but this is such a reality that can only be detected through sensations (of course, sensual reflection can be direct or mediated devices - whether it is a microscope, a telescope, synchrophasotron and etc.). Such a definition of matter expresses the essence of materialism as teachings. It is further development The main question of philosophy, and this is its ideological importance.
Matter, being an objective reality, is primary to consciousness. It does not imply any reason or conditions for its existence, but, on the contrary, herself is the only reason for consciousness. Matter has the fact that B. Spinosa called the cause of itself. At the same time, matter is not some kind of supersensual, supernatural reality, it is given to a person in sensations (directly or indirectly with the help of instruments), which, in turn, makes it available to knowledge.
Matter as the root cause of the entire existing realizes its essence through an infinite set of specific existences, ranging from elementary objects of inanimate nature and ending with the most complicated social systems.
In the analyzed definition of matter, two aspects are detected - ontological and gnoseological. From an ontological point of view of matter - the only subject of every existence. Things, properties, interactions, bodily and spiritual processes have their ultimate cause in matter. The absolute opposition of the material and spiritual is possible, thereby only within the framework of the main issue of philosophy. From the gnoseological point of view of matter - the object, the subject and means of knowledge, and the sensation, thinking is its product.
The category of matter is the most important methodological regulatory, since the consistent settling of materialistic worldview is significant in specific scientific research. It should be not mixed here by the philosophical concept of matter with historically changing natural science concepts of the structure and properties of certain fragments of the foreseeable world. Science can reflect the details of the structure and state of individual system material objects with mathematical accuracy. The philosophical approach is characterized by the fact that it is abstract from the properties of individual things and their aggregates, and in the diversity of the world sees its material unity of philosophy / ed. Yu.A. Harina. - Mn., 2006 ..
The methodological role of the category of matter is important, firstly, because as concrete sciences are progressing the old questions about the understanding of the objective world and its laws, about the attitude of concepts and theories to objective reality. Secondly, the study of specific material forms, along with private issues, highlights a lot of philosophical problems, such as the relationship between the interruption and continuity of being, the inexhaustibility of knowledge of objects.
In an effort to comprehend the nature of objective reality, being, which in philosophy is customary to be denoted by the category matter, People already in ancient times began to think about what consists of the worldwhether there are any '' Mervosnovy''''''pervokitiki'''' 'in the structure of the material world. Search the basis of objective reality in philosophy is called the substance problem. In antiquity there were different hypotheses ˸
Water is the basis of all things (phables);
Fire - the basis of all the existing (heraclitis);
In the database, there is not a specific substance, and an endless indefinite substance -''APame'''''' (Anaximander);
In the database of the world - an indivisible substance - atoms (democritus, epicuris);
The very Russian world is God, Divine Thought, Word, Logos (Plato, Religious Philosophers).
If in the XVII century. The material understood the substance, then in the XIX century. Science has shown that there are such material objects in the world that do not have a substance, for example electromagnetic fieldsthat is possible integration between substance and energy, light.
The most complete development of this category is given in the works of contemporary materialists. In materialistic philosophy''Matriya''''''a acts as the most common, fundamental category. It records the material unity of the world. Definition of the concept of''Matry'''' was given V.I. Lenin in ᴇᴦο work "Materialism and empiricriticism" (1909). ''Matry, "Lenin wrote," there is a philosophical category to designate an objective reality, which is given to a person in the sensation of it, which is copied, is photographed, it is displayed by our sensations, existing independently of them''' '. Meaning this definition It comes down to the fact that matter has an objective reality given to us in sensations. Understanding matter B. this case Not attached to any particular type or state (substance, field, plasma, vacuum). In other words, 1) matter - Substance, 'Whats in things''. The level of generalization in the Leninist definition of matter is the limit. But the general in nature exists through specific things and phenomena. 2) Therefore, the matter is also understood and a single, which affects the organs of the senses, causing sensations. Matteras an objective reality able to influence our feelings, which creates the basis for Our consciousness could perceive the world, that is to know This objective reality. Matter is something that in terms of its qualities is opposite to calling''Shuscanny''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 3) The unity of the total and one in each specific object involves the third meaning of the term matter, when it is understood under it the combination of all material entities in nature existing independently of the knowledge of them.
The world is material. It consists of various items and processes that turn into each other, arise and disappear, reflected in consciousness, existing independently of it. None of these items, taken by itself, cannot be identified with matter, but all their diversity, including their relations, is material reality. The category of matter is a fundamental philosophical concept. The dialectic and materialistic definition of this concept was given by Lenin: " MATTER There is a philosophical category to designate objective reality, which is given to a person in sensations, which is copied, photographed, is displayed by our sensations, existing independently of them. " In this definition, 2 main features are allocated:
1) Matter exists regardless of consciousness;
2) It is copied, photographed, is displayed by sensations. The 1st X-k means recognition of the primacy of matter in relation to consciousness, the second is the recognition of the fundamental knowledge of the material world.
Many materialists 18-19 in identified matter as a totality of indivisible corpuscles (atoms), of which the world was built. But Lenin gives a completely different definition of matter. At each stage of knowledge and practice, a person masters only some fragments and aspects of the inexhaustible world in their diversity. Therefore, it is meaningless to determine the matter through the transfer of it famous species and forms. Only one method remains to identify matter - to allocate such an extremely general feature that characterizes any types of matter, regardless of whether they are already becoming sophisticated in the future. Such a general, a sign is the property "to be an objective reality, exist outside our consciousness." Determining the matter through this feature, dialectical materialism implicitly implies the infinite development of matter and its inexhaustibility.
The basis of the modern scientific understanding of the structure of matter is the idea of \u200b\u200bits complex system organization. Any object of material world can be considered as a system, that is, special integrity, which is characterized by the presence of elements and connections between them. Any molecule is also a system that consists of atoms and determines the relationship between them. The atom is also a systemic integer - consists of a kernel and electron shells located at certain distances from the kernel. The kernel of each atom, in turn, has an internal structure.
Material systems always interact with an external environment. Some properties, relationships and links of elements in this interaction are changing, but the main connections can be maintained, and this is a condition for the existence of the system as a whole.
Matter is a philosophical category that in materialistic philosophy is initially an objective reality in relation to consciousness, subjective reality. The concept of "matter" is used in two basic senses: either expresses the most deep essence of the world, its objective being, or is identified with all existing.
Historical and philosophical analysis of the genesis and the development of the concept of "matter" reduces to the analysis of the three main stages of its evolution:
- like things
- as properties
- as a relationship.
The first stage was associated with a search for some concrete, but the universal thing constituting the primacy of all existing phenomena. For the first time such a way to comprehend the world used antique philosophers (water, aceron and air). The next step in the transformation of the concept of matter was an antique atomism, which developed through the teachings of Anaksagora about qualitatively different homeometers to the representations of Levkipp and Democritus, and then epicuria and the Lucreta of Kara about the atoms as a single material basis of the world.
The second stage of the formation of the category "matter" is associated with the era of the new time, the period of the origin of classical science, based, in particular, on the experience as the principle of comprehension of being. Science of this period, without changing the qualitative ideas about matter as primary, deepened it using such quantitative characteristiclike "mass". Such identification of matter with mass is characteristic of the works of Galilee, I. Newton, M. Lomonosov and Lavoisier, formulated the law of preserving matter, as a law of preserving the mass, or weight body.
For the second stage, it is characteristic:
- definition of matter within the boundaries of the mechanistic approach as the primary items;
- consideration of her "in itself" beyond the relationship to consciousness;
- inclusion in the concept of matter only natural worldleaving the social sphere outside this category.
However, in the new European philosophy, the interpretation of matter goes beyond the traditional understanding of it, when in the definitions of D. Locke and P. Golbach, it is interpreted as the attitude of the subject and the object, and subsequently Marxism - already as a philosophical abstraction, which determined its status as part of the main issue philosophy. In the conditions of the scientific revolution of the XIX century, the beginning of the 20th century, which radically changed the representation of a person about the universe and its device, develops an idea of \u200b\u200bmatter as that, acting on our senses, causes certain sensations (Mr. Plekhanov), or according to the position of V. AND. Lenin, is a philosophical category to indicate the only universal properties of things and phenomena - to be an objective reality that exists independently of human consciousness and displayed by it. In other words, Matter is interpreted here within the system of subject-object relations.
In modern philosophy, the problem of matter either goes to the second plan (non-traditional directions), or the latter is interpreted as first-pool of things that are inextricably linked with such attributes (universal forms of being) as movement, space and time.
Movement is a concept that covers all types of changes and interactions from mechanical movement to a qualitative change implemented in a nonlinear mechanism of resolution of contradictions. High-quality transformation of a moving object may have a double direction: an increase in the complexity of the system organization and its relations with the medium - progress (the transition from the lower to the highest to more perfect forms, their more high Organization and evolutionary capabilities) and simplifying the internal and external structure of the object - regress (refund of the object in its evolution to previously traveled stages).
Each structural education of matter corresponds to the inherent form of movement, which, based on the most important stages of the development of matter, are divided into three main groups. For inanimate nature, mechanical (movement in space and time), physical (atoms, molecules, light phenomena) and chemical ( chemical reactions) Forms of movement. For wildlife - biological (metabolism inside a living organism), and for society-social (material and spiritual changes occurring in society) forms of movement.
Universal forms of motion of matter are space and time.
Space - the property of objects to be extended, take place among others, border with them and move in three main directions (in three dimensions).
Time is a concept expressing the rate of deployment of processes, their rhythm and pace. It is uninimited and irreversible, which is especially pronounced in the individual life of the organisms. In the depths of the micromyr, one can detect other characteristics of time and space, and in other worlds outside our metagalaxy can be other material structures, and, therefore, the unknown form of space-time.
As part of the most material entities, the time is divided into three main types:
- natural - time different natural phenomena and the processes with which the concepts of physical, cosmological and geological time are connected in modern science;
- biological - various biological forms of movement in the framework of the self-organization of wildlife;
- social - covering different kinds time associated with specific forms of human activity, society and a separate individual.
