Every resident of even the smallest town remembers from childhood the lessons on traffic rules regarding the rules for crossing the road. It is natural for a person to grow, and many gradually turn from pedestrians into drivers. To properly drive on the road, you need to understand not only road signs and markings, but also traffic lights.
Traffic lights at the intersection
The most famous are three-color traffic lights, consisting of the following set of colors:
- Red traffic light . In a stable burning state, driving on a red traffic light is prohibited from driving on the road on which the traffic light is installed. A flashing red light also prohibits movement, but also notifies you of the imminent switching of signals. . This type of signal is most often used at a railway crossing, and on ordinary roads this goal is achieved by turning on the red and yellow signals at the same time.
- Yellow traffic light . In a stable burning state, it prohibits movement in all cases, except for the situation when the driver crosses the road lane, but does not have time to slow down his vehicle before marking. In this situation, it is necessary, if possible, to leave the intersection area. A yellow flashing traffic light allows traffic, and also notifies of an unregulated intersection and a pedestrian overpass.
- What does green signal traffic light . In a stable burning state, it allows movement on the road lane. A green flashing traffic light also allows you to move, but also warns of the expiration of the burning time.
Also on many roads there are possible additions to the traffic light. IN Lately it is common to set timers that indicate the operating time of the enable signal. Additionally, there may be arrows that are mounted at the level of the green light either on one side or on both sides.
What do traffic lights mean
The traffic rules for various traffic signals with arrows can be characterized as follows:
| Traffic light with two arrows | Tram traffic light | Trackless vehicle | ||
| Single lane traffic | two lane traffic | Three lane traffic | ||
| Only central green traffic light | Movement only forward | Movement only forward | Movement only forward | Movement only forward |
| Central green traffic light + right arrow | Move forward + right | Move forward + right | Forward for all, right for rightmost lane only | |
| Central green signal + left arrow | Move forward + left | Move forward + left + turn around | Move forward for everyone, move left or turn around only for the leftmost lane | |
| Central green signal + both arrows | Movement is allowed in all directions | Forward movement + turns + turn around | Moving forward for everyone, turning for the outer lanes according to the rules, turning only for the left lane | |
| Red traffic light + right arrow | Movement only to the right | Movement only to the right | Movement only to the right and only for the right lane. All other lanes are prohibited. | |
| Red traffic light + left arrow | Movement only to the left | Movement only to the left or turn | Movement for the left lane only: turn or U-turn. The rest of the lanes are standing. | |
| Red signal + both arrows | Forward movement is prohibited, turns are allowed | Forward movement is prohibited, turns and U-turns are allowed | Forward movement is prohibited, turns in both directions and a U-turn from the leftmost lane are allowed | Forward movement is prohibited, turns in both directions are allowed only from the extreme lanes, a U-turn is allowed only from the extreme left lane |
| Only red signal | Road up | Road up | Road up | Road up |
For a set of a standard traffic light and one arrow, the requirements are less stringent.
So let's take a three-lane road as an example.. If the green traffic light with an arrow to the right is on, then the rules indicated in the table will apply to the central and right lanes. At the same time, standard traffic rules apply for the left lane. The inhibit signal is subject to the same restrictions. In the daytime, such an addition to the traffic light is clearly visible, but it is not always possible to see it at night. For this reason, black arrow outlines are glued to the central signal, indicating the action for a particular lane of the road. If there is no such schematic representation on the green light itself, the signal is valid for all road users, regardless of their location on the road. There are also traffic lights that have arrows instead of the usual round traffic signal. In this case, traffic control occurs only for those directions indicated by the arrows.
At night, most traffic lights turn off and they enter a flashing yellow mode. In this case, the intersection is considered unregulated and must be passed in accordance with the relevant traffic rules.
Pedestrian traffic light and bicycle crossing signal
At the traffic lights for the specified traffic participants there are only 2 sections. A person is depicted for pedestrians, and their two-wheeled transport is drawn for cyclists.. In the area of pedestrian crossings, traffic lights are increasingly equipped with a timer that indicates the waiting time and the time allotted for the crossing. Additionally, for the deaf, a speaker can be installed that announces the allowed direction of the transition, as well as its beginning and end.
IN individual cases, in the presence of bicycle paths, reduced analogues of road three-section traffic lights can be used, under which a white plate with a bicycle sign is fixed.
Reverse traffic signals
These signals are used on roads of the same name, when on some lanes traffic can be carried out both in one direction and in the other direction. The direction of travel along one or another lane of the reverse road is determined by the degree of congestion for each side. The following types of signals are used:
- a red cross in the shape of the letter "X" - prohibits movement on a specific lane of a reverse road;
- yellow arrow pointing to the right - instructs the driver to change lanes to the lane located nearby on the right side;
- green arrow straight - allows traffic in this lane.
These types of roads are not widely used in the Russian Federation, so few drivers are familiar with such traffic organization.
The meaning of traffic lights for rail transport
Traffic lights for trams
For trams, a white four-cell traffic light is used, made in the form of a “T” symbol. Movement for them is allowed only when the lower signal is on, and the upper cells indicate possible directions of movement.
The railway traffic light also often has a white lamp in its arsenal, which regulates traffic through the crossing:
Traffic lights at a railroad crossing can also be both red and flash alternately. In this case, the passage is strictly prohibited. Movement is allowed only when both lamps are turned off.
Fine for non-compliance with traffic lights
For violation of the instructions of the electronic traffic controller, the following penalties are prescribed:
- red light fine- not less than 1,000 rubles, upon repeated passage to a prohibiting traffic signal, at least 5,000 rubles or deprivation of a VU for a period of 4-6 months, article 12.12 of the Code of Administrative Offenses of the Russian Federation;
- yellow traffic ticket- for the first violation threatens 1000 rubles, in case of repeated violation the fine will be 5000 rubles or deprivation driving license for a period of 4 to 6 months;
- non-observance of the stop line before the intersection- not less than 800 rubles.
- when entering the reverse lane with the traffic light off- at least 5,000 rubles, because due to the traffic light working on the other side, the movement can be regarded as driving into the oncoming lane;
- in case of non-observance of rebuilding on a reverse road- not less than 500 rubles under Article 12.15 of the Code of Administrative Offenses.
Compliance with traffic lights allows you to regulate traffic in such a way that road users are in safer and more comfortable conditions. Therefore, in order not to increase the likelihood of getting into an accident for yourself and others, you should be careful on the roads. This will help to keep intact not only your budget, but also your life.
Video: What do the traffic lights and the traffic controller and the rules of the intersection mean.
There was a time when you cross the street big city it was not easy at all. People stood on the sidewalk for a long time and waited for the end of the endless stream of horse-drawn carriages. The most impatient ran across the street, risking getting under the hooves of horses or cart wheels.
What can we say about our days, when the flow of cars rushes in several rows! How can pedestrians cross the street? But there are still cars that move in the transverse direction, and they also need to clear the road. To help road users - both pedestrians and drivers - comes traffic light. Translated from Greek traffic light - "bearer of light." It regulates traffic with the help of light signals. Most traffic lights use three colors: red, yellow and green.
Why were these traffic light colors chosen?
Red is the color of danger. It is clearly visible both during the day and at night, and in rain and fog. It is no coincidence that fire engines of all countries are painted red. They warn other road users of the danger and demand to give way to them. Here is a red traffic light forbidding traffic. It's like he's saying, "Stop! The path is closed!
Green the color is sharply different from red; they cannot be confused. Therefore, the green signal of the traffic light, unlike the red one, does not prohibit, but allows movement. He seems to say: “The way is open! Boldly forward!
Between the red and green "eyes" of the traffic light, another one was placed - yellow. He urges drivers and pedestrians to be careful, as if telling them: “Attention! Soon traffic will be either allowed or prohibited.
So traffic lights with three sections are installed in cities, in which either a red, or a yellow, or a green signal is lit. They are called three-piece. Sometimes at traffic lights, in addition to the three main color sections, additional green arrows are installed. They indicate the direction in which movement is allowed.
What other traffic lights are there?
Along with three-section traffic lights, there are also special traffic lights for pedestrians. They use only two light signals - red and green. They depict pedestrians. The red man is standing, and the green one is walking. It’s immediately clear to any pedestrian: if a red pedestrian is lit, you can’t go across the road, you have to stand. But if a green pedestrian is lit, you can cross the street.
Most often, such pedestrian traffic lights are installed in places where there is a large flow of cars and it is difficult for pedestrians to cross the road.
Remember this rhyme about traffic lights
If the red light is on -
So your path is closed!
If the yellow light is on -
"Get ready!" - speaks.
And the green light is on
The way forward is open to you!
A modern person in his life is surrounded by many everyday objects that seem so familiar and unchanging to him that he does not even think about the fact that they once did not exist, and that someone created them. What was said in fully apply to such a familiar device as a traffic light. His story began a long time ago, and while he acquired a familiar look to all of us, a lot of time passed.
The appearance of the first traffic light
The first device designed to regulate traffic by giving its participants special signals appeared back in 1868. It was then that such an apparatus was installed near the building of the English Parliament in London.
It was created by railway engineer John Peak Knight, who used his experience with railway semaphores for this, which worked on a principle similar to a traffic light.
Naturally, the first copy of the traffic light was not like its modern counterparts. So it was controlled manually, and its design was the simplest: two semaphore arrows that could move freely in a vertical plane.
At the same time, the arrow in a horizontal position indicated the requirement to stop, and if it rose up to 45 degrees, this meant a warning that road users would move with the utmost care.
At night, the traffic light used a gas lamp with colored illumination for its work, while the red light meant the order to stop, and the green light meant permission to continue further movement.
The first traffic light in the history of mankind was installed on a pole six meters long and it was intended to facilitate the crossing of the road for pedestrians and its signals were not intended for them, but for those traveling along the roadway Vehicle.
Unfortunately, the fate of the first traffic light was unsuccessful: in 1869, the gas lamp in it exploded and injured the policeman who was driving it. After this incident, it was dismantled and for the next 50 years not a single traffic light was installed in London.
Creation of automatic traffic lights
The main drawback of the first traffic lights was the fact that a person was required to control them. It is clear that under such circumstances it was impossible to provide traffic lights a large number of streets in cities. Therefore, the inventors directed their efforts to the creation of automatic devices for traffic control.
It is believed that the first such system was created by Ernst Sirin, who received it in 1910. At the same time, she used a system of signs with the inscriptions “Stop” and “Proceed”, which, respectively, prohibited and allowed movement. This system did not use backlighting, which made it difficult to use at night.
In its modern form, the traffic light was created in 1912 by an inventor from Utah, Lester Weir. He already worked on electricity and had two round lamps of green and red. True, Vayr did not patent his design.
However, the massive use of traffic lights on city streets began when four traffic lights were installed at once in Cleveland, Ohio, on August 5, 1914, by the American Traffic Light Company. They were located at the intersection of 105th Street and Euclid Avenue, and their creator was James Hogue.
These devices also had two electric lights, and when switched, they emitted a sound signal. The work of the apparatus was controlled by a policeman, who was in a special glass booth, standing at the crossroads.
Devices that have the familiar three-color color scheme appeared much later, in 1920, on the streets of New York and Detroit. Their creators were John F. Harris and William Potts.
Europe was somewhat behind the United States in the process of "traffic lights" and the first electric traffic light appeared there in France in 1922, and in England this device was installed only in 1927.
In the Land of Soviets, the first traffic light was installed on January 15, 1930 in Leningrad. They put it at the intersection of Nevsky and Liteiny avenues. In the capital of the country, this traffic control system was installed a little later - on December 30 of the same 1930. They placed it on the corner of Petrovka and Kuznetsky bridge. The third city equipped with a traffic light was Rostov-on-Don.
All these traffic lights were installed as an experiment, and after its completion in Moscow alone, by the end of 1933, about a hundred such devices were installed.
At the same time, the traffic lights of that time differed from those familiar to us in that they used the principle of operation of a mechanical clock, where the arrow did not point to the time, but to a colored field indicating the mode of movement. They were quickly replaced with electric lamps familiar to us with a vertical arrangement of lamps, however, they were not the same as we are used to. The fact is that the arrangement of colors in this design was not usual, but inverted: green came on top, then yellow and red.
The very same word "traffic light" entered the Russian language in 1932, when it was included in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia.
The device of modern traffic lights
Modern traffic lights are quite complex devices and consist of a traffic light with lamps, a traffic signal controller, as well as vehicle sensors. They are installed on special poles and supports at intersections and along highways.
A modern traffic light is controlled by a computer that selects and synchronizes traffic directions according to constantly changing traffic conditions. At the same time, motion sensors record vehicles moving along the highway, setting their driving rhythm with the help of light signals.
IN major cities traffic lights are combined into large automated systems management road traffic m, which can create such rather complex effects as, for example, the "green wave".
Further development of the traffic light as a means of traffic control will lie in the area of development artificial intelligence, which, over time, will be able to take over all the functions of regulating traffic flows, completely excluding a person from this process.
Why are the colors of the traffic lights the way they are? and got the best answer
Answer from Natalya Buldina (Mortisss)[guru]
Source: => Vita pulchra et necessaria. (lat.)
Answer from Iy[guru]
In some countries, instead of yellow, Orange color. Signals can be arranged both vertically (with the red signal always on the top and the green signal on the bottom) and horizontally (with the red signal always on the left and the green signal on the right) . In the absence of other, special traffic lights, they regulate the movement of all types of vehicles and pedestrians. Sometimes traffic lights are supplemented with a special countdown display, which shows how long the signal will remain on. Most often, the countdown board is made for a green traffic light, but in some cases, the board also displays the remaining time of the red signal.
Almost everywhere, a red traffic light signal prohibits movement, a yellow one prohibits leaving the area protected by a traffic light, but allows the completion of its passage, and a green one allows movement. It is common, but not universal, to use a combination of red and yellow signals to indicate that the green signal is about to turn on. Sometimes a green signal turns on immediately after a red one without an intermediate yellow, but not vice versa. The details of the use of signals differ depending on the traffic regulations adopted in a particular country.
There are two sections of traffic lights - red and green. Such traffic lights are usually installed at points where cars are allowed to pass in individually, for example, at border crossings, when entering or leaving a car park, a protected area, etc.
Flashing signals may also be given, the meaning of which depends on local legislation. In Russia and in many European countries, a flashing green signal indicates an upcoming switch to yellow. Cars approaching a traffic light with a flashing green signal can take timely braking measures to avoid entering the intersection guarded by the traffic light or crossing the prohibitory signal. A flashing yellow signal requires you to slow down to pass an intersection or pedestrian crossing as unregulated (for example, at night, when regulation is not required due to low traffic) . Sometimes special traffic lights are used for these purposes, consisting of one flashing or alternately flashing two yellow sections.
Answer from Anastasia churilova[newbie]
In signal light road transport Three colors are used - red, yellow and green.
For a person from time immemorial it has developed that the color red is a signal of danger, alarm. It was fire that was always such a sign for him. Red has become a universally recognized hazard warning signal. And vice versa, the green signal has always been personified with safety, calmness, so it was natural to use it as a permissive traffic light signal.
Red rays have the longest wavelength and travel with least loss. Therefore, the red color is visible the farthest. The red signal is more visible and it is he who is accepted as a danger signal. This is especially important, for example, in low visibility conditions. So, fog absorbs blue and green rays, so green color in fog it can be perceived as yellow, and yellow as red. If a driver in fog mistook yellow for red and green for yellow, then such errors would not pose a danger to traffic.
In the beginning, traffic lights had a green signal at the top, but then it was agreed that the red signal was more important for drivers and pedestrians and therefore it should be more visible. It is no coincidence that recently they even began to make lenses for this signal larger than the others.
The order of alternation of traffic signals corresponds to the international Convention on road signs and signals. Traffic lights alternate in the following sequence: red - red with yellow - green - yellow - red. Alternation of signals red - green - yellow - red or red - yellow - green - yellow is allowed.
A red solid signal prohibits movement across the entire width of the carriageway. Varieties of the red signal:
A contour black arrow on a red background of a round shape prohibits movement in the direction of the arrow;
An oblique red cross prohibits movement along the lane over which it is installed;
The red silhouette of a man forbids pedestrian traffic;
Red flashing prohibits entry to a railway crossing, bridge, pier, etc.
A yellow solid signal obliges all drivers to stop before the stop line, with the exception of those who could not stop before the intersection.
Yellow connected to red warns that the green signal is on.
A yellow flashing signal warns of the presence of an intersection and does not prohibit movement.
A green steady signal in the absence of any additional sections of the traffic light allows movement along the entire width of the carriageway in all directions.
Varieties of green signal:
A black arrow on a green background of a square, round shape, as well as a green arrow on a black background of a round shape - permission to move in the direction of the arrow;
A green arrow on a black background of a square shape, pointing down, allows movement in the lane over which it is installed;
A signal in the form of a green silhouette of a person allows pedestrian traffic;
The green arrow of the additional section of the traffic light allows movement in the direction of the arrow, regardless of the signal of the main traffic light;
A flashing green signal warns of the end of the enable signal.
Permission for the movement of public transport depends on the combination of the included signals of the upper and lower rows of a special traffic light. Turning on the lower signals movement is prohibited in all directions.
Studies have shown that there is a so-called critical section before the intersection and, being within this section, the driver cannot stop in time in front of the stop line when changing the permissive signal to prohibitive.
The critical section is defined as the distance from the stop lines to the point where 10% of drivers cannot stop. The length of the critical section depends on the speed of movement. So, at a speed of 50 km/h, the length of this section is 43 m and the travel time for this section is 3.1 s; at a speed of 60 km - the length of the section is 58 m and the travel time is 3.5 s; at a speed of 80 km - the length of the section is 91 m and the travel time is 4.1 s.
Hence, the travel time of the critical section at different speeds varies within 3-4 s. This prompted us to use a flashing green signal as a warning and take the flashing time equal to the time of passage of the critical section. In order not to reduce the throughput of the intersection. with a permission signal, a green flashing signal is introduced in part at the expense of the duration of the yellow, which will allow you to safely pass the intersection.
Types of traffic lights. Traffic lights are classified according to their functional purpose- transport and pedestrian; by design - one, two-section, three-section and three-section with additional sections; according to the role performed in the process of motion control - the main ones, backups and repeaters.
The main two groups of traffic lights: transport and pedestrian, which in turn are divided into types. There are 8 types of traffic lights and 2 types of pedestrian ones. The first traffic light number means the group, the second number - the traffic light type.
traffic lights Type 1 have three round signals with a diameter of 200 or 300 mm, arranged vertically or horizontally.
The first type is used with additional sections, in which arrows indicate the direction of movement (arrows on a black background). Traffic lights of this type are used to regulate all directions of traffic at intersections. Their use is allowed at railway crossings, intersections with tram and trolleybus lines, in narrowings of the carriageway, etc.
Traffic lights 2 types. On the lenses of the traffic light, the contours of the arrows are applied. indicating permitted or prohibited movement. In this case, the green signal (arrow) is applied on a black background. Type 2 traffic lights are used to regulate traffic in certain directions (pointing on the lens of the arrows).
Traffic lights type 3. They are used as repeaters and in conjunction with type 1 traffic lights.
They are installed under the main traffic light at a height of 1.5-2 m from the roadway. The diameter of the signals is 100 mm. If the main one has an additional section, then the repeater will be equipped with an additional section. Traffic lights of this type can be installed to control cycling.
Traffic lights type 4. They are used to control entrances to separate traffic lanes, with reverse traffic.
They are installed above each lane at its beginning. They have a horizontal arrangement of signals; on the left - in the form of an oblique red cross, on the right - in the form of a green arrow pointing downwards. Both signals are executed on a black rectangular background. Overall dimensions 450 x 500 mm.
These traffic lights can be used together with type 1 traffic lights if the reverse traffic is not organized across the entire width of the carriageway. In this case, the type 1 traffic light does not apply to lanes with reverse traffic. This lane may be delimited by a double broken line 1.9 when the type 4 traffic light is turned off.
Traffic light type 5. Has 4 signals of pale moon color of a round form with a diameter of 100 mm. This traffic light is used in cases of conflict-free regulation of the movement of trams, shuttle buses, trolleybuses moving along a specially allocated lane. In the scheme of organizing traffic at the intersection, a conflict-free passage is provided, i.e., the indicated types together with the general flow, therefore, there is no need to use this type at the intersection.
Traffic light type 6. It has two (or one) round red signals with a diameter of 200 or 300 mm, located horizontally and operating in the alternate flashing mode. When the signals are off, movement is allowed. They are installed in front of railway crossings, drawbridges, berths, ferry crossings, in places where special vehicles enter the road.
Traffic light type 7. Has one signal yellow color, constantly working in flashing mode. It is used at unregulated intersections of increased danger.
Type 8 traffic lights. They have two vertical signals of red and green colors of round shape W 200 or W 300 mm. They are used for temporary narrowing of the carriageway, when alternate traffic is organized along one lane. They are also used to control low-intensity traffic in the internal territories of garages, enterprises and organizations where a speed limit has been introduced.
Pedestrians have two vertically arranged signals of a round or square shape with a circle diameter or a square side of 200 mm or 300 mm. All pedestrian crossings at the intersection controlled by traffic lights are equipped.
Traffic lights with big size installed on the main streets, squares, on roads with the speed of T.S. 60 km/h
Traffic light design. The traffic light consists of separate sections (Fig. 1) and each section is designed for a specific signal. Depending on the type of traffic light, the sections have different shape, your symbols, light source, etc. Common to all sections is the presence of an optical device placed in a separate housing.
Figure 15 - Traffic light device
The sections are interconnected by threaded hollow bushings 1, through which the supply wires are passed. The section consists of a body 8, a sun visor 4 and a cover 6. They are made of sheet steel or plastic. An optical device is mounted in the cover, which consists of a reflector 7, a colored diffuser lens 3 and a movable glass 10 with an electric lamp. When the glass is moved, the filament of the lamp is set at the focus of the reflector. To connect the current supply at the bottom of the section there is a block 9.
Light source.
As a light source, incandescent lamps are used, both for general and special purposes. So, gas-light tubes or emitting diodes are used as a light source. The main disadvantage of an incandescent lamp - for general use - is the large length of the filament, which is difficult to focus, low vibration resistance of the lamps, and also have a short service life (500-800 hours):
It has been proven that the thread burnout occurs mainly due to inhomogeneity in wire diameter, helix pitch, electrical resistance and evaporation rate.
In some traffic light designs, halogen lamps are used. At small sizes, they have an increased specific light output and a compact filament, and these lamps focus well. However, these lamps were not widely used due to their high cost.
Two simultaneously working lamps can be used in one section, but this requires the installation of a special reflector and a bifocal lens. Such a solution is associated with a complication of the design and an increase in cost.
Abroad, a curved gas-light tube has found application as a light source. The tubes contain a filler of red, yellow or green colors, which eliminates the need for a colored lens. For the glow of the tubes, a voltage of over 2000 V is required, so a transformer is required. They have a long service life, but in terms of signal strength they are 5-6 times inferior to modern traffic lights with incandescent lamps.
Traffic light lenses.
IN last years In our country and abroad, plastic lenses are widely used. They have advantages over glass ones in ease of manufacture, higher strength under impact and vibration loads, as well as less weight (about 3 times). These lenses are usually made from polycarbonate.
Diffuser lenses are designed to redistribute the light flux into ■ space. To do this, they inside a patterned, rhombic, prismatic or drop-shaped pattern is formed. An important characteristic of the lens is the angle of light scattering - the largest angle within which the light intensity is halved compared to its axial value. For modern lenses, this angle is in the range of 5-15°, which ensures normal signal visibility on multi-lane roads (100 m).
Reflector.
The reflector is characterized by two main internal surfaces: paraboloid, providing a concentration of the light flux, and conical (or cylindrical), designed to increase the depth of the reflector and thereby reduce lens dye burnout.
With a short focal length, there is a danger of a false traffic signal (phantom effect), when the beam from an extraneous light source, hitting the reflector, returns to the observer again.
In the designs of modern reflectors, the focal plane AA is brought as close as possible to the plane of the light aperture, behind which the non-working conical surface begins.
As a rule, the condition is met:
(13)
where: is the diameter of the light aperture of the reflector, mm.
Reflectors are made of steel, aluminum alloys or plastics with subsequent processing of the inner surface. Plastic reflectors with a working surface obtained by vacuum deposition are widely used.
Anti-phantom devices.
An anti-phantom device in a traffic light is a sun visor, but at a low position of the sun (for example, east-west, west-east), all traffic lights may glow.
There are several methods to eliminate the phantom effect, but they require a change in the design of the reflector or traffic light lens.
The reflector with the so-called anti-phantom cross consists of mutually perpendicular segmented plates with slots for the location of a halogen lamp (Fig. 1).
A beam of light falling from an external light source onto the reflector is deflected and absorbed by the surface of the plates. Another solution is carried out by installing a special anti-phantom lens in front of the light filter 1, consisting of two parts 2, 3, each of which has a sawtooth profile (Fig. 2). A ray of the sun, falling on an inclined surface, is thrown onto a horizontal blackened step and absorbed by it.
Rice. 16 - Anti-Phantom Cross
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Fig. 17 - Lens that absorbs the sun's rays
