The presentation tells about the main political and socio-economic processes in the countries of the Eastern Bloc after the end of World War II. Special attention is paid to the events of the 1980s - 1990s. Designed for 11th grade students, conducting extracurricular activities, etc.
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Eastern European countries after World War II
Countries of "People's Democracy" After the war, under the pressure of the USSR, the influence of the communists increased in Eastern Europe. Gradually, the communists and socialists united and seized power. 1947-1948 the defeat of the "opposition" parties and the coming to power of the communists.
Prague in February 1948. In Yugoslavia and Albania, the Communists took over without a fight. In Poland, the Home Army unleashed terror against the communists, and by 1948 they had crushed the resistance with repressions. In Romania, P. Grozu began to draw closer to the USSR. In Czechoslovakia in 1948, the country was on the verge civil war. The defense minister refused to fight the communists and President Benes relinquished power.
Soviet caricature of I. Tito 1947 - instead of the Comintern, the Cominformburo arose, coordinating the activities of the communist parties. But in Yugoslavia, the communists claimed independence. I. Tito and G. Dimitrov, without the approval of I. Stalin, agreed to create a federation of the Balkan peoples. G. Dimitrov soon died and the wrath of I. Stalin fell on I. Tito. In response, I. Tito arrested all the supporters of the USSR in his Communist Party. I. Stalin declared him a fascist.
L. Reik, head of the Communist Party of Hungary, supported I. Stalin at the trial of the Cominformburo, but V. Gomulka (Poland) stood up for I. Tito. In response, I. Stalin launched repressions against the "Titoists" and "American spies." The persecution of dissidents swept not only Eastern Europe, but also the USSR, where, under the guise of fighting "cosmopolitanism", the authorities launched an anti-Jewish campaign.
The socio-economic system that has been established in the countries of Eastern Europe is called "real socialism." But she strongly diverged from the theory. Power was in the hands of the nomenklatura. Nevertheless, successes were achieved - Poland, Romania, Bulgaria created a powerful industry. Created in 1949, the CMEA has become an instrument of beneficial economic cooperation of the social. countries. The workers received huge social benefits and payments. Communism exists. Dutch cartoon.
In Eastern Europe, the influence of the West was felt - rock developed, artists were touring, banned films were shown. At the same time, the economy was going through a severe crisis - planning could not keep up with the needs of the market. These countries were saved from collapse by the assistance provided by the USSR to the countries of "people's democracy", but at the same time, economic and political dependence on the USSR grew. V. Molotov and G. Zhukov sign the Warsaw Pact
1956 - speech by N.S. Khrushchev at the XX Congress of the CPSU - the debunking of the personality cult of Stalin, which was reflected in Eastern Europe, manifested itself in the emergence of movements advocating the restoration of democracy. 1956 - in Poland, the Stalinists shot down a demonstration, as a result of mass strikes, V. Gomulka returned to power. In Hungary, I. Nagy began a policy of transformation, but M. Rakosi relieved him of his posts. The USSR achieved the removal of M. Rakosi and the return of J. Kadar. But the discontent could not be stopped. Residents of Budapest smash a monument to Stalin
October 23, 1956 - The authorities used weapons against the demonstrators. Part of the army went over to the side of the rebels - an uprising against the regime began. In response, the USSR brought units of the Red Army into Hungary. I. Nagy, returned to power, agreed on a ceasefire, but announced his withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact. November 4, 1956 - Soviet troops took Budapest. Ya. Kadr came to power, and I. Nagy was shot. I. Nagy among the inhabitants of Budapest
1968 - the new leadership of the HRC, headed by A. Dubcek, announced the need for democratic reforms. April 1968 - the plenum of the Central Committee adopted a plan to build "socialism with a human face." May 1968 - a wave of demonstrations swept across the country demanding the abolition of the Communist Party's monopoly on power. The reformists won the elections that were held soon after. L. Svoboda and A. Dubcek "Prague Spring"
August 21, 1968 - ATS troops entered the territory of Czechoslovakia. The leadership of the HRC was arrested. Then primary organizations ahead of schedule, they held a congress and elected a reformist Central Committee. Under pressure from the USSR, the results of the congress were cancelled. April 1969 - A. Dubcek was dismissed, and G. Husak became the head of Czechoslovakia. Soviet tanks on the streets of Prague "Prague Spring"
Council of self-government at a furniture factory in Sarajevo A special model of socialism arose in Yugoslavia. Enterprises headed the workers' councils, market features were preserved in the economy, and the autonomy of the republics that were part of the SFRY was strengthened. The reforms carried out by I. Tito did not lead to democracy, but production increased by 4 times, national and religious problems were quite successfully solved.
I. Tito held an independent foreign policy. In 1958, the new program of the SKJ announced economic development on the basis of "market socialism". In response, the rest of the countries of the socialist camp subjected the SKJ to sharp criticism and the SFRY took a course of self-reliance. After the death of I. Tito in 1980, the new leadership did not enjoy the same authority and interethnic conflicts escalated in the country.
The Struggle for Democracy in Poland Ser. 70s The Polish leadership, seeking to pay off its debts to the West, increased pressure on the workers. In response, strikes began. The intelligentsia created the human rights organization "KOS-KOR". Increasing influence in society catholic church. In the summer of 1980, the price of meat was raised, and workers' uprisings began in response. In November 1980, the Solidarity trade union was created, headed by L. Walesa. He demanded free elections.
The PUWP dragged on with the implementation of reforms, realizing that if the elections were held, then it would lose power, the OVD would send troops into Poland, and bloody clashes could begin. As a result, General V. Jaruzelsky became the head of the government. On December 13, 1981, he introduced martial law in the country. Hundreds of opposition leaders were arrested. Lech Walesa and John Paul II
In the 80s. a wave swept across Eastern Europe velvet revolutions". The USSR could no longer support fraternal regimes. 1990 - L. Walesa became the President of Poland. 1990 - K. Gross became the leader of Hungary. He transformed the Communist Party into a socialist one. The Democratic Forum won the 1990 elections. "Velvet Revolutions"
1990 - Dissident Zh. Zhelev became the President of Bulgaria. 1989 - V. Havel came to power in Czechoslovakia. 1989 - E. Honecker resigned in the GDR. The 1990 elections were won by the CDU (supporters of German unification). December 1989 - Romanian dictator N. Ceausescu was overthrown. Late 80s - Democratic reforms began in almost all countries of Eastern Europe.
August 1990 - G. Kohl and L. De Mezieres signed an agreement on the unification of Germany. The new governments demanded the withdrawal of Soviet troops from their territories. 1990 - The Warsaw Pact and the Comecon were dissolved. December 1991 - B. Yeltsin, N. Kravchuk and S. Shushkevich dissolved the USSR.
1993 - Czechoslovakia split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia. 1990 - the disintegration of the SFRY began, which took on a military character. Serbia, led by S. Milosevic, advocated the preservation of unity, but in 1991 Slovenia and Croatia withdrew from the SFRY, which led to the outbreak of war. 1992 - religious clashes began in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Civil war in Yugoslavia (1991-1995) President of the SFRY Slobodan Milosevic
The FRY supported the Bosnian Serbs, and the West supported the Muslims and Croats. 1995 - NATO intervened in the war, bombing Serb positions. 1995 - "Dayton Accords" - Bosnia and Herzegovina was proclaimed a single state. All peoples could elect their own administration, but could not secede from the republic. Civil war in Yugoslavia (1991-1995)
1998 - Albanian terrorists became more active in Kosovo. They launched a war for secession from Yugoslavia. NATO demanded that the SFRY withdraw its troops, but S. Milosevic rejected the ultimatum. March 1999 - NATO began bombing Yugoslavia. The UN failed to resolve the crisis. Civil war in Yugoslavia (1991-1995)
Civil war in Yugoslavia (1991-1995) June 1999 - "Raid on Pristina" - Russian paratroopers, having made a throw, occupied the Pristina airfield. The West made concessions, but soon he demanded that S. Milosevic resign. A new leadership came to power, which betrayed Milosevic.
1999 - Poland, the Czech Republic and Hungary joined NATO. 2004 - Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and the Czech Republic signed an association agreement with the EU. 2007 - Bulgaria and Romania joined the EU. Hungarian parliament building
General conclusion: Thus, for the countries of Eastern Europe II p. XX century. - n. 21st century turned out to be a very controversial period, which included both getting on the rails of a socialist society and integrating into the world community as a result of a campaign to overcome dependence on Soviet Union. The modern development of the countries of Eastern Europe is characterized, firstly, by the difficult economic situation in many of them (Bulgaria, Romania), and secondly, by the unresolved "old" problems (for example, national and ethnic issues on the Balkan Peninsula).
Homework: & 19-20 + notebook entries
Eastern Europe after World War II.
The formation of totalitarian socialism in these countries proceeded different ways. In the countries of Eastern Europe, the defeat of fascism led to the restoration of independence where it had been lost, or a change in the political regime where it had been preserved. A democratic system, universal suffrage and a multi-party system were established everywhere, agrarian reforms were carried out that destroyed large land ownership, the property of traitors was confiscated and active supporters fascism.
The development of events in the West and in the East of Europe was in the first post-war years very similar. The difference was that Eastern Europe was liberated Soviet army, and there the role of the communist parties was much more significant.
Firstly, because in some of them (Yugoslavia, Albania) the communist parties led the partisan movement and, relying on it, became the most influential political force;
secondly, because they enjoyed the support of the USSR, under its pressure, the communists became part of all the post-war governments of these countries, occupying, as a rule, “power” ministerial posts.
When the Cold War began, relying on positions already won and direct pressure from Moscow, the Communists relatively easily and bloodlessly established their undivided power in 1947-1948.
Asian countries.
The communists came to power in North Korea in much the same way. In Mongolia, China, Vietnam and Laos, the coming of the communists to power, although it was associated with the support of the USSR, was to a lesser extent. Much more it had to do with that. That the communists in these countries led the liberation, anti-colonial movement. Thanks to this, they became an influential political force and were able to come to power.
Changes in the political system.
Having come to power, the communist parties set about "building socialism." The experience of the USSR was taken as a role model. The political system has been transformed. The multi-party system was either eliminated, or the parties lost their political independence, becoming part of coalitions and fronts led by the communists. All power was concentrated in the hands of the Communist parties. Judicial and representative power lost their independence. Following the example of the USSR, mass repressions were carried out. All rights and freedoms of citizens were actually abolished. Democracy was done away with, although constitutions, universal suffrage were formally preserved, "elections" were held regularly, and the leaders of these countries proudly called them countries of "people's democracy."
Planned Economy.
In the field of economics, “building socialism” meant completing the nationalization of industry and finance, carrying out industrialization, and cooperating agriculture. The market economy gave way to the planned one. There was a large-scale breakdown of economic and social structures. Entrepreneurs and independent peasants disappeared. Most of the adult population was employed in the public sector of the economy.
Foreign policy.
In foreign policy, all these countries to a greater or lesser extent followed the course of the USSR. Any disobedience to Moscow caused at first a very harsh reaction. As evidenced by the conflict between Tito and Stalin.
Results of socialist transformations.
As a result, the social and political system in these countries was radically transformed. And just as we call similar processes in Russia after October 1917 a revolution, we have the right to call these transformations revolutionary as well. These revolutions were socialist, in the sense that they approved state property instead of private property. They led to the formation of a totalitarian political system in these countries. All this allows us to call these countries countries of totalitarian socialism.
political crises.
Stalin's death in 1953 brought about major changes. Liberation from the oppressive fear of it exposed the deep contradictions of totalitarian socialism and mass dissatisfaction with it. Political crises arose in the GDR, and then in Poland and Hungary, which proved impossible to overcome without the use of force.
Changes in politics.
In a number of countries in Eastern Europe, the Communist parties found themselves forced to change their policies in order to remove the main causes of discontent. Mass repressions were stopped and their victims were partially rehabilitated, changes were made to the envisaged rates of industrialization, the forms of co-operation were softened, and in Poland it was stopped. Restrictions for small business were partially lifted. Later, economic reforms were carried out that weakened the rigid, administrative control over the economy. In many countries, all this was accompanied by a “thaw” in the sphere of ideology and culture.
In other countries, criticism of the most unattractive aspects of the Stalinist regime in the USSR caused alarm. The ruling leaders were concerned about the possibility of the criticism being directed at them. Not only did they not support the changes in Moscow and some Eastern European countries, but they also tried to take their own position. The first signs of Soviet-Chinese contradictions appear. In the early 1960s, Romania and North Korea. Albania breaks ties with the USSR.
However. The changes in the USSR and some countries of Eastern Europe that took place after Stalin's death turned out to be shallow. Totalitarian socialism was not eliminated there, but only softened to make it more acceptable to the masses. But even this easing of the regimes after some time began to be seen by the Communist parties as a dangerous concession. The events in Czechoslovakia became clear evidence of such a danger to them.
The rise of totalitarianism.
After the intervention in Czechoslovakia, in all the countries of Eastern Europe that survived attempts to renew socialism, the totalitarian features of their system began to become tougher. Economic reforms were stopped. A backward movement began. The elements of market relations that had arisen here and there were liquidated or limited. All the dissatisfied began to be persecuted. In many countries, in connection with this, a movement of human rights activists, “dissidents”, arose.
The strengthening of totalitarianism began in countries where there were no attempts at reform and renewal. There, totalitarianism took especially extreme forms. In Albania, for example, all religions were banned in the 1960s. In China, they tried to “build communism”: the cooperatives were turned into communes, the peasants were taken away personal plots and personal property. In these countries, cults of personalities of leaders have developed: Kim Il Sung in North Korea, Mao Zedong in China, Enver Hoxha in Albania, Nicolae Ceausescu in Romania. All citizens were required to unquestioningly comply with their instructions.
Deterioration of the economic situation.
However, the economic situation of the countries of totalitarian socialism, starting from the 70s, began to steadily worsen. Many Eastern European countries began to take loans from Western countries, trying to renew their industry and accelerate development with these funds. But in the end, the problem of external debt arose. I had to pay debts. This made their situation even worse. Renewed after the death of Mao Zedong, the Chinese leadership was forced to make a decision in 1978 to start market reforms in order to overcome difficulties. In the countries of Eastern Europe, reforms were not even thought of. The economic situation there became more and more difficult. Here the conditions for revolution gradually began to take shape.
Eastern European countries after the Second World War. Transformations of the people's democracy period
Participation in the Second World War brought enormous hardships and sacrifices to the peoples of Eastern Europe. This region was the main theater of military operations on the European continent. The Eastern European countries have become hostages of the policy of the great powers, turning into disenfranchised satellites of opposing blocs or objects of open aggression. Their economy was seriously undermined. The political situation was also extremely difficult. The collapse of the pro-fascist authoritarian regimes, the broad participation of the population in the resistance movement created the prerequisites for profound changes in the entire state-political system. However, in reality, the politicization of the masses and their readiness for democratic transformations was superficial. The authoritarian political psychology was not only preserved, but even strengthened during the war years. The mass consciousness still had a desire to see the state as a guarantor of social stability and a force capable of solving the tasks facing society in the shortest possible time with a firm hand.
The defeat of National Socialism in global war public systems put face to face other implacable opponents - communism and democracy. Supporters of these war-winning ideas gained predominance in the new political elite of the Eastern European countries, but this promised a new round of ideological confrontation in the future. The situation was also complicated by the increased influence of the national idea, the existence of nationalist-oriented trends even in the democratic and communist camps. The idea of agrarianism, revived in these years, and the activities of the still influential and numerous peasant parties also received a national coloring.
Already in the last months of the war, in the vast majority of Eastern European countries, the process of consolidating all the former opposition parties and movements, the formation of broad multi-party coalitions, called national or domestic fronts, began. As their countries were liberated, these coalitions assumed full state power. This happened at the end of 1944 in Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania, in 1945 - in Czechoslovakia, Poland. The only exceptions were the Baltic countries, which remained part of the USSR and underwent complete Sovietization already during the war years, and Yugoslavia, where the pro-communist People's Liberation Front retained complete predominance.
The reason for such an unexpected at first glance unity of completely heterogeneous political forces was the unity of their tasks at the first stage of post-war transformations. It was quite obvious to communists and agrarians, nationalists and democrats that the most pressing problems were the formation of the foundations of a new constitutional order, the elimination of authoritarian governance structures associated with the previous regimes, and the holding of free elections. In all countries, the monarchy system was abolished (only in Romania did this happen later, after the establishment of the monopoly power of the communists). In Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia, the first wave of reforms also concerned national question, the formation of federal statehood. The top priority was also the restoration of the destroyed economy, the establishment of material support for the population, the solution of urgent social problems. The nature of the ongoing transformations made it possible to characterize the entire stage of 1945-1946. as a period of "people's democracy".
The first signs of a split in the ruling anti-fascist blocs appeared in 1946. The peasant parties, the most numerous and influential at that time, did not consider it necessary to accelerate modernization, the priority development of industry. They also opposed the expansion of state regulation of the economy. The main task of these parties, which was generally accomplished already at the first stage of the reforms, was the destruction of latifundia and the agrarian reform in the interests of the middle peasantry.
Democratic parties, communists and social democrats, despite political differences, were united in focusing on the “catch-up development” model, striving to ensure a breakthrough in their countries in industrial development, to approach the level of the leading countries of the world. Not having a large advantage individually, all together they made up a powerful force, pushing their opponents out of power. Changes in the higher echelons of power led to the start of large-scale reforms to nationalize large industry and the banking system, wholesale trade, and introduce state control over production and planning elements. However, if the communists considered these transformations as the first stage of socialist construction, then the democratic forces saw them only as a process of strengthening state regulation of the market economy. A new round of political struggle was inevitable, and its outcome depended not only on the alignment of internal political forces, but also on events on the world stage.
Eastern Europe and the Beginning cold war».
After their liberation, the Eastern European countries found themselves at the forefront of world politics. CIIIA and their allies took the most active steps to strengthen their positions in the region. However, since the last months of the war, the decisive influence here belonged to the USSR. It was based both on the direct Soviet military presence and on the great moral authority of the USSR as a liberating power. Realizing their advantage, the Soviet leadership did not force the development of events for a long time and emphasized respect for the idea of the sovereignty of the Eastern European countries. .
The situation changed radically by mid-1946. The proclamation of the "Truman Doctrine", which announced the beginning of a crusade against communism, marked the beginning of an open struggle of the superpowers for geopolitical influence anywhere in the world. The Eastern European countries felt the change in the nature of the international situation already in the summer of 1947. Official Moscow not only refused investment assistance under the American Marshall Plan, but also harshly condemned the possibility of any of the Eastern European countries participating in this project. The USSR offered generous compensation in the form of preferential supplies of raw materials and food, rapidly expanding the scale of technical and technological assistance to the countries of the region. But the main task of Soviet policy - the eradication of the very possibility of a geopolitical reorientation of Eastern Europe - could only be ensured by the monopoly power in these countries of the communist parties.
2. Formation of the socialist camp. The period of "building the foundations of socialism"
The formation of communist regimes in the countries of Eastern Europe followed a similar scenario. As early as the end of 1946, the formation of left-wing blocs began with the participation of communists, social democrats and their allies. These coalitions proclaimed their goal a peaceful transition to a socialist revolution and, as a rule, gained an advantage in democratic elections. In 1947, the new governments, using the already open support of the Soviet military administration and relying on the organs state security, created under the control of the Soviet special services on the basis of communist personnel, provoked a series of political conflicts that led to the defeat of the peasant and bourgeois-democratic parties.
Political trials took place over the leaders of the Hungarian Party of Smallholders Z. Tildi, the Polish People's Party S. Mikolajczyk, the Bulgarian Agricultural People's Union N. Petkov, the Romanian Caranist Party A. Alexandrescu, the Slovak President Tiso and the leadership of the Slovak Democratic Party who supported him. The logical continuation of the defeat of the democratic opposition was the organizational merger of the communist and social democratic parties, followed by the discrediting and, subsequently, the destruction of the leaders of the social democracy. As a result, by 1948-1949. practically in all countries of Eastern Europe the course towards building the foundations of socialism was officially proclaimed.
The political upheaval that took place in the Eastern European countries in 1946-1948 strengthened the influence of the USSR in the region, but did not yet make it overwhelming. To support the "correct" political course of the young communist regimes in Eastern Europe, the Soviet leadership took a number of vigorous measures. The first of these was the formation of a new international coordinating center of the communist movement - the successor to the Comintern. In the autumn of 1947, a meeting of delegations of the communist parties of the USSR, France, Italy, and Eastern European states took place in the Polish city of Szklarska Poreba, which decided to create a Communist Information Bureau. The Cominform became a political instrument for fixing the "correct" vision of the ways of building socialism, i.e. orientation of socialist construction according to the Soviet model. The reason for the decisive eradication of dissent in the ranks of the communist movement was the Soviet-Yugoslav conflict.
Soviet-Yugoslav conflict.
At first glance, of all Eastern European countries, Yugoslavia provided the least grounds for ideological revelations and political confrontation. Ever since the war, the Communist Party of Yugoslavia has become the most influential force in the country, and its leader Josef Broz Tito has become a true national hero. As early as January 1946, a one-party system was legally fixed in Yugoslavia, and the implementation of broad programs for the nationalization of industry and the collectivization of agriculture began. Forced industrialization, carried out according to the Soviet model, was seen as a strategic line for the development of the national economy and the social structure of society. The authority of the USSR in Yugoslavia during these years was indisputable.
The reason for the complication of Soviet-Yugoslav relations was the desire of the leadership of Yugoslavia to present their country as a "special" ally of the USSR, more significant and influential than all other members of the Soviet bloc, to consolidate the countries of the Balkan region around Yugoslavia. The Yugoslav leadership also tried to raise the question of the unacceptable behavior of some Soviet specialists who worked in the country and almost openly recruited agents for the Soviet special services. The answer was the removal from Yugoslavia of all Soviet specialists and advisers. The conflict took an open form.
On March 27, 1948, Stalin sent a personal letter to I. Tito, in which he outlined the accusations leveled against the Yugoslav side. Tito and his associates were accused of criticizing universality historical experience USSR, the dissolution of the Communist Party in the Popular Front, the rejection of the class struggle, the patronage of capitalist elements in the economy. In fact, these reproaches had nothing to do with the internal problems of Yugoslavia - she was targeted only because of her excessive self-will. But the leaders of other communist parties, invited to participate in the public "exposing the criminal clique of Tito", were forced to officially recognize the criminality of the very attempt to find other ways to build socialism.
The period of "building the foundations of socialism".
At the second meeting of the Cominform in June 1948, formally devoted to the Yugoslav question, the ideological and political foundations of the socialist camp were finally consolidated - the right of the USSR to interfere in the internal affairs of other socialist countries, the recognition of the universality of the Soviet model of socialism, the priority of tasks related to the aggravation of the class struggle, the strengthening of the political monopoly of the communist parties, and accelerated industrialization. Internal development countries of Eastern Europe henceforth took place under the strict control of the USSR. The creation in 1949 of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, which assumed the functions of coordinating the economic integration of the socialist countries, and already in 1955 of the military-political bloc of the Warsaw Treaty Organization, completed the creation of the socialist camp.
The transition of the construction of socialism in the countries of Eastern Europe under the strict control of the USSR led to a radical purge of the communist movement itself in this region. In 1949-1952. here a wave of political processes and repressions swept through, liquidating the "national" wing of the communist parties, which advocated the preservation of the state sovereignty of their countries. The political consolidation of the regimes, in turn, became the impetus for the accelerated reform of the entire socio-economic system, the accelerated completion of nationalization, accelerated industrialization with the priority of sectors for the production of means of production, the spread of full state control over the capital market, valuable papers and labor force, carrying out coercive cooperation in agriculture.
As a result of the reforms, by the mid-1950s, Eastern Europe achieved unprecedented success in “catching up development” and made an impressive breakthrough in building up the entire economic potential and modernizing the social structure. On the scale of the entire region, the transition to an industrial-agrarian type of society was completed. However, the rapid growth of production was accompanied by an increase in sectoral disproportions. The created economic mechanism was largely artificial, not taking into account regional and national specifics. Its social efficiency was extremely low, and even the successful course of reforms did not compensate for the great social tension in society and the decline in living standards caused by the costs of accelerated modernization.
The political crisis in Eastern Europe in the mid-1950s.
Those Eastern European countries suffered the most in which, by the beginning of the reforms, the foundations of a market infrastructure already existed - Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia. Here, socialist construction was accompanied by a particularly painful breakdown of the social structure, the liquidation of quite numerous entrepreneurial strata, and a forced change in priorities. social psychology. With the death of Stalin in 1953 and some weakening of Moscow's control in the ruling circles of these countries, the influence of those politicians who called for a more flexible reform strategy and increased social efficiency began to grow.
In Hungary, since 1953, the government of Imre Nagy began a series of reforms designed to slow down the pace of industrialization, overcome the extremes of forced collectivization in agriculture, and increase the economic independence of enterprises. Faced with opposition from the leadership of the ruling Hungarian Workers' Party, Nagy was removed from his post and returned to power at the end of 1956 against the backdrop of an acute social crisis that gripped Hungarian society. The decisive events began in Budapest on October 23 with spontaneous demonstrations of students protesting against the actions of the old leadership of the HTP. I. Nagy, who again headed the government, announced the continuation of reforms, the resolution of demonstrations and rallies, and freedom of speech. However, Nagy himself did not really have a clear concept of reforming the social order in Hungary, he had obvious populist inclinations and rather followed the events than controlled them. Soon the government completely lost control of what was happening.
The broad democratic movement, directed against the extremes of the Stalinist model of socialism, resulted in an open anti-communist counter-revolution. The country was on the brink of civil war. In Budapest, armed clashes between the rebels and the workers' squads and state security officers began. The Nagy government actually took the side of the opponents of the regime, declaring its intention to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact and secure the status of a neutral state for Hungary. in the capital and major cities white terror began - reprisals against communists and employees of the State Security Service. In this situation, the Soviet government decided to bring tank units into Budapest and suppress the uprising. At the same time, members of the Central Committee of the VPT, headed by Janos Kadar, who fled from the capital, formed a new government, which assumed full power by November 11. Nagy and his closest associates were executed. The party, transformed into the Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party, was purged. At the same time, Kadar announced his intention to eradicate all manifestations of Stalinism that caused the crisis of Hungarian society, to achieve a more balanced development of the country.
Events unfolded no less dramatically in Poland, where the spontaneous uprisings of workers in 1956 were met by the government with cruel repressions. A social explosion was averted only thanks to the return to power of the disgraced W. Gomulka, who headed the Central Committee of the Polish Workers' Party in 1943-1948, but was expelled from the party for his passion for the idea of "national socialism". This reshuffle in the leadership of Poland caused great concern in the USSR. However, the new Polish leaders were able to convince the representatives of Moscow of their political loyalty and that the adjustment of the reforms would not affect the foundations of the socialist system. This happened at the moment when Soviet tanks were already heading towards Warsaw.
The increase in tension in Czechoslovakia was not so great, since in the industrially developed Czech Republic there was practically no task of accelerated industrialization, and the social costs of this process in Slovakia were compensated to some extent by the federal budget.
In the twentieth century the development of the economy of the leading capitalist countries was greatly influenced by two global events - the first and second world wars. The post-war economy of even the leading countries of Western Europe was in critical condition.
ENGLAND. The slowdown in the economic development of England began after the First World War. In the 1920s, the British economy developed unevenly. Production grew relatively rapidly in new branches of industry, in which the processes of technical reconstruction of enterprises, an increase in their power supply, extensive mechanization, electrification and chemicalization proceeded most rapidly. production processes. The old branches of British industry were stagnating. Coal mining, pig iron smelting, and the production of the English textile industry were reduced. Ferrous metallurgy enterprises were only half loaded. There was a process of curtailment of agricultural production. In terms of development rates, the British economy lagged behind the leading capitalist powers.
The Second World War caused a further weakening of the economic and political position of Great Britain. In general, during the years of the Second World War, it lost about 25% of the country's national wealth. The equipment of British enterprises during the war years was worn out, technical progress slowed down. The war led to an increase in Great Britain's dependence on the United States, which during the war sent large deliveries of weapons and food to its ally on the terms of lend-lease Lend-lease - a system for transferring weapons, ammunition, strategic raw materials, food and other material resources countries of the anti-Hitler coalition during World War II., in addition, they had to reduce, and in some areas completely interrupt their foreign economic relations with countries where US capital was increasingly being introduced. In 1947, an acute financial crisis began in the country, and the government was forced to reduce food imports, which led to a sharp rise in food prices. The British government saw a way out of the difficult economic situation in joining the Marshall Plan.
FRANCE. The policy pursued by the ruling circles of France in the second half of the 1930s led the country to a military catastrophe. In June 1940, France capitulated and its economy was placed at the service of Nazi Germany. The war and the four-year occupation caused considerable damage to France. Industrial production was reduced by almost 70%, its structure was archaic, long time the machine park was not updated. Compared to 1938, agricultural output has halved. The end of the war put France before the most difficult tasks, the main of which was the elimination of economic ruin. However, neither the government nor the business circles had a unanimity of opinion regarding policy in the financial and economic field. Thus, the Minister of Economy, the radical P. Mendès-France, proposed to freeze wages and prices, as well as simultaneously blocking bank accounts and proceeding with the forced exchange of banknotes. Minister of Finance R. Pleven developed a project, the basis of which was the issue of a large internal loan, designed to save military profits. The communists, who had a strong position due to their active participation in the resistance movement, considered the implementation of nationalization and the creation of a system of social protection of the population to be the most important tasks. A sharp political struggle unfolded around the problem of nationalization, which ended in a compromise. As in other capitalist countries, the nationalization in France did not affect all the main branches of industry and did not change the essence of the capitalist economy. In its economic content, it meant the transition from private to state-monopoly property, representing a major step in the development of state-monopoly capitalism. The needs of economic recovery led to the fact that most of the investment began to be directed to industry. This made it possible to accelerate the pace of the country's industrial production and in the summer of 1947 reach its pre-war level (in agriculture this level was surpassed in 1950). In May 1947, under the pretext of a vote by communist ministers against trust in the government, they were removed from the government coalition. The nationalization process was suspended, and on June 28, 1948. An agreement on economic cooperation between France and the United States of America was signed in Paris, marking the beginning of the Marshall Plan in France.
ITALY. Italy entered the 2nd world war on the side of Hitler's Germany. It is a developed industrial and agrarian country, in terms of development it belongs to the countries of highly developed capitalism. The most important branches of industry are associated with military production. In 1948, it was included in the Marshall Plan.
SWEDEN. Sweden is an industrial and agricultural country, the leading ones are mining, machine building, metalworking, electrical engineering and chemical industry. A significant part of industrial goods is exported. In agriculture, meat and dairy animal husbandry prevails over agriculture. During the Second World War, Sweden declared neutrality, which, however, was violated in favor of the Nazi coalition. In the post-war years, it adheres to the policy of “freedom from unions”.
NORWAY. The establishment of Norway's independence in 1905 favored an economic recovery. During World War II, Norway was occupied by Nazi Germany.
DENMARK. Agro-industrial country with intensive agriculture. The Danish industry has a pronounced manufacturing character. In 1940 it was occupied by Nazi Germany.
BELGIUM. By the end of the 19th century Belgium was a developed capitalist country, with large-scale industry and intensive agriculture. During the Second World War it was captured by Germany.
AUSTRIA. For seven years (1938-1945) Austria was ruled by Nazi Germany. The entire economy of the country was subordinated to the military needs of Germany, the gold reserves of Austria were taken to Berlin. The main role in the country's economy belonged to large monopolies. In 1943, the Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the USSR, the USA and Great Britain signed a declaration on Austria, declaring their desire to see it restored, free and independent. In 1948, with the active assistance of the United States, Britain and France, an agreement was signed on Austria's participation in the Marshall Plan.
GREECE. Greece is a predominantly agricultural country with a relatively developed industry. During World War II it was occupied by Germany.
SWITZERLAND. A country with a high level of development, the main role in the economy belongs to industry. From the end of the 19th century it established the dominance of finance capital. In the Second World War declared neutrality.
PORTUGAL. An agrarian country, the most backward of all the countries of Europe. In World War II, she helped the fascist bloc.
TURKEY. Poorly developed agricultural country. On the eve of World War II, Germany had a great influence on the economy and politics of Turkey. during the war it supplied Germany with strategic raw materials.
Thus, after the 2nd World War, the economy of the countries of Western Europe found itself in an extremely difficult situation.
1. Featuressocio-economic
and political development in the first
post-war years.
2. Integration of Eastern European countries:
Creation of Cominform, CMEA and ATS.
3. Crises in Eastern Europe.
4. Development of the countries of "people's democracy"
in the 50-70s 20th century
5. A special way of Yugoslavia.
WHAT IS "EASTERN EUROPE"?
Countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe - Poland, East Germany,Hungary, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Albania, Bulgaria Europe by 1914
For centuries, the countries of Eastern Europe developed in the shadow of
more major states. Until 1914, most of the region was part of
composition of the Austro-Hungarian, German, Russian and Ottoman
empires. It was only after the First World War that many of these countries
gained independence, but twenty years later they were captured
Nazi Germany.
and political development
in the early postwar years
In 1945, Soviet troops
liberated from Nazi
occupation of most
Of Eastern Europe.
As a result, the Soviet Union
established his influence over
this region.
In most of these countries
in 1945 - 1948 to power
the communists came
parties.
States of the "Eastern bloc" 1945 - 1946 - democratic reforms
RESTORATION OF DEMOCRATIC REGIMES
RESTORATION OF MULTIPARTIES
DESTRUCTION OF LARGE LAND OWNERSHIP
PUNISHMENT OF WAR CRIMINALS
ADOPTION OF CONSTITUTIONS
LIQUIDATION OF MONARCHIES
TRANSITION OF POWER TO REPRESENTATIVE BODIES
These transformations in Eastern European countries
called people's democratic revolutions, and
the countries themselves are people's democracies. Features of the socio-economic
and political development
in the early postwar years
1947 - early 1950s -
coming to power of the communists,
the rise of totalitarian socialism
In 1945 the communist regimes were
established in Yugoslavia.
In 1946 - in Albania, Bulgaria.
In 1947 in Poland, Hungary, Romania
In February 1948 the communist regime was
installed in Czechoslovakia.
Having established itself at the levers of state administration,
the communist parties took a course on the construction
socialism, adopting as the initial model the socio-economic and political system created in
Soviet Union. Features of the socio-economic
and political development
in the early postwar years
CHANGES IN THE POLITICAL SYSTEM
The elimination of the multiparty system. Concentration
full power in the hands of the communist
parties
Merging party and state
devices
Rejection of the principle of separation of powers
Mass repressions following the example of the USSR
Rights and freedoms formally declared
were not observed. Features of the socio-economic
and political development
in the early postwar years
CHANGES IN THE ECONOMY
Complete nationalization of industry and finance
Accelerated industrialization directed
on the predominant development of severe
industry
Collectivization without nationalization of the land
(replacement of individual farms by cooperatives)
Establishment of a planned economy instead of a market economy Eastern European countries.
SFRY
(Yugoslavia)
Poland (Poland)
Czechoslovakia(Czechoslovakia)
SRR(Romania)
GDR In 1948 a pro-Soviet regime was established
in North Korea.
In 1949 the communists won the
civil war in China (formation of the People's Republic of China).
As a result, a socialist
Commonwealth (socialist camp),
including the USSR and over 10 states in
Europe and Asia, as well as Cuba, where the revolution
won in 1959 October 1, 1949 - the formation of the PRC
Integration of Eastern European countries
In September 1947, the Cominform was created.(Information Bureau of Communist and
labor parties).
Created at a secret meeting
communist parties of Bulgaria, Hungary, Italy,
Poland, Romania, Soviet Union,
France, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia in
Szklarska Poreba (Poland).
The idea of convocation belonged to Stalin.
The keynote speaker at the meeting was
A. A. Zhdanov. The report formulated
thesis about the beginning of the split of the world into two
"camps" - "imperialist" (USA and its
allies) and "democratic" (USSR and its
allies). Communist parties were asked to move
to a tougher confrontational policy. For economic and
political control of the USSR
created organizations
economic and military
character:
- Economic Council
mutual assistance /1949/;
- - Organization of the Warsaw
agreements /1955/.
CMEA building in Moscow. CMEA and ATS
January 25, 1949 - creation
Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA)
CMEA member countries
Moscow. CMEA building CMEA and ATS
May 1955 - Creation of the Organization
Warsaw Pact (WTS)
Bulgaria
Albania
Hungary
Romania
Poland
GDR
Czechoslovakia
USSR V. Molotov and G. Zhukov sign the Warsaw Pact
Crises and upheavals
CRISES AND SHOCKSSoviet soldiers help
restore the economy. GDR.
1958
As the Cold War grew, the USSR increasingly strengthened its
influence on allies.
Despite some economic progress, part of the population
Eastern European states began to openly show their
dissatisfaction with the government. In some countries, it came to strikes and
armed clashes.
1953 - political crisis in the GDR
Berlin.
June 17
1953 Germany has repeatedly become the scene of violent conflicts.
1948 - the Soviet leadership blocked transport
highways leading from the western zones of occupation to
western sectors of Berlin.
In 1953, riots broke out in the GDR, which escalated into
uprising against the pro-Soviet regime.
It was the East Germans' response to lowering their
standard of living. The position of the communist
leadership of the GDR was complicated by the fact that in the "other" Germany
- Germany thanks to reforms the economic situation
improved. The communist elite of the GDR could not
deal with the crisis on their own.
Soviet troops entered Berlin, and the uprising was
suppressed.
The new leader of the country, W. Ulbricht, succeeded
stabilize the situation in the country.
However, over time, the GDR began to lose more and more
West Germany's economic growth and level
life.
A symbol of the Cold War and the split of the German nation
became the Berlin Wall (1961).
Germany: a divided nation.
Crises of totalitarian socialism1956 - political crisis in Poland
In June 1956 in Poland on
individual enterprises
strikes began, quickly
developed into a universal
strike.
Workers supported by students
and liberal
intelligentsia.
However, due to the position
head of the Polish
Communist Party of V. Gomulka
Supervisor
stabilize the situation in
PUWP
country.
Vladistav
Gomułka Crises of totalitarian socialism
1956 - popular uprising in Hungary
In 1956 the Hungarian government
led by Imre Nagy.
He abolished one-party rule
and demanded the withdrawal of Soviet troops
from Hungary, announcing the withdrawal of his
countries from the Warsaw
contracts. In response, the leadership of the USSR
brought troops into Hungary.
Hungarian "freedom fighters"
resisted and asked for help
West. However, they did not receive it.
In the early 60s. began to announce
Imre Nagy.
its independence Romania.
Reform leader.
Albania broke off ties with the USSR.
Prime Minister Mid 1950s - late 1960s -
policy changes
THE END OF MASS REPRESSIONS,
PARTIAL REHABILITATION OF THEIR VICTIMS
MITIGATION OF FORMS OF FORCED
COOPERATION IN AGRICULTURE
PARTIAL REMOVAL OF RESTRICTIONS
FOR SMALL BUSINESS
WEAKENING THE HARD ADMINISTRATIVE
CONTROL OVER THE ECONOMY
TOTALITAR SOCIALISM IS NOT LIQUIDATED,
ONLY SOFTENED
"Prague Spring"
In January 1968, the leader of the reformist wingCommunist Party A. Dubcek became the first secretary
Central Committee of the Communist Party.
HRC PROGRAM
April 1968
INTRODUCTION OF MARKET
MECHANISMS TO THE ECONOMY
DEMOCRATIZATION
SOCIETIES
Alexander Dubcek
First Secretary of the Central Committee
HRC
(January-August 1968)
"Prague Spring"
Reformers' agendaprovided for a major ideological
openness of society, creation of mechanisms for
ensuring pluralism of opinions.
As soon as the opponents of the communists received
opportunity to openly promote
ideas, many communist postulates
were shaken.
"Prague Spring"
"Prague Spring" (Czech."Pražské jaro", Slovak.
"Pražská jar") - period
political and cultural
liberalization in
Czechoslovakia from January 5 to
August 20, 1968
ending with input
the country of the troops of the Organization
Warsaw Pact (except
Romania). The development of the countries of the "people's
August 21, 1968 - entry of troops of the USSR, East Germany, Poland,
Bulgaria, Hungary to Czechoslovakia. The development of the countries of the "people's
democracy" in the 1950s - 1980s
Deterioration of the economic situation since the 1970s
OBTAINING LOANS FROM WESTERN COUNTRIES
TO RENEW THE INDUSTRY
APPEARANCE
FOREIGN DEBT
FOLDING
CONDITIONS
FALL IN THE PACE
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
FOR
REVOLUTIONS
FAILURE OF PLAN TASKS
THE APPEARANCE OF SOCIAL PROBLEMS:
UNEMPLOYMENT, INFLATION, DEFICIENCY OF GOODS The development of the countries of the "people's
democracy" in the 1950s - 1980s
1970s - late 1980s - strengthening of totalitarianism
LIMITATION OF REVIVED ELEMENTS
MARKET RELATIONS
RETURN TO ADMINISTRATIVE METHODS
ECONOMY MANAGEMENT
THE APPEARANCE OF DISSIDENTS
AND THEIR PERSECUTION
FORMATION OF THE LEADERS' CULT OF PERSONALITY Yugoslavia's Special Path
"SELF-GOVERNING
SOCIALISM"
SELF MANAGEMENT
ABSENCE
DEMOCRACY
WORK TEAM
ELECTIVE
SINGLE-PARTY
TIPS
WORKERS
MODE
UNLIMITED
TRANSFER PLANNING
PERSONAL
POWER
FROM THE CENTER
LEADER
TO THE PLACE
PARTS
ORIENTATION TO
MARKET RELATIONS
CONFLICT
IN AGRICULTURE
- STALIN
½TITO
- INDIVIDUALS
Josip Broz Tito.
President of the SFRY Questions and tasks for self-control
1. What are the features of the socio-economic and
political development in the countries of Eastern Europe in
first post-war years?
2. Give examples of crises and social
conflicts during the years of building socialism in
Eastern European countries?
3. Why did perestroika in the USSR become the impetus for
revolutions in Eastern Europe?
4. What are the features of democratic revolutions in
Eastern European countries?
5. What is the place in the modern system of international
relations occupy the countries of Eastern Europe?
