Ivan IV the Terrible |
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1st Tsar of All Russia |
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Coronation: |
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Predecessor: |
Vasily III |
Successor: |
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Heir: |
Dmitry (1552-1553), Ivan (1554-1582), after Fyodor |
Religion: |
Orthodoxy |
Birth: |
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Buried: |
Archangel Cathedral in Moscow |
Dynasty: |
Rurikovich |
Vasily III |
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Elena Glinskaya |
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1) Anastasia Romanovna |
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Sons: Dmitry, Ivan, Fedor, Dmitry Uglitsky daughters: Anna, Maria |
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Origin
Biography
Childhood of the Grand Duke
Kingdom wedding
Domestic policy
Reforms of Ivan IV
Oprichnina
The reasons for the introduction of the oprichnina
Oprichnina institution
Foreign policy
Kazan hiking
Astrakhan hikes
Wars with the Crimean Khanate
War with Sweden 1554-1557
Livonian war
Causes of the war
Cultural activities
Khan on the Moscow throne
Appearance
Family and personal life
Contemporaries
Historiography of the 19th century
Historiography of the XX century.
Tsar Ivan and the Church
The question of canonization
Cinema
Computer games
John Vasilievich (nickname Ivan (John) the Great, in late historiography Ivan IV the Terrible; August 25, 1530, Kolomenskoye village near Moscow - March 18, 1584, Moscow) - Grand Prince of Moscow and All Russia (from 1533), Tsar of All Russia (from 1547) (except 1575-1576, when Simeon Bekbulatovich was nominally the king).
Origin
The son of the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily III and Elena Glinskaya. On the paternal side, he came from the dynasty of Ivan Kalita, on the maternal side - from Mamai, who was considered the ancestor of the Lithuanian princes Glinsky.
The grandmother, Sophia Palaeologus, is from a family of Byzantine emperors. He raised himself to the Roman emperor Augustus, who was allegedly the ancestor of Rurik, according to a legend invented by that time.
Brief description of the board
Came to power in a very early age... After the uprising in Moscow in 1547, he ruled with the participation of a circle of confidants, which Prince Kurbsky called the "Chosen Rada". Under him, the convocation of Zemsky Councils began, the Code of Law of 1550 was drawn up. Reforms of the military service, judicial system and public administration were carried out, including the introduction of elements of self-government at the local level (Gubnaya, Zemskaya and other reforms). In 1560 the Chosen Rada fell, its main figures fell into disgrace, and a completely independent reign of the tsar began.
In 1565, after the flight of Prince Kurbsky to Lithuania, the oprichnina was introduced.
Under Ivan IV, the increase in the territory of Russia was almost 100%, from 2.8 million km? up to 5.4 million km?, the Kazan (1552) and Astrakhan (1556) khanates were conquered and annexed, thus, by the end of the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the area of \u200b\u200bthe Russian State became larger than the rest of Europe.
In 1558-1583 the Livonian War was fought for access to the Baltic Sea. In 1572, as a result of persistent long-term struggle, an end was put to the invasions of the Crimean Khanate (see the Russian-Crimean Wars), the annexation of Siberia began (1581).
Trade relations were established with England (1553) as well as Persia and Central Asia, the first printing house was created in Moscow.
The internal policy of Ivan IV, after a streak of setbacks during the Livonian War and as a result of the tsar's own desire to establish despotic power, acquired a terrorist character and in the second half of the reign was marked by the establishment of an oprichnina, mass executions and murders, the defeat of Novgorod and a number of other cities (Tver, Klin, Torzhok). Oprichnina was accompanied by thousands of victims, and, according to many historians, its results, combined with the results of long and unsuccessful wars, led the state to ruin and a socio-political crisis, as well as to an increase in the tax burden and the formation of serfdom.
Biography
Childhood of the Grand Duke
According to the right of succession prevailing in Russia, the grand ducal throne passed to the eldest son of the monarch, but Ivan ("direct name" for his birthday - Titus) was only three years old when his father, Grand Duke Vasily, became seriously ill. The closest contenders to the throne, besides the young Ivan, were the younger brothers of Vasily. Of the six sons of Ivan III, only two remained - Prince Andrew of the Old and Prince of Dmitrov Yuri.
Foreseeing a quick death, Vasily III formed a "seven-member" boyar commission to govern the state. The guardians were supposed to take care of Ivan until he reaches 15 years old. The board of trustees included Prince Andrei Staritsky - the younger brother of Ivan's father, M.L. Glinsky - the uncle of Grand Duchess Elena and advisers: the Shuisky brothers (Vasily and Ivan), M. Yu. Zakharyin, Mikhail Tuchkov, Mikhail Vorontsov. According to the plan of the Grand Duke, this was to preserve the order of government of the country by trusted people and reduce strife in the aristocratic Boyar Duma. The existence of the regency council is not recognized by all historians, so according to the historian A.A.Zimin, Vasily transferred the management of state affairs to the Boyar Duma, and appointed M.L. Glinsky and D.F.Belsky as guardians of the heir.
Vasily III died on December 3, 1533, and after 8 days the boyars got rid of the main contender for the throne - Prince Yuri of Dmitrov.
The Board of Trustees ruled the country for less than a year, after which its power began to collapse. In August 1534, a series of changes took place in the ruling circles. On August 3, Prince Semyon Belsky and the experienced commander of the okolnichy Ivan Lyatsky left Serpukhov and went to serve the Lithuanian prince. On August 5, one of the guardians of young Ivan, Mikhail Glinsky, was arrested, who then died in prison. For complicity with the defectors, Semyon Belsky's brother Ivan and Prince Ivan Vorotynsky with children were seized. In the same month, another member of the board of trustees, Mikhail Vorontsov, was arrested. Analyzing the events of August 1534, the historian S. M. Solovyov concludes that "all this was the result of the general indignation of the nobles at Elena and her favorite Obolensky."
Andrey Staritsky's attempt to seize power in 1537 ended in failure: locked in Novgorod from the front and rear, he was forced to surrender and ended his life in prison.
In April 1538, 30-year-old Elena Glinskaya died, and six days later the boyars (princes I. V. Shuisky and V. V. Shuisky with advisers) got rid of Obolensky. Metropolitan Daniel and clerk Fyodor Mishchurin, convinced supporters of the centralized state and active leaders of the government of Vasily III and Elena Glinskaya, were immediately removed from government. Metropolitan Daniel was sent to the Joseph-Volotsk Monastery, and Mishchurin was "executed by the boyars ... not loving the fact that he stood for the Grand Duke of the cause."
« Many between the boyars are enmity about self-interest and about tribes, everyone cares about their own, and not the sovereign", This is how the chronicler describes the years of boyar rule, in which" kiyzhda itself various and highest dignities zhalu ... and the beginning of being in them self-esteem, and untruth, and the desire to steal someone else's estate. And he raised up great sedition among himself, and love of power for one another's sake of deceit ... he rebelled against his friends, and their houses and sat down to herself, and her treasures filled with unrighteous riches».
In 1545, at the age of 15, Ivan came of age, thus becoming a full-fledged ruler.
Kingdom wedding
On December 13, 1546, Ivan Vasilyevich for the first time expressed his intention to marry Macarius (see below for more details), and before that to marry the kingdom "following the example of the ancestors."
A number of historians (N.I.Kostomarov, R.G. Skrynnikov, V.V. Kobrin) believe that the initiative for accepting the royal title could not have come from a 16-year-old boy. Most likely, Metropolitan Macarius played an important role in this. The strengthening of the king's power was also beneficial to his maternal relatives. V.O. Klyuchevsky adheres to the opposite point of view, emphasizing the desire for power that was formed early in the sovereign. In his opinion, “the tsar's political thoughts were worked out secretly from those around him,” the idea of \u200b\u200ba wedding came as a complete surprise to the boyars.
The ancient Byzantine kingdom with its emperors crowned with God has always been an image for Orthodox countries, but it fell under the blows of the infidels. Moscow, in the eyes of the Russian Orthodox people, was to become the heir to Constantinople - Constantinople. The triumph of autocracy also personified for Metropolitan Macarius the triumph of the Orthodox faith. This is how the interests of the royal and spiritual authorities were intertwined (Philotheus). At the beginning of the 16th century, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe divine origin of the sovereign's power was also gaining acceptance. One of the first to talk about this was Joseph Volotsky. A different understanding of the power of the sovereign by Archpriest Sylvester later led to the exile of the latter. The idea that the autocrat is obliged to obey God and his decrees in everything runs through the entire Epistle to the King.
On January 16, 1547, a solemn wedding ceremony took place in the Dormition Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, the rite of which was drawn up by the Metropolitan himself. The Metropolitan placed on him the signs of royal dignity - the Cross of the Life-Giving Tree, the barma and the cap of Monomakh; Ivan Vasilievich was anointed with myrrh, and then the Metropolitan blessed the Tsar.
Later, in 1558, the Patriarch of Constantinople informed Ivan the Terrible that “his royal name is remembered in the Cathedral Church on all Sundays, as the names of the former Byzantine Kings; it is commanded to do this in all dioceses, where only there are metropolitans and bishops "," and about your noble wedding to the kingdom from St. Metropolitan of All Russia, our brother and official, we have received for the good and worthy of your kingdom. " " Show us, - wrote Joachim, Patriarch of Alexandria, - in modern times a new supporter and provider for us, a good champion, chosen and instructed by God, the Ktitor of this holy monastery, what was the once-crowned and equal to the apostles Constantine ... Your memory will abide with us incessantly not only on church rule, but also at meals with the ancient, former Kings».
The royal title made it possible to take a significantly different position in diplomatic relations with Western Europe. The grand ducal title was translated as "prince" or even "grand duke". The title "king" in the hierarchy was on a par with the title of emperor.
Unconditionally, the title was given to Ivan by England since 1554. The issue of title in Catholic countries, in which the theory of a single "holy empire" was firmly held, was more difficult. In 1576, Emperor Maximilian II, wishing to attract Grozny to an alliance against Turkey, offered him in the future the throne and the title of "emerging [eastern] Caesar." John IV reacted completely indifferently to the "Greek tsarist kingdom", but demanded immediate recognition of himself as the tsar of "all Russia", and the emperor yielded on this important matter of principle, especially since Maximilian I had recognized the royal title for Basil III, calling the Tsar "the grace of God tsar and owner of the All-Russian and Grand Duke. " The papal throne turned out to be much more stubborn, which defended the exclusive right of the popes to grant royal and other titles to sovereigns, and on the other hand, did not allow violation of the principle of "one empire". In this irreconcilable position, the papal throne found support from the Polish king, who perfectly understood the significance of the Moscow Tsar's claims. Sigismund II August presented a note to the papal throne, in which he warned that the recognition by the papacy of Ivan IV of the title of "Tsar of All Russia" would lead to the alienation from Poland and Lithuania of the lands inhabited by the "Rusyns" kindred to Muscovites, and would attract Moldovans and Vlachs to his side. For his part, John IV attached particular importance to the recognition of his royal title by the Polish-Lithuanian state, but Poland throughout the 16th century did not agree to his demand. Among the successors of Ivan IV, his imaginary son False Dmitry I used the title "emperor", but Sigismund III, who placed him on the Moscow throne, officially called him simply a prince, not even "great."
As a result of the coronation, the tsar's relatives strengthened their position, having achieved significant benefits, but after the Moscow uprising of 1547, the Glinsky family lost all its influence, and the young ruler became convinced of a striking discrepancy between his ideas about power and the real state of affairs.
Domestic policy
Reforms of Ivan IV
Since 1549, together with the Chosen Rada (A.F. Adashev, Metropolitan Macarius, A.M. Kurbsky, Archpriest Sylvester), Ivan IV carried out a number of reforms aimed at centralizing the state: Zemskaya reform, Lip reform, carried out transformations in the army. In 1550, a new legal code was adopted, which tightened the rules for the transition of peasants (the size of the elderly was increased). In 1549 the first Zemsky Sobor was convened. In 1555-1556 Ivan IV canceled feeding and adopted the Code of Service.
The code of law and tsarist charters provided the peasant communities with the right to self-government, the distribution of taxes and oversight of order.
As A. V. Chernov wrote, the archers were without exception armed with firearms, which placed them above the infantry of Western states, where some of the infantry (pikemen) had only cold weapons. From the point of view of the author, all this testifies to the fact that in the formation of the infantry Muscovy, in the person of Tsar Ivan the Terrible, was far ahead of Europe. At the same time, it is known that already at the beginning of the 17th century, so-called “Foreign Order” regiments began to be formed in Russia on the model of the Swedish and Dutch infantry, which impressed the Russian commanders with their effectiveness. The regiments of the "Foreign System" had at their disposal pikemen (spearmen), who covered the musketeers from cavalry, as mentioned by A. V. Chernov himself.
The "verdict on parochialism" contributed to a significant strengthening of discipline in the army, an increase in the authority of the voivods, especially those of no noble origin, and an improvement in the fighting efficiency of the Russian army, although it met with great resistance from the clan nobility.
Under Ivan the Terrible, Jewish merchants were banned from entering Russia. When, in 1550, the Polish king Sigismund-Augustus demanded that they be allowed free entry to Russia, John refused such words: “ i don't want to tell the Jews to go to their states, we don't want to see anything dashing in our states, but we want God to give my people in my states to be in silence without any embarrassment. And you, our brother, would not write to us about Zhidekh"Because they are Russian people" they were diverted from Christianity, and they brought poisonous potions to our lands and did nasty things to our people».
In order to set up a printing house in Moscow, the tsar turned to Christian II with a request to send book printers, and he sent in 1552 to Moscow through Hans Missingheim a Bible translated by Luther and two Lutheran catechisms, but at the insistence of the Russian hierarchs the king's plan to distribute the translations in several thousand copies was rejected.
In the early 1560s, Ivan Vasilyevich made a landmark reform of the state sphragistics. From that moment on, a stable type of state press appeared in Russia. For the first time, a rider appears on the chest of an ancient two-headed eagle - the coat of arms of the princes of Rurikov's house, which was previously depicted separately, and always on the front side of the state seal, while the image of the eagle was placed on the back: “ In the same year (1562) February, on the third day, the Tsar and Grand Duke changed the old smaller seal that was under his father Grand Duke Vasily Ioannovich, and made a new folding seal: a double-headed eagle, and among him a man on horseback, and on the other side the two-headed eagle, and among his inrog". The new seal sealed the treaty with the Danish kingdom on April 7, 1562.
According to Soviet historians AA Zimin and AL Khoroshkevich, the reason for Ivan the Terrible's break with the "Chosen Rada" was that the latter's program was exhausted. In particular, Livonia was given an "imprudent respite", as a result of which several European states were drawn into the war. In addition, the tsar did not agree with the ideas of the leaders of the "Chosen Rada" (in particular, Adashev) about the priority of the conquest of the Crimea in comparison with military actions in the West. Finally, “Adashev showed excessive independence in foreign policy relations with Lithuanian representatives in 1559” and was eventually dismissed. It should be noted that not all historians share similar opinions about the reasons for Ivan's break with the "Chosen Rada". So, N. I. Kostomarov sees the true background of the conflict in the negative features of the character of Ivan the Terrible, and the activity of the "Chosen Rada", on the contrary, highly appreciates. VB Kobrin also believes that the personality of the tsar played a decisive role here, but at the same time links Ivan's behavior with his adherence to the program of accelerated centralization of the country, which opposes the ideology of gradual changes of the “Chosen Rada”.
Oprichnina
The reasons for the introduction of the oprichnina
The fall of the Chosen Rada is assessed by historians in different ways. According to V. B. Kobrin, this was a manifestation of the conflict between two programs of centralization of Russia: through slow structural reforms or rapidly, by force. Historians believe that the choice of the second path is due to the personal character of Ivan the Terrible, who did not want to listen to people who disagree with his policy. Thus, after 1560, Ivan took the path of tightening power, which led him to repressive measures.
According to RG Skrynnikov, the nobility would have easily forgiven Grozny for the resignation of his advisers Adashev and Sylvester, but she did not want to put up with an attempt on the prerogatives of the Boyar Duma. The ideologist of the boyars, Kurbsky, protested in the strongest possible way against the infringement of the privileges of the nobility and the transfer of management functions into the hands of clerks (clerks): “ the great prince believes in Russian scribes, and he chooses them neither from the gentry family, nor from the noble, but even more from the priests or from the simple nation, otherwise he hates his nobles».
Skrynnikov believes that new discontent of the princes was caused by the tsar's decree of January 15, 1562 on the limitation of their patrimonial rights, which even more than before equated them with the local nobility. As a result, in the early 1560s. among the nobility there is a desire to flee from Tsar Ivan abroad. So, twice tried to flee abroad and twice was forgiven by I. D. Belsky, were caught trying to escape and forgiven Prince V. M. Glinsky and Prince I. V. Sheremetev. Tension is growing among the entourage of Grozny: in the winter of 1563, boyars Kolychev, T. Pukhov-Teterin, and M. Sarokhozin fled to the Poles. He was accused of treason and conspiracy with the Poles, but later the governor of Starodub, Prince V. Funikov, was pardoned. For an attempt to leave for Lithuania, the Smolensk voivode Prince Dmitry Kurlyatev was recalled from Smolensk and exiled to a remote monastery on Lake Ladoga. In April 1564, Andrei Kurbsky fled to Poland in fear of disgrace, as Grozny himself later points out in his writings, sending Ivan a letter of accusation from there.
In 1563, the clerk of Vladimir Andreevich Staritsky, Savluk Ivanov, who had been imprisoned by the prince for something, filed a denunciation of the latter's "great treasonous deeds", which immediately found a lively response from Ivan. The clerk argued, in particular, that Staritsky had warned the Polotsk governors about the Tsar's intention to besiege the fortress. The tsar forgave his brother, but deprived part of his inheritance, and on August 5, 1563, he ordered Princess Efrosinya Staritskaya to tonsure as a nun of the Resurrection monastery on the river. Sheksne. At the same time, the latter was allowed to keep with her the servants, who received several thousand quarters of the land in the vicinity of the monastery, and the close boyars-counselors, and also allowed trips to Bogomolye to neighboring monasteries and embroidery. Veselovsky and Khoroshkevich put forward a version of the voluntary tonsure of the princess into a nun.
In 1564 the Russian army was defeated on the river. Ole. There is a version that this served as the impetus for the beginning of the executions of those whom Grozny considered to be the culprits of the defeat: the cousins \u200b\u200bwere executed - the princes Obolensky, Mikhailo Petrovich Repnin and Yuri Ivanovich Kashin. It is believed that Kashin was executed for refusing to dance at a feast in a buffoonish mask, and Dmitry Fyodorovich Obolensky-Ovchin - for reproaching Fyodor Basmanov for his homosexual relationship with the tsar, for a quarrel with Basmanov, the famous voivode Nikita Vasilyevich Sheremetev was executed.
In early December 1564, according to Shokarev's research, an attempt was made to rebel against the tsar, in which Western forces took part: “ Many noble nobles gathered a large party in Lithuania and Poland and wanted to go against their king with arms.».
Oprichnina institution
In 1565 Grozny announced the introduction of the Oprichnina in the country. The country was divided into two parts: "The Tsar's Lordship Oprichnin" and the zemstvo. In the Oprichnina, mainly the northeastern Russian lands, where there were few boyars-patrimonials, fell. The center of the Oprichnina was the Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda, the new residence of Ivan the Terrible, from where on January 3, 1565, the messenger Konstantin Polivanov delivered a letter to the clergy, the boyar Duma and the people about the tsar's abdication from the throne. Although Veselovsky believes that Grozny did not declare his resignation from power, but the prospect of the emperor's departure and the onset of "stateless time", when the nobles can again force the city merchants and artisans to do everything for them for free, could not but agitate the Moscow citizens.
The decree on the introduction of the Oprichnina was approved by the highest bodies of spiritual and secular power - the Consecrated Cathedral and the Boyar Duma. There is also an opinion that this decree was confirmed by its decision by the Zemsky Sobor. However, according to other sources, the members of the Council of 1566 sharply protested against the oprichnina, submitting a petition for the abolition of the oprichnina for 300 signatures; all petitioners were immediately imprisoned, but quickly released (as RG Skrynnikov believes, thanks to the intervention of Metropolitan Philip); 50 were subjected to commercial execution, several had their tongues cut, three were beheaded.
The beginning of the formation of the oprichnina army can be considered the same year 1565, when a detachment of 1000 people was formed, selected from the "oprichnina" counties. Each oprichnik took an oath of allegiance to the king and pledged not to communicate with the zemstvo. In the future, the number of "guardsmen" reached 6,000 people. The oprichnina army also included units of archers from the oprichnina territories. From that time on, servicemen began to be divided into two categories: boyar children, from the Zemshchyna, and boyar children, "courtyards and policemen," that is, they received the tsar's salary directly from the "royal court". Consequently, the Oprichnina army should be considered not only the Tsar's regiment, but also the service people recruited from the oprichnina territories and served under the command of the oprichnina ("courtyard") governors and heads.
Schlichting, Taube and Kruse mention 500-800 people of the "special oprichnina". These people, if necessary, served in the role of trusted tsarist assistants, carrying out security, intelligence, investigative and punitive functions. The remaining 1200 oprichniks are divided into four orders, namely: Bed, in charge of maintaining the premises of the palace and household items of the royal family; Bronny - armory; Stables, which was in charge of the huge horse farm of the palace and the royal guard; and Nourishing - food.
The chronicler, according to Froyanov, places the blame for the troubles that befell the state on the "Russian land, mired in sins, internecine strife and betrayal": And then, by the sin of Ruski of all the land, revolt is great and hatred in all people, and internecine strife and misfortune is great, and they moved the sovereign to anger, and for great treason the tsar uchinish oprichnina».
As an oprichnina "abbot", the tsar performed a number of monastic duties. So, at midnight everyone got up for midnight office, at four in the morning - for matins, at eight the mass began. The tsar showed an example of piety: he himself called for matins, sang in the kliros, prayed fervently, and during the general meal he read the Holy Scriptures aloud. Overall, the service lasted about 9 hours a day.
At the same time, there is evidence that orders for executions and torture were often given in the church. Historian G.P. Fedotov believes that “ without denying the tsar's penitential mood, one cannot but see that he was able to combine brutality with church piety in well-established everyday forms, desecrating the very idea of \u200b\u200bthe Orthodox kingdom».
With the help of the guardsmen, who were exempted from judicial responsibility, John IV forcibly confiscated boyar and princely estates, transferring them to the noble guardsmen. The boyars and princes themselves were given estates in other regions of the country, for example, in the Volga region.
For the consecration of Metropolitan Philip, which took place on July 25, 1566, he prepared and signed a letter, according to which Philip promised "not to intervene in the oprichnina and the tsar's everyday life and, upon appointment, because of the oprichnina ... not to leave the metropolis."
The introduction of the oprichnina was marked by massive repressions: executions, confiscations, disgraces. In 1566, some of the disgraced were returned, but after the Council of 1566 and the demands for the abolition of the oprichnina, the terror resumed. Opposite the Kremlin on Neglinnaya (on the site of the current RSL), a stone Oprichny courtyard was built, where the Tsar moved from the Kremlin.
In early September 1567, Ivan the Terrible summoned the English envoy Jenkinson and through him conveyed to Queen Elizabeth I a request for asylum in England. This was due to the news of a conspiracy in the zemstvo, which set out to overthrow him from the throne in favor of Vladimir Andreevich. The basis was the denunciation of Vladimir Andreyevich himself; RG Skrynnikov recognizes as fundamentally insoluble the question of whether the "Zemshchina", outraged by the oprichnina, actually formed a conspiracy, or whether it all came down to only careless oppositional talks. In this case, a number of executions followed, and the equestrian boyar Ivan Fedorov-Chelyadnin, who was extremely popular among the people for his incorruptibility and judicial conscientiousness (shortly before that, he had proved his loyalty to the tsar by issuing a Polish agent sent to him with letters from the king) was exiled to Kolomna.
A public statement by Metropolitan Philip against the tsar is connected with these events: on March 22, 1568, in the Assumption Cathedral, he refused to bless the tsar and demanded that the oprichnina be canceled. In response, the oprichniks beat the metropolitan's servants to death with iron rods, then a trial was instituted against the metropolitan in the church court. Philip was thrown out of dignity and exiled to the Tver Otroch monastery.
In the summer of the same year, Chelyadnin-Fedorov was accused of allegedly intending to overthrow the king with the help of his servants. Fedorov and 30 people, recognized by his accomplices, were executed. In the Tsar's Synodikon, the disgraced on this occasion are written: Finished: Ivan Petrovich Fedorov; in Moscow, Mikhail Kolychev and his three sons were finished; by cities - Prince Andrey Katyrev, Prince Fyodor Troekurov, Mikhail Lykov with his nephew "... Their estates were destroyed, all the servants were killed: "Finished 369 people and finished July to the 6th (1568)"... According to RG Skrynnikov, “The repressions were on the whole chaotic. They indiscriminately grabbed Chelyadnin's friends and acquaintances, Adashev's surviving supporters, relatives of noblemen who were in exile, etc. They beat everyone who dared to protest against the oprichnina. The overwhelming majority of them were executed even without the appearance of a trial, on the basis of denunciations and slanders under torture. The tsar stabbed Fedorov with his own hand with a knife, after which the guardsmen cut him up with their knives.
In 1569, the tsar finished off his cousin: he was accused of intending to poison the tsar and executed along with the servants, his mother Efrosinia Staritskaya was drowned with 12 nuns in the Sheksna River.
Hike to Novgorod and "search" about Novgorod treason
In December 1569, suspecting the Novgorod nobility of complicity in the "conspiracy" of Prince Vladimir Andreyevich Staritsky, who was recently killed by his order, and at the same time intending to be handed over to the Polish king, Ivan, accompanied by a large army of guardsmen, set out on a campaign against Novgorod.
Moving to Novgorod in the fall of 1569, the guardsmen staged massacres and robberies in Tver, Klin, Torzhok and other oncoming cities. In December 1569, Malyuta Skuratov personally strangled Metropolitan Philip, who refused to bless the campaign against Novgorod, in the Tverskoy Monastery. In Novgorod, many citizens, including women and children, were executed using various tortures.
After the campaign, a "search" for the Novgorod treason began, which was carried out throughout 1570, and many prominent guardsmen were also involved in the case. From this case, only the description in the Census Book of the Ambassador Prikaz has survived: “ pillar, and in it an article list from the detective from the treason case in 1570 on the Novgorod Bishop Pimen and on the Novgorod clerks and clerks, as they (Moscow) boyars ... wanted Novgorod and Pskov to give the Lithuanian king. ... and Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich ... with malicious intent, they wanted to put Prince Volodimer Ondreevich on the state ... in that case, from torture, many talked about that betrayal of the Novgorod Archbishop Pimen and his advisers and themselves, and in that case, many appear to be death, pink executions , and others were sent to the prisons ... Yes, there is a list, do it with death, and with what kind of execution, and let it go ... ».
In 1571, the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey invaded Russia. According to V.B. Kobrin, the decomposed oprichnina at the same time demonstrated complete non-combat capability: the oprichniks, accustomed to robbing civilians, simply did not show up for the war, so there was only one regiment of them (against five zemstvo regiments). Moscow was burned down. As a result, during the new invasion in 1572, the oprichnina army was already united with the zemstvo army; In the same year, the tsar canceled the oprichnina altogether and banned its very name, although in fact under the name of the "sovereign's court" the oprichnina existed until his death.
Foreign policy
Part of the aristocracy and the Pope insistently demanded to fight the Turkish Sultan Suleiman the First, who had 30 kingdoms and 8 thousand miles of coastline under his control.
The tsar's artillery was varied and numerous. " At least two thousand guns are always ready for battle with the Russian artillerymen ...”- was reported to Emperor Maximilian II by his ambassador John Cobenzl. Most of all, the heavy artillery was impressive. The Moscow Chronicle writes without exaggeration: "... the cannonballs of large cannons are twenty poods, while other cannons are a little lighter." The largest howitzer in Europe, the Kashpirova Cannon, weighing 1,200 pounds and a caliber of 20 pounds, took part in the siege of Polotsk in 1563, terrifyingly. Also "one more feature of the Russian artillery of the 16th century should be noted, namely, its durability," writes modern researcher Alexei Lobin. " The cannons, cast at the behest of Ivan the Terrible, were in service for several decades and took part in almost all battles of the 17th century.».
Kazan hiking
In the first half of the 16th century, mainly during the reign of the khans from the Crimean clan Gireyev, the Kazan Khanate waged constant wars with Moscow Russia. In total, the Kazan khans made about forty campaigns on the Russian lands, mainly in the outskirts of the regions of Nizhny Novgorod, Vyatka, Vladimir, Kostroma, Galich, Murom, Vologda. “From the Crimea and from Kazan to the semi-earth it was empty,” the tsar wrote, describing the consequences of the invasions.
Trying to find peaceful ways of settlement, Moscow supported the Kasimov ruler, loyal to Russia, Shah Ali, who, having become the Kazan khan, approved the project of a union with Moscow. But in 1546, Shah-Ali was expelled by the Kazan nobility, which elevated Khan Safa-Girey to the throne from a dynasty hostile to Russia. After that, it was decided to take action and eliminate the threat posed by Kazan. " From now on, - the historian points out, - Moscow put forward a plan for the final destruction of the Kazan Khanate».
In total, Ivan IV led three campaigns against Kazan.
First hike (winter 1547/1548). The tsar left Moscow on December 20, because of the early thaw 15 versts from Nizhny Novgorod, siege artillery and part of the army left under the ice on the Volga. It was decided to return the tsar from the crossing back to Nizhny Novgorod, while the main voivods with the part of the army that managed to cross reached Kazan, where they entered into battle with the Kazan army. As a result, the Kazan army retreated behind the walls of the wooden Kremlin, the Russian army did not dare to storm it without siege artillery and, having stood under the walls for seven days, retreated. On March 7, 1548, the tsar returned to Moscow.
Second trip (autumn 1549 - spring 1550). In March 1549, Safa-Girey died suddenly. Having accepted the Kazan messenger with a request for peace, Ivan IV refused him, and began to gather an army. On November 24, he left Moscow to lead the army. Having united in Nizhny Novgorod, the army moved to Kazan and on February 14 was at its walls. Kazan was not taken; however, when the Russian army retreated not far from Kazan, when the Sviyaga River flows into the Volga, it was decided to build a fortress. On March 25, the tsar returned to Moscow. In 1551, in just 4 weeks, a fortress was assembled from carefully numbered components, which was named Sviyazhsk; it served as a stronghold for the Russian army during the next campaign.
Third trip (June-October 1552) - ended with the capture of Kazan. The campaign involved a 150,000-strong Russian army, armament included 150 cannons. The Kazan Kremlin was taken by storm. Khan Ediger-Magmet was handed over to the Russian governors. The chronicler recorded: “ On himself, the sovereign did not order the imatiation of either a single coppersmith (that is, not a single penny), or captivity, only a single king Ediger-Magmet and the royal banners and the cannons of the city". I. I. Smirnov believes that “ The Kazan campaign of 1552 and the brilliant victory of Ivan IV over Kazan not only meant a major foreign policy success for the Russian state, but also contributed to the strengthening of the tsar's foreign policy positions».
In defeated Kazan, the tsar appointed Prince Alexander Gorbaty-Shuisky as Kazan governor, and Prince Vasily Serebryany as his comrade.
After the establishment of the episcopal see in Kazan, the tsar and the church council, by lot, elected Abbot Guria in the rank of archbishop. Guriy received an order from the tsar to convert Kazan residents to Orthodoxy solely at the personal request of each person, but "unfortunately, such prudent measures were not always followed: the intolerance of the century took its toll ...".
From the first steps in the conquest and development of the Volga region, the tsar began to invite to his service all the Kazan nobility, who agreed to swear allegiance to him, sending “ in all uluses to black people, the letters of salary are dangerous, so that they should go to the sovereign without fear of anything; but whoever repaired it, God took revenge on him; and their sovereign will welcome, and they would pay yasaks, as well as the former Kazan king". This nature of the policy not only did not require the preservation of the main military forces of the Russian state in Kazan, but, on the contrary, made it natural and expedient for Ivan's solemn return to the capital.
Immediately after the capture of Kazan, in January 1555, the ambassadors of the Siberian Khan Ediger asked the tsar to “ he took all the Siberian land under his name and interceded (defended) from all sides and put his tribute on them and sent his man to whom to collect tribute».
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The conquest of Kazan was of tremendous importance for the life of the people. The Kazan Tatar horde tied a complex foreign world under their rule into one strong whole: the Mordovians, Cheremisu, Chuvash, Votyaks, Bashkirs. Cheremisy beyond the Volga, on the river. Unzhe and Vetluge, and the Mordvinians beyond the Oka, delayed the colonization movement of Russia to the east; and the raids of the Tatars and other "language" on the Russian settlements badly harmed them, ruining the farms and taking many Russian people into the "full". Kazan was a chronic ulcer of Moscow life, and therefore its capture became a national celebration, sung by a folk song. After the capture of Kazan, within only 20 years, it was turned into a large Russian city; at different points of the foreign Volga region, fortified cities were erected as a support for the Russian power and the Russian settlement. The masses of the people reached out, without delay, to the rich lands of the Volga region and to the forest regions of the middle Urals. Huge areas of valuable lands were pacified by the Moscow authorities and developed by the people's labor. This was the meaning of "Kazan capture", sensitively guessed by the people's mind. The occupation of the lower Volga and Western Siberia was a natural consequence of the elimination of the barrier that the Kazan kingdom was for Russian colonization. Platonov S. F. Complete course of lectures on Russian history. Part 2 |
It should be noted that the history of the Kazan campaigns is often counted from the campaign that took place in 1545, which "had the character of a military demonstration and strengthened the position of the 'Moscow party' and other opponents of Khan Safa-Girey."
Astrakhan hikes
In the early 1550s, the Astrakhan Khanate was an ally of the Crimean Khan, controlling the lower reaches of the Volga.
Before the final submission of the Astrakhan Khanate under Ivan IV, two campaigns were made:
Campaign of 1554 was committed under the command of the governor Yu. I. Pronsky-Shemyakin. In the battle at the Black Island, the Russian army defeated the head Astrakhan detachment. Astrakhan was taken without a fight. As a result, Dervish-Ali Khan was brought to power, promising support to Moscow.
Campaign of 1556 was associated with the fact that Dervish-Ali Khan went over to the side of the Crimean Khanate and Ottoman Empire... The campaign was led by the voivode N. Cheremisinov. First, the Don Cossacks of the detachment of Ataman L. Filimonov defeated the Khan's army near Astrakhan, after which in July Astrakhan was again taken without a fight. As a result of this campaign, the Astrakhan Khanate was subordinated to Muscovite Russia.
Later, the Crimean Khan Devlet I Girey made attempts to reconquer Astrakhan.
After the conquest of Astrakhan, Russian influence began to extend to the Caucasus. In 1559 the princes of Pyatigorsk and Cherkassk asked Ivan IV to send them a detachment to defend against the raids of the Crimean Tatars and priests to maintain the faith; The tsar sent them two governors and priests who renewed the fallen ancient churches, and in Kabarda they showed wide missionary activity, baptizing many into Orthodoxy.
In the 1550s, the Siberian khan Ediger and Bolshie Nogai fell into dependence on the tsar.
Wars with the Crimean Khanate
The troops of the Crimean Khanate organized regular raids into the southern territories of Moscow Russia from the beginning of the 16th century (raids in 1507, 1517, 1521). Their purpose was to plunder Russian cities and capture the population. During the reign of Ivan IV, the raids continued.
It is known about the campaigns of the Crimean Khanate in 1536, 1537, undertaken jointly with the Kazan Khanate, with the military support of Turkey and Lithuania.
- In 1541, the Crimean Khan Sahib I Girey made a campaign that ended with an unsuccessful siege of Zaraisk. His army was stopped at the Oka River by Russian regiments under the command of Prince Dmitry Belsky.
- In June 1552, Khan Devlet I Girey made a campaign to Tula.
- In 1555 Devlet I Girey repeated the campaign against Moscow Russia, but, before reaching Tula, he hastily turned back, abandoning all the booty. When retreating, he entered into battle near the village of Sudbischi with a Russian detachment that was inferior in number to him. This battle did not affect the result of his campaign.
The tsar yielded to the demands of the opposition aristocracy to march on the Crimea: “ brave and courageous men advised and chilled, but he himself (Ivan) moves with his head, with great troops against the Perekop Khan».
In 1558, the army of Prince Dmitry Vishnevetsky defeated the Crimean army at Azov, and in 1559 the army under the command of Daniil Adashev made a trip to the Crimea, devastating the large Crimean port of Gozlev (now Evpatoria) and freeing many Russian captives.
After Ivan the Terrible seized the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, Devlet I Girey vowed to return them. In 1563 and 1569, together with the Turkish troops, he made two unsuccessful campaigns against Astrakhan.
The campaign of 1569 was much more serious than the previous ones - together with the Turkish land army and the Tatar cavalry, the Turkish fleet rose along the Don River, and the Turks began to build a navigable canal between the Volga and the Don - their purpose was to lead the Turkish fleet to the Caspian Sea for a war against their traditional enemy - Persia. The ten-day siege of Astrakhan without artillery and under the autumn rains ended in nothing, the garrison under the command of Prince P.S. Serebryany repulsed all attacks. An attempt to dig a canal also ended unsuccessfully - Turkish engineers did not yet know the sluice systems. Devlet I Giray, dissatisfied with the strengthening of Turkey in this region, also secretly interfered with the campaign.
After that, three more trips to the Moscow lands are made:
- 1570 - ruinous raid on Ryazan;
- 1571 - the campaign against Moscow - ended with the burning of Moscow. As a result of the April Crimean Tatar raid, agreed with the Polish king, the southern Russian lands were devastated, tens of thousands of people died, more than 150 thousand Russians were taken into slavery; with the exception of the stone Kremlin, all of Moscow was burned. John, a week before the khan crossed the Oka, due to conflicting intelligence data, left the army and went into the interior of the country to collect additional forces; upon hearing of the invasion, he moved from Serpukhov to Bronnitsy, from there to the Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda, and from the settlement to Rostov, as his predecessors Dmitry Donskoy and Vasily I Dmitrievich did in such cases. The winner sent him a haughty letter:
Tsar Ivan replied with a humble petition:
He went to the Tatar ambassadors in a sermyag, saying to them: “You see me, what am I wearing? So the king (khan) made me! He cut all my kingdom and burned the treasury; Karamzin writes that the tsar handed over to Devlet-Girey, at his request, a certain noble Crimean prisoner, who converted to Orthodoxy in Russian captivity. However, Devlet-Girey was not satisfied with Astrakhan, demanding Kazan and 2000 rubles, and in the summer of next year the invasion was repeated.
- 1572 - the last big campaign of the Crimean Khan in the reign of Ivan IV, ended with the destruction of the Crimean Turkish army. For the decisive defeat of the Russian state, the 120-thousandth Crimean-Turkish horde moved. However, in the battle of Molodya, the enemy was destroyed by a 60-thousand-strong Russian army under the leadership of the governor M. Vorotynsky and D. Khvorostinin - 5-10 thousand returned to the Crimea (see the Russian-Crimean War of 1571-1572). The death of a select Turkish army near Astrakhan in 1569 and the defeat of the Crimean horde near Moscow in 1572 put an end to the Turkish-Tatar expansion in Eastern Europe.
The victor at Molody, Vorotynsky, was accused of intending to bewitch the tsar and died from torture the following year, on the denunciation of the servant, and during the torture the tsar himself raked the coals with his staff.
War with Sweden 1554-1557
The war was caused by the establishment of trade relations between Russia and Britain through the White Sea and the Arctic Ocean, which hit hard on the economic interests of Sweden, which received considerable revenues from transit Russian-European trade (G. Forsten).
In April 1555, the Swedish flotilla of Admiral Jacob Bagge passed the Neva and landed an army in the area of \u200b\u200bthe Oreshek fortress. The siege of the fortress did not bring results, the Swedish army retreated.
In response, Russian troops invaded Swedish territory and on January 20, 1556, defeated a Swedish detachment near the Swedish city of Kivinebb. Then there was a clash at Vyborg, after which this fortress was besieged. The siege lasted 3 days, Vyborg withstood.
As a result, in March 1557, an armistice was signed in Novgorod for a period of 40 years (entered into force on January 1, 1558). The Russian-Swedish border was restored along the old line, defined by the Orekhov Peace Treaty of 1323. Under the treaty, Sweden returned all Russian prisoners together with the seized property, while Russia returned Swedish prisoners for ransom.
Livonian war
Causes of the war
In 1547, the tsar commissioned the Saxon Schlitte to bring artisans, artists, healers, pharmacists, printers, people skilled in ancient and new languages, even theologians. However, after protests in Livonia, the Senate of the Hanseatic city of Lübeck arrested Schlitte and his men (see Schlitte case).
In the spring of 1557, on the banks of the Narva, Tsar Ivan sets up a port: “The same year, July, a city was set up from the German Ust-Narova-river Rossene by the sea for a naval shipboard shelter” Dmitry Semenovich Shastunov and Petr Petrovich Golovin and Ivan Vyrodkov to Ivangorod, and ordered to put a city for a ship shelter on the Narov below Ivanyagorod at the mouth of the sea ... ”. However, the Hanseatic League and Livonia do not allow European merchants to enter the new Russian port, and they continue to go, as before, to Revel, Narva and Riga.
The Posvolsky Treaty of September 15, 1557 of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Order, which created a threat to the establishment of Lithuanian power in Livonia, played a significant role in Ivan IV's choice of the direction of hostilities.
The coordinated position of the Hansa and Livonia to prevent Moscow from independent sea trade leads Tsar Ivan to the decision to start a struggle for a wide access to the Baltic.
During the war, the Muslim regions of the Volga region began to supply the Russian army with "more than threety thousand abuses" well prepared for the offensive.
The position of Russian spies in Lithuania and the Livonian Order in 1548-1551 described by the Lithuanian publicist Michalon Litvin:
The beginning of hostilities. Defeat of the Livonian Order
In January 1558, Ivan IV began the Livonian War for the capture of the Baltic Sea coast. Initially, hostilities developed successfully. Despite the raid on the southern Russian lands of a hundred thousandth Crimean horde in the winter of 1558, the Russian army conducted active offensive operations in the Baltic States, took Narva, Dorpat, Neishloss, Neuhaus, defeated the order troops at Tyrzen near Riga. In the spring and summer of 1558, the Russians captured the entire eastern part of Estonia, and by the spring of 1559, the army of the Livonian Order was finally defeated, and the Order itself actually ceased to exist. At the direction of Alexei Adashev, the Russian governors accepted a proposal for an armistice coming from Denmark, which lasted from March to November 1559, and began separate negotiations with Livonian urban circles about the pacification of Livonia in exchange for some trade concessions from German cities. At this time, the lands of the Order passed under the patronage of Poland, Lithuania, Sweden and Denmark.
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The tsar understood that without a military fleet it was impossible to return the Russian Baltic lands, waging a war with Sweden, the Commonwealth and the Hanseatic cities, which had armed forces at sea and dominated the Baltic. In the very first months of the Livonian War, the Sovereign tried to create a privateer fleet, with the involvement of the Danes in Moscow service, turning sea and river vessels into warships. In the late 70s, Ivan Vasilyevich in Vologda began to build his navy and tried to transfer it to the Baltic. Alas, the great plan was not destined to come true. But even this attempt caused a real hysteria among the sea powers. N. Parfeniev. Voivode of the Russian land. Tsar Ivan Vasilievich the Terrible and his military activities. |
Poland and Lithuania entered the war
On August 31, 1559, the Master of the Livonian Order Gotthard Ketteler and the King of Poland and Lithuania Sigismund II August concluded an agreement in Vilna on the entry of Livonia under the protectorate of Poland, which was supplemented on September 15 by an agreement on military assistance to Livonia by Poland and Lithuania. This diplomatic action served as an important milestone in the course and development of the Livonian War: the war between Russia and Livonia turned into a struggle of states of Eastern Europe for the Livonian inheritance.
In 1560, at a congress of imperial deputies of Germany, Albert of Mecklenburg reported: “ The Moscow tyrant begins to build a fleet on the Baltic Sea: in Narva, he turns the merchant ships belonging to the city of Lübeck into warships and transfers control of them to the Spanish, English and German commanders". The congress decided to appeal to Moscow with a solemn embassy, \u200b\u200bto which to attract Spain, Denmark and England, to offer the Eastern power eternal peace and stop its conquests.
Professor of St. Petersburg University, historian S.F. Platonov writes about the reaction of European countries:
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The performance of Grozny in the struggle for the Baltic Sea ... amazed Central Europe. In Germany, the "Muscovites" were seen as a terrible enemy; the danger of their invasion was noted not only in official relations of the authorities, but also in the vast volatile literature of leaflets and brochures. Measures were taken to prevent either Muscovites from the sea or Europeans from entering Moscow and, by separating Moscow from the centers of European culture, to prevent its political strengthening. In this agitation against Moscow and Grozny, a lot of unreliable was invented about the Moscow customs and despotism of Grozny ... Platonov S. F. Lectures on Russian history ... |
In January 1560 Grozny ordered the troops to go on the offensive again. The army under the command of princes Shuisky, Serebryany and Mstislavsky took the fortress of Marienburg (Aluksne). On August 30, the Russian army under the command of Kurbsky took Fellin. An eyewitness wrote: “ The oppressed Estonian is more likely to agree to submit to the Russian than to the German". All over Estonia, peasants rebelled against the German barons. The possibility arose of a quick end to the war. However, the king's governors did not go to the capture of Revel and failed in the siege of Weisenstein. Aleksey Adashev (governor of a large regiment) was appointed to Fellin, however, being thin-born, he was mired in local disputes with the governors who stood above him, fell into disgrace, was soon taken into custody in Dorpat and died there of a fever (there were rumors that he poisoned, Ivan the Terrible even sent one of the neighboring nobles to Dorpat to investigate the circumstances of Adashev's death). In this regard, Sylvester left the courtyard and tonsured into the monastery, and with that, their smaller confidants also fell - the Chosen Rada came to an end.
During the siege of Tarvast in 1561, Radziwill convinced the governor of Kropotkin, Putyatin and Trusov to surrender the city. When they returned from captivity, they spent about a year in prison, and Grozny forgave them.
In 1562, due to the lack of infantry, Prince Kurbsky was defeated by Lithuanian troops near Nevel. On August 7, a peace treaty was signed between Russia and Denmark, according to which the tsar agreed with the annexation of the island of Ezel by the Danes.
On February 15, 1563, the Polish-Lithuanian garrison surrendered in Polotsk. Here, on the orders of Grozny, Thomas, a preacher of reformation ideas and an associate of Theodosius the Kosoy, was drowned in an ice hole. Skrynnikov believes that the reprisal against the Polotsk Jews was supported by the abbot of the Iosifo-Volokolamsk monastery Leonid who accompanied the tsar. Also, on the tsar's order, the Tatars who took part in the hostilities killed the Bernardine monks who were in Polotsk. The religious element in the conquest of Polotsk by Ivan the Terrible is also noted by Khoroshkevich.
« The prophecy of the Russian saint, the miracle worker Metropolitan Peter, about the city of Moscow, that his hands will be raised on the laps of his enemies, has come true: God has poured out unspeakable mercy on us unworthy, our patrimony, the city of Polotsk, has given us into our hands"- wrote the tsar, pleased that" all the wheels, levers and drives of the mechanism of power debugged by him acted precisely and clearly and justified the intentions of the organizers. "
On the proposal of the German emperor Ferdinand to conclude an alliance and join forces in the fight against the Turks, the king said that he was fighting in Livonia practically for his own interests, against the Lutherans. The tsar knew what place the idea of \u200b\u200bthe Catholic counter-reformation occupied in the policy of the Habsburgs. In opposing Luther's teachings, Grozny touched a very sensitive chord in Habsburg politics.
As soon as the Lithuanian diplomats left Russia, hostilities resumed. On January 28, 1564, P. I. Shuisky's Polotsk army, moving towards Minsk and Novogrudok, unexpectedly fell into an ambush and was utterly defeated by the troops of N. Radziwill. Grozny immediately accused the governors of M. Repnin and Y. Kashin (the heroes of the capture of Polots) of betrayal and ordered to kill them. In connection with this, Kurbsky reproached the tsar for shedding the victorious, holy blood of the “governor” in the churches of God. ”A few months later, in response to Kurbsky's accusations, Grozny directly wrote about the crime committed by the boyars.
In 1565 Augustus of Saxony stated: “ The Russians quickly set up a fleet, recruiting skippers from everywhere; when the Muscovites improve in maritime affairs, they will no longer be able to cope ...».
In September 1568, the king's ally Eric XIV was dethroned. Grozny could only vent his anger over this diplomatic failure by arresting the ambassadors sent by the new Swedish king, Johan III, announcing the break of the 1567 treaty, but this did not help change the anti-Russian character of Swedish foreign policy. The Great Eastern Program aimed to capture and incorporate into the Kingdom of Sweden not only those lands in the Baltic states that were occupied by Russia, but also Karelia and the Kola Peninsula.
In May 1570, the king signed an armistice with King Sigismund for a period of three years, despite the huge number of mutual claims. The proclamation of the king of the Livonian kingdom delighted both the Livonian nobility, who received freedom of religion and a number of other privileges, and the Livonian merchants, who received the right to free duty-free trade in Russia, and in return allowed foreign merchants, artists and technicians to enter Moscow. On December 13, the Danish king Frederick concluded an alliance with the Swedes, as a result of which the Russian-Danish alliance did not take place.
The main condition for agreeing to be elected as a Polish king was that Poland's concession to Livonia in favor of Russia, and as compensation, offering to return the Poles "Polotsk with suburbs." But on November 20, 1572, Maximilian II concluded an agreement with Grozny, according to which all ethnic Polish lands (Great Poland, Mazovia, Kuyavia, Silesia) went to the empire, and Moscow received Livonia and the Lithuanian principality with all its possessions - that is, Belarus, Podlasie, Ukraine , therefore, the noble nobility hastened with the election of the king and elected Henry of Valois.
On January 1, 1573, Russian troops under the command of Grozny took the Weissenstein fortress, Skuratov died in this battle.
On January 23, 1577, the 50,000-strong Russian army again laid siege to Revel, but failed to take the fortress. In February 1578 Nuncio Vincent Laureo reported to Rome with alarm: "The Muscovite divided his army into two parts: one is waiting near Riga, the other near Vitebsk." In the same year, having lost the guns during the siege of Venden, the tsar immediately ordered to pour out others, with the same names and signs in an even greater amount against the previous number. As a result, all of Livonia along the Dvina, with the exception of only two cities - Reval and Riga, was in the hands of the Russians.
The Tsar did not know that at the beginning of the summer offensive of 1577, Duke Magnus had betrayed his overlord, secretly contacting his enemy, Stephen Bathory, and negotiating a separate peace with him. This betrayal became apparent only six months later, when Magnus, having escaped from Livonia, finally went over to the side of the Commonwealth. Many European mercenaries were gathered in Batory's army; Bathory himself hoped that the Russians would take his side against their tyrant, and for this he started a marching printing house, in which he printed leaflets. Despite this numerical advantage, Magmet Pasha reminded Batory: “ The king takes on a difficult task; the strength of the Muscovites is great, and, with the exception of my sovereign, there is no more powerful Emperor on earth».
In 1578, the Russian army under the command of Prince Dmitry Khvorostinin took the city of Oberpalen, which was occupied by a strong Swedish garrison after the flight of King Magnus.
In 1579, the royal messenger Wenceslas Lopatinsky brought the tsar from Batory a letter declaring war. Already in August, the Polish army surrounded Polotsk. The garrison defended itself for three weeks, and its bravery was noted by Bathory himself. In the end, the fortress surrendered (August 30) and the garrison was released. Stefan's secretary Batory Heydenstein writes about the prisoners:
Nevertheless, "many archers and other Moscow people" went over to Batory's side and were settled by him in the Grodno region. Following Batory moved to Velikie Luki and took them.
Simultaneously, there were direct negotiations for peace negotiations with Poland. Ivan the Terrible offered to give Poland all of Livonia, with the exception of four cities. Bathory did not agree to this and demanded all Livonian cities, in addition Sebezh, and the payment of 400,000 Hungarian gold for military expenses. This pissed off Ivan the Terrible, and he answered with a sharp letter.
After that, in the summer of 1581, Stefan Batory invaded deep into Russia and laid siege to Pskov, which, however, was never able to take. Then the Swedes took Narva, where 7000 Russians died, then Ivangorod and Koporye. Ivan was forced to negotiate with Poland, hoping to conclude with her then an alliance against Sweden. In the end, the tsar was forced to agree to the conditions under which "the Livonian cities, which the sovereign would have to yield to the king, and Luke the Great and other cities that the king took, let him yield to the sovereign" - that is, the war that lasted almost a quarter of a century ended with the restoration status quo ante bellum, thus becoming sterile. A 10-year truce on these conditions was signed on January 15, 1582 in Yama Zapolsky.
Even before the completion of negotiations in Yama-Zapolsky, the Russian government launched preparations for a military campaign against the Swedes. The gathering of troops continued throughout the second half of December and at the turn of 1581-82, when the main controversial issues between Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth had already been settled, and the final decision was made to organize a campaign "against the Svei Germans." The offensive began on February 7, 1582 under the command of the voivode MP Katyrev-Rostovsky, and after the victory near the village of Lyalitsa, the situation in the Baltics began to change noticeably in favor of Russia.
The prospect of Russia returning the lost access to the Baltic Sea caused great concern among the king and his entourage. Bathory sent his representatives to Baron Delagardie and King Johan with an ultimatum demanding to transfer Narva and the rest of the lands of Northern Estonia to the Poles, and in return promised significant monetary compensation and assistance in the war with Russia.
Negotiations between the official representatives of Russia and Sweden began in 1582 and ended in August 1583 with the signing of a two-year armistice in the Manor with the cession of Novgorod fortresses to the Swedes - Yama, Koporye and Ivangorod. By signing an armistice for such a period, Russian politicians hoped that with the outbreak of the Polish-Swedish war they would be able to regain the Novgorod suburbs captured by the Swedes and did not want to tie their hands.
England
During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, trade relations were established with England.
In 1553, the expedition of the English navigator Richard Chancellor rounded the Kola Peninsula, entered the White Sea and dropped anchor west of the Nikolo-Korelsky Monastery opposite the village of Nyonoksa, where they established that this area was not India, but Muscovy; the next camp of the expedition was near the walls of the monastery. Having received news of the appearance of the British within his country, Ivan IV wished to meet with Chancellor, who, having overcome about 1000 km, arrived in Moscow with honors. Soon after this expedition, the Moscow Company was founded in London, which subsequently received monopoly trade rights from Tsar Ivan. In the spring of 1556, the first Russian embassy headed by Osip Nepeya was sent to England.
In 1567, through the plenipotentiary of the English ambassador Anthony Jenkinson, Ivan the Terrible negotiated a marriage with the English Queen Elizabeth I, and in 1583, through the nobleman Fyodor Pisemsky, he wooed a relative of Queen Mary Hastings.
In 1569, through her ambassador, Thomas Randolph, Elizabeth I made it clear to the king that she was not going to intervene in the Baltic conflict. In response, the tsar wrote to her that her trade representatives "do not think about our heads of state and about honor and profits, but are looking only for their trade profits," and canceled all the privileges previously granted to the Moscow trading company created by the British. The next day after that (September 5, 1569), Maria Temryukovna died. In the 1572 Council verdict it is written that she was "poisoned by the enemy's malice".
Cultural activities
Ivan IV went down in history not only as a conqueror. He was one of the most educated people of his time, he had a phenomenal memory, theological erudition. He is the author of numerous letters (including to Kurbsky, Elizabeth I, Stefan Bathory, Johan III, Vasily Gryazny, Jan Khodkevich, Jan Rokita, Prince Polubensky, to the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery), a sticheron for the Meeting of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God, canon to the Archangel Michael (under the pseudonym Parthenius the Ugly). Ivan IV was a good orator.
By order of the tsar, a unique literary monument, the Facial Chronicle Code, was created.
The tsar contributed to the organization of book printing in Moscow and the construction of St. Basil's Cathedral on Red Square. According to his contemporaries, Ivan IV was “ husband of common reasoning, in the science of book teaching he is satisfied and very talkative". He loved to travel to monasteries, was interested in describing the life of the great kings of the past. It is assumed that Ivan inherited from his grandmother Sophia Palaeologus the most valuable library of the sea despots, which included ancient Greek manuscripts; what he did with it is unknown: according to some versions, the library of Ivan the Terrible perished in one of the Moscow fires, according to others it was hidden by the tsar. In the 20th century, the search for Ivan the Terrible's library, allegedly hidden in the undergrounds of Moscow, undertaken by individual enthusiasts, became a plot that constantly attracted the attention of journalists.
Khan on the Moscow throne
In 1575, at the request of Ivan the Terrible, the baptized Tatar and Khan of Kasimov, Simeon Bekbulatovich, was crowned king as the “Grand Duke of All Russia,” and John the Terrible himself called himself Ivan of Moscow, left the Kremlin and began to live on Petrovka. After 11 months, Simeon, retaining the title of Grand Duke, went to Tver, where he was given an inheritance, and Ivan Vasilyevich again began to be called the Grand Duke of All Russia.
In 1576, Staden proposed to Emperor Rudolph: “ Your Roman-Caesar Majesty should appoint one of Your Majesty's brothers as a sovereign who would take this country and rule it ... Monasteries and churches should be closed, cities and villages should become the prey of military people»
At the same time, with the direct support of the Nogai Murzas of Prince Urus, an unrest broke out among the Volga Cheremis: cavalry numbering up to 25,000 people, attacking from Astrakhan, devastated the Belevsk, Kolomna and Alatyr lands. In conditions of insufficient number of three tsarist regiments to suppress the rebellion, the breakthrough of the Crimean horde could lead to very dangerous consequences for Russia. Obviously, wishing to avoid such a danger, the Russian government decided to transfer troops, temporarily abandoning the offensive on Sweden.
On January 15, 1580, a church council was convened in Moscow. Addressing the higher hierarchs, the tsar said directly how difficult his position was: “countless enemies rose up against the Russian state,” and therefore he asks for help from the Church.
In 1580 the tsar defeated the German settlement. The Frenchman Jacques Margeret, who has lived in Russia for many years, writes: “ The Livonians, who were taken prisoner and brought to Moscow, professing the Lutheran faith, having received two churches inside the city of Moscow, performed public services there; but in the end, because of their pride and vanity, the said temples ... were destroyed and all their houses were destroyed. And, although in winter they were expelled naked, and what their mother gave birth to, they could not blame anyone but themselves for this, for ... they behaved so arrogantly, their manners were so arrogant, and their clothes were so luxurious that they could all be mistaken for princes and princesses ... The main profit they were given the right to sell vodka, honey and other drinks, on which they profit not 10%, but a hundred, which seems incredible, but it's true».
In 1581, the Jesuit A. Possevin went to Russia, acting as an intermediary between Ivan and Poland, and at the same time hoping to persuade the Russian Church to join the Catholic Church. His failure was predicted by the Polish hetman Zamolsky: “ He is ready to swear that the Grand Duke is disposed to him and will accept the Latin faith to please him, and I am sure that these negotiations will end with the prince hitting him with a crutch and driving him away". M. V. Tolstoy writes in the History of the Russian Church: “ But the hopes of the pope and the efforts of Possevin were not crowned with success. John showed all the natural flexibility of his mind, dexterity and prudence, to which the Jesuit himself had to give justice, rejected solicitations for permission to build Latin churches in Russia, rejected disputes about faith and the unification of Churches on the basis of the rules of the Florentine Council, and was not carried away by the dreamy promise of acquiring all the Byzantine empire, lost by the Greeks as if for the retreat from Rome". The ambassador himself notes that "the Russian Emperor stubbornly avoided talking about this topic." Thus, the papal see did not receive any privileges; the possibility of Moscow joining the fold catholic church remained as vague as before, while the pope's ambassador had to take up his mediating role.
The conquest of Siberia by Yermak Timofeevich and his Cossacks in 1583 and his capture of the capital of Siberia - Isker - marked the beginning of the conversion of foreigners there to Orthodoxy: Ermak's troops were accompanied by two priests and a hieromonk.
Death
The study of the remains of Ivan the Terrible showed that in the last six years of his life he developed osteophytes (salt deposits on the spine) and to such an extent that he could no longer walk - he was carried on a stretcher. Examining the remains, M.M. Gerasimov noted that he had not seen such powerful deposits in the deepest old people. Forced immobility, combined with a general unhealthy lifestyle, nervous shocks, etc., led to the fact that in his 50s, the tsar looked like a decrepit old man.
In August 1582 A. Possevin in a report to the Venetian Signoria stated that “ the Moscow sovereign will not live long". In February and early March 1584, the tsar is still engaged in state affairs. The first mention of the illness (when the Lithuanian ambassador was stopped on his way to Moscow "in connection with the sovereign's illness") dates back to March 10. On March 16, a deterioration set in, the king fell into unconsciousness, however, on March 17 and 18 he felt relief from hot baths. But on the afternoon of March 18, the king died. The sovereign's body was swollen and smelled badly "due to decomposition of blood"
Bithliofika preserved the tsar's dying order to Boris Godunov: “ When the Great Sovereign honored the last parting, the most pure body and blood of the Lord, then as a testimony presenting the confessor of his Archimandrite Theodosius, filling his eyes with tears, saying to Boris Feodorovich: I command you my soul and my son Theodore Ivanovich and my daughter Irina ...". Also, before his death, according to the chronicles, the tsar bequeathed to his youngest son Dmitry Uglich with all the counties.
Find out with certainty whether the death of the king was caused by natural causes or was violent, difficult.
There were persistent rumors about the violent death of Grozny. The chronicler of the 17th century reported that “ the king was given poison by his neighbors". According to the testimony of clerk Ivan Timofeev, Boris Godunov and Bogdan Belsky " prematurely terminated the life of the king". Crown hetman Zholkevsky also accused Godunov: “ He took the life of Tsar Ivan by bribing the doctor who treated Ivan, because the matter was such that if he had not warned him (did not get ahead of him), then he himself would have been executed with many other noble nobles". The Dutchman Isaac Massa wrote that Belsky put poison in the royal medicine. Gorsey also wrote about the secret plans of the Godunovs against the tsar and put forward a version of the strangulation of the tsar, with which V.I. Koretsky agrees: “ Apparently, the king was first given poison, and then, for loyalty, in the confusion that arose after he suddenly fell, they also strangled". The historian Valishevsky wrote: “ Bogdan Belsky (with) his advisers tormented Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich, and now he wants to beat the boyars and wants to find the kingdom of Moscow under Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich for his adviser (Godunov)».
The version of the poisoning of Grozny was tested during the opening of the royal tombs in 1963: studies showed a normal content of arsenic in the remains and an increased content of mercury, which, however, was present in many medicines of the 16th century and which was used to treat syphilis, which the tsar allegedly suffered from. The version of the murder was considered not confirmed, but not refuted either.
The character of the king according to reviews of contemporaries
Ivan grew up in an environment palace coups, the struggle for power between the warring boyar families of Shuisky and Belsky. Therefore, it was believed that the murders, intrigues and violence that surrounded him contributed to the development of suspicion, vindictiveness and cruelty in him. S. Solovyov, analyzing the influence of the mores of the era on the character of Ivan IV, notes that he “was not aware of the moral, spiritual means for establishing truth and dress, or, even worse, having realized, he forgot about them; instead of healing, he intensified the disease, taught it even more to torture, bonfires and chopping blocks. "
However, in the era of the Chosen Council, the king was characterized with enthusiasm. One of his contemporaries writes about the 30-year-old Grozny: “The custom of the John is to keep oneself pure before God. And in the church, and in solitary prayer, and in the boyar council, and among the people, he has one feeling: “Yes, I rule, as the Almighty has indicated to rule over his true Anointed ones!” The judgment is impartial, the safety of everyone and the general, the integrity of the states entrusted to him, the triumph of faith , freedom of Christians is his everlasting thought. Burdened with deeds, he knows no other pleasures except a peaceful conscience, except the pleasure of fulfilling his duty; does not want the usual coolness of the king ... Affectionate to the nobles and the people - loving, rewarding everyone at their dignity - with generosity eradicating poverty, and evil - with an example of good, this God-born King wants to hear the voice of mercy on the day of the Last Judgment:
“He is so prone to anger that, being in him, he emits foam like a horse, and comes, as it were, into madness; in this state, he also rages on the counter. - Writes by Ambassador Daniel Prinz from Bukhov. - The cruelty that he often commits on his own, whether it has a beginning in his nature, or in the baseness (malitia) of his subjects, I cannot say. When he is at the table, the eldest son sits on his right hand. He himself is rude; for he leans on the table with his elbows, and since he does not use any plates, he eats food, taking it with his hands, and sometimes puts the half-eaten back into the cup (in patinam). Before drinking or eating anything from the proposed, he usually marks himself with a large cross and looks at the hanging images of the Virgin Mary and St. Nicholas. "
Prince Katyrev-Rostovsky gives Grozny the following famous characteristic:
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Tsar Ivan in an absurd way, his eyes are gray, his nose is stretched out and a gag; he is great in age, he has a dry body, his shoulders are high, his breasts are wide, the muscles are thick, the husband of common reasoning, in the science of book teaching, he is satisfied and talkative very much, he is daring to the militia and stands for his country. To his servants, from God given to him, he is hard-hearted nobles, and he is impudent and implacable to shed blood to kill; Destroy a multitude of people, young and old, in your kingdom, and many hails of your own, and imprison many of the hierarchical ranks and destroy unmerciful death, and many other deceit on your servants, wives and maidens, defile fornication. The same Tsar Ivan create a lot of good things, the army of Velmi is loving and demanding from their treasures you will not be poorly given. Such is Tsar Ivan. N.V. Vodovozov. History of Old Russian Literature |
Historian Solovyov believes that it is necessary to consider the personality and character of the tsar in the context of his environment in his youth:
Appearance
Evidence from contemporaries about the appearance of Ivan the Terrible is very scarce. All available portraits of him, according to K. Valishevsky, are of dubious authenticity. According to his contemporaries, he was lean, tall and well-built. Ivan's eyes were blue with a penetrating gaze, although in the second half of his reign they already noted a gloomy and sullen face. The king shaved his head, wore a large mustache and a thick reddish beard, which turned very gray towards the end of his reign.
The Venetian ambassador Marco Foscarino writes about the appearance of 27-year-old Ivan Vasilyevich: "he is handsome."
German Ambassador Daniel Prinz, who twice visited Ivan the Terrible in Moscow, described the 46-year-old Tsar: “He is very tall. The body is full of strength and quite thick, big eyes, who are constantly running around him and everyone is watching in the most careful way. His beard is red (rufa), with a slight shade of blackness, rather long and thick, but the hair on his head, like most Russians, shaves with a razor. "
In 1963, the tomb of Ivan the Terrible was opened in the Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. The tsar was buried in the attire of a schemonk. According to the remains, it was established that the growth of Ivan the Terrible was about 179-180 centimeters. In the last years of his life, his weight was 85-90 kg. The Soviet scientist M.M. Gerasimov used the technique he developed to restore the appearance of Ivan the Terrible from the surviving skull and skeleton. According to the results of the study, we can say that “by the age of 54 the tsar was already an old man, his face was covered with deep wrinkles, under his eyes there were huge bags. The clearly expressed asymmetry (the left eye, collarbone and scapula were much larger than the right ones), the heavy nose of the descendant of the Palaeologus, the fastidiously sensual mouth made him look unattractive. "
Family and personal life
On December 13, 1546, 16-year-old Ivan consulted with Metropolitan Macarius about his desire to marry. Immediately after the wedding to the kingdom in January, noble dignitaries, entourage and clerks began to go around the country, looking for a bride for the king. A review of brides was organized. The choice of the tsar fell on Anastasia, the daughter of the widow Zakharyina. At the same time, Karamzin says that the tsar was guided not by the nobility of the family, but by the personal merits of Anastasia. The wedding took place on February 13, 1547 in the Church of Our Lady.
The king's marriage lasted 13 years, up to sudden death Anastasia in the summer of 1560. The death of his wife greatly influenced the 30-year-old king, after which historians note a turning point in the nature of his reign.
A year after the death of his wife, the tsar entered into a second marriage, uniting with Maria, who came from a family of Kabardian princes.
The number of wives of Ivan the Terrible has not been precisely established; historians mention the names of seven women who were considered the wives of Ivan IV. Of these, only the first four are "married", that is, legal from the point of view of church law (for the fourth marriage, which is prohibited by the canons, Ivan received a conciliar decision on its admissibility). Moreover, according to the 50th rule of Basil the Great, even the third marriage is already a violation of the canons: “ there is no law for three marriage; therefore, the third marriage is not legal. We regard such deeds as uncleanness in the Church, but we do not subject them to nationwide condemnation as better than dissolute fornication.". The rationale for the need for a fourth marriage was the sudden death of the third wife of the king. Ivan IV swore to the clergy that she did not manage to become his wife. The 3rd and 4th wives of the king were also selected based on the results of the bride show.
A possible explanation for the multiplicity of marriages, which was not typical for that time, is K. Valishevsky's assumption that John was a great lover of women, but at the same time he was a great pedant in observing religious rites and sought to possess a woman only as a legitimate husband.
In addition, the country needed an adequate heir.
On the other hand, according to John Horsey, who knew him personally, “he himself boasted that he had corrupted a thousand virgins and that thousands of his children were deprived of their lives.” According to V. B. Kobrin, this statement, although it contains an explicit exaggeration, vividly characterizes the depravity of the tsar Himself the Terrible in his spiritual literacy recognized for himself both "fornication" simply, and "extraordinary wanderings" in particular:
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From Adam to this day, all the transgressions in the iniquities of those who have sinned, for this, for the sake of everyone, I hate the murder of Cain, we became like Lamech, the first murderer, who followed Esau with bad intemperance, Reuben became like who defiled the father and the wrath of many incapacity. And even before the mind of God and the king is passionate, I have been corrupted by the mind, and beastly with mind and understanding, before the very head of desecration by desire and thought of inappropriate deeds, the mouth of the reasoning of murder, and fornication, and every evil of doing, the language of shame, and foul language and anger, and rage, and intemperance of any unseemly deed, the eyes and persecutions of pride and aspirations of a high-spoken reason, the hand of touching the unseemly, and robbery is unsatisfactory, and forcing, and internal murder, her thoughts by all nasty and unseemly desecration, greed, and drink extraordinary wanderings, and improper abstinence and girdle on every evil deed, but the flow of evil, and foul deeds, and murder, and the plundering of unsatisfactory wealth, and other improper mockery. (Spiritual charter of Ivan the Terrible, June-August 1572) |
The burials of four, legal for the church, wives of Ivan the Terrible were until 1929 in the Ascension Monastery, the traditional burial place of the great princesses and Russian tsarinas: „ Next to the mother of Grozny are four of his spouses“.
Order |
Years of life |
Wedding date |
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Anastasia Romanovna, died during her husband's lifetime |
Anna (died at 11 months of age), Maria, Evdokia, Dmitry (died in infancy), Ivan and Fedor |
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Maria Temryukovna ( Kucheny) |
Son Vasily (b. 2 / Art. Art. / March - † 6 / Art. Art. / May 1563. Buried in the royal tomb of the Archangel Cathedral. |
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Martha Sobakina (died (poisoned) two weeks after the wedding) |
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Anna Koltovskaya (forcibly tonsured into a nun under the name Daria) |
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Maria Dolgorukaya (died for unknown reasons, according to some sources, killed (drowned) after the wedding night by Ivan) |
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Anna Vasilchikova (forcibly tonsured as a nun, died a violent death) |
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Vasilisa Melentyevna (referred to in sources as „ bridegroom“; Forcibly tonsured into a nun in 1577, according to legendary sources - killed by Ivan) |
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Maria Nagaya |
Dmitry Ivanovich (died in 1591 in Uglich) |
Children
Sons
- Dmitry Ivanovich (1552-1553), heir to his father during a fatal illness in 1553; in the same year, the infant was accidentally dropped by a nurse while being loaded onto a ship, he fell into the river and drowned.
- Ivan Ivanovich (1554-1581), according to one version, died during a quarrel with his father, according to another version, died as a result of illness on November 19. Married three times, left no offspring.
- Fyodor I Ioannovich, no male children. By the birth of his son, Ivan the Terrible ordered to build a church in the Feodorovsky monastery in the city of Pereslavl-Zalessky. This temple in honor of Theodore Stratilates became the main cathedral of the monastery and has survived to this day.
- tsarevich Dmitry, died in childhood
The results of the activities of Ivan the Terrible through the eyes of contemporaries and historians
The dispute about the results of the reign of Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich has been going on for five centuries. It began during the life of Grozny. It should be noted that in Soviet times, the prevailing views of the government of Ivan the Terrible in official historiography were directly dependent on the current “general party line”.
Contemporaries
Assessing the results of the tsar's activities to create Russian artillery, J. Fletcher wrote in 1588:
The same J. Fletcher pointed out the strengthening of the powerlessness of commoners, which negatively affected their motivation to work:
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I often saw how they, spreading their goods (such as furs, etc.), all looked back and looked at the doors, like people who are afraid that they will not be overtaken and captured by some enemy. When I asked them why they were doing this, I found out that they doubted whether among the visitors there was one of the royal nobles or some boyar's son, and so that they would not come with their accomplices and forcibly take all product. That is why the people (although generally capable of enduring all sorts of labors) indulge in laziness and drunkenness, not caring about anything more than their daily food. From the same it occurs that the works characteristic of Russia (as mentioned above, such as: wax, lard, leather, flax, hemp, etc.) are mined and exported abroad in quantities that are much smaller than before, for the people, being embarrassed and deprived of everything that he gains, loses all desire to work. |
Assessing the results of the tsar's activities to strengthen autocracy and eradicate heresies, the German oprichnik Staden wrote:
Historiography of the 19th century
Karamzin describes Grozny as a great and wise sovereign in the first half of his reign, a ruthless tyrant in the second:
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Between other difficult experiences of Fate, beyond the disasters of the Specific system, beyond the yoke of the Mongols, Russia had to experience the threat of the autocrat-tormentor: she resisted with love for the autocracy, for she believed that God would send both an ulcer and an earthquake and tyrants; she did not break the iron scepter in the hands of the Ioannovs and for twenty-four years she bore the destroyer, armed only with prayer and patience (...) In magnanimous humility, the sufferers died on the frontal place, like the Greeks in Thermopylae for their fatherland, for Faith and Faithfulness, without even a thought of rebellion. In vain, some foreign historians, excusing the cruelty of Ioannov, wrote about conspiracies, supposedly destroyed by her: these conspiracies existed only in the vague mind of the Tsar, according to all the evidence of our chronicles and state papers. The clergy, Boyars, and famous citizens would not have summoned the beast from the den of Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda if they were contemplating treason, which would be as absurd as witchcraft. No, the tiger drank in the blood of the lambs - and the victims, dying in innocence, with their last glance at the poor land demanded justice, a touching memory from their contemporaries and posterity !. |
From the point of view of N.I. Kostomarov, almost all the achievements during the reign of Ivan the Terrible fell on the initial period of his reign, when the young tsar was not yet an independent figure and was under the close tutelage of the leaders of the Chosen Rada. The subsequent period of Ivan's reign was marked by numerous external and internal political failures. NI Kostomarov also draws the reader's attention to the content of the "Spiritual Testament", drawn up by Ivan the Terrible around 1572, according to which the country was supposed to be divided between the sons of the tsar into semi-independent portions. The historian argues that this path would lead to the actual collapse of a single state according to a scheme well-known in Russia.
SM Solovyov saw the main regularity of Grozny's activity in the transition from "tribal" relations to "state" ones.
V.O. Klyuchevsky considered Ivan's internal policy pointless: “The question of state order turned for him into a question of personal security, and he, like an overly frightened person, began to beat right and left, not sorting out friends and enemies”; oprichnina, from his point of view, prepared "real sedition" - Time of Troubles.
Historiography of the XX century.
S. F. Platonov saw the strengthening of Russian statehood in the activities of Ivan the Terrible, but he condemned him for the fact that "a complex political case was further complicated by unnecessary torture and gross debauchery", that the reforms "took on the character of general terror."
In the early 1920s, R. Yu. Vipper considered Ivan the Terrible as a brilliant organizer and creator of the largest power, in particular, he wrote about him: “Ivan the Terrible, a contemporary of Elizabeth of England, Philip II of Spain and William of Orange, the leader of the Netherlands revolution, has solve military, administrative and international tasks similar to the goals of the creators of the new European powers, but in a much more difficult environment. Perhaps he surpasses all of them with his talents as a diplomat and organizer. " Vipper justified harsh measures in domestic politics by the seriousness of the international situation in which Russia found itself: “The division of the reign of Ivan the Terrible into two different epochs included an assessment of the personality and activities of Ivan the Terrible: it served as the main basis for belittling his historical role, for him among the greatest tyrants. Unfortunately, when analyzing this issue, most historians focused their attention on changes in the internal life of the Moscow state and paid little attention to the international situation in which (it) found itself during ... the reign of Ivan IV. Harsh critics seem to have forgotten that the entire second half of the reign of Ivan the Terrible passed under the sign of continuous war, and, moreover, the most difficult war ever waged by the Great Russian state. "
At that time, Wipper's views were rejected by Soviet science (in the 1920s-1930s, they saw in Grozny the oppressor of the people who prepared serfdom), but were subsequently supported at a time when the personality and activities of Ivan the Terrible received official approval from Stalin. During this period, the terror of Grozny was justified by the fact that the oprichnina “finally and forever broke the boyars, made it impossible to restore the order of feudal fragmentation and consolidated the foundations of the state structure of the Russian national state”; this approach continued the concept of Soloviev-Platonov, but was supplemented by the idealization of the image of Ivan.
In the 1940s-1950s, Academician S. B. Veselovsky did a lot of work with Ivan the Terrible, who, due to the position prevailing at that time, was unable to publish his main works during his lifetime; he abandoned the idealization of Ivan the Terrible and the oprichnina and introduced a large number of new materials into scientific circulation. Veselovsky saw the roots of terror in the conflict between the monarch and the administration (the Tsar's court as a whole), and not specifically with the large feudal lords-boyars; he believed that in practice Ivan did not change the status of the boyars and general order governing the country, but limited himself to the destruction of specific real and imaginary opponents (the fact that Ivan “beat not only boyars and not even boyars predominantly” was already pointed out by Klyuchevsky).
At first, the concept of Ivan's "statist" domestic policy was also supported by AA Zimin, speaking about the justified terror against the feudal lords who betrayed their national interests. Subsequently, Zimin accepted Veselovsky's concept of the absence of a systematic struggle against the boyars; in his opinion, the oprichnina terror had the most destructive effect on the Russian peasantry. Zimin recognized both crimes and state services of Grozny:
V. B. Kobrin assesses the results of the oprichnina extremely negatively:
Tsar Ivan and the Church
Rapprochement with the West under John IV could not remain without the fact that the foreigners who came to Russia did not converse with the Russians and did not bring in the spirit of religious speculation and debate that was then prevailing in the West.
In the fall of 1553, a cathedral was opened in the case of Matvey Bashkin and his accomplices. A number of accusations were brought against the heretics: denial of the holy catholic apostolic church, denial of the worship of icons, denial of the power of repentance, disdain for the ruling of ecumenical councils, etc. The Chronicle reports: “ And the tsar and the metropolitan ordered him, having seized, tortured about these; he is a Christian of his own confession, hidden in his own enmity charm, satanic heresy, more insane from the All-Seeing Eye to hide».
The most significant are the tsar's relations with Metropolitan Macarius and his reforms, Metropolitan Philip, Archpriest Sylvester, as well as the cathedrals that took place at that time - they were reflected in the activities of the Stoglava Cathedral.
One of the manifestations of Ivan IV's deep religiosity was his significant contributions to various monasteries. Numerous donations for the commemoration of the souls of people killed by the order of the sovereign himself have no analogues not only in Russian, but also in European history.
The question of canonization
At the end of the 20th century, part of the church and near-church circles discussed the question of the canonization of Grozny. This idea met with the categorical condemnation of the church hierarchy and the patriarch, who pointed to the historical failure of the rehabilitation of Grozny, to his crimes before the church (the murder of saints), as well as those who rejected allegations of his popular veneration.
Ivan the Terrible in popular culture
Cinema
- Tsar Ivan Vasilievich the Terrible (1915) - Fedor Chaliapin
- Cabinet wax figures (1924) - Konrad Veidt
- Slave Wings (1924) - Leonid Leonidov
- The first printer Ivan Fedorov (1941) - Pavel Springfeld
- Ivan the Terrible (1944) - Nikolay Cherkasov
- The Tsar's Bride (1965) - Peter Glebov
- Ivan Vasilievich changes his profession (1973) - Yuri Yakovlev
- Tsar Ivan the Terrible (1991) - Kakhi Kavsadze
- Kremlin Secrets of the Sixteenth Century (1991) - Alexey Zharkov
- The Revelation of John the First Printer (1991) - Innokenty Smoktunovsky
- Thunderstorm over Russia (1992) - Oleg Borisov
- Ermak (1996) - Evgeny Evstigneev
- Tsar (2009) - Pyotr Mamonov.
- Ivan the Terrible (2009 TV series) - Alexander Demidov.
- Night at the Museum 2 (2009) - Christopher Guest
Computer games
- In Age of Empires III Ivan the Terrible is introduced as the leader of the playable Russian civilization
- Imran Zakhaev was created from the skull of Ivan the Terrible in Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare
The year 1547 for Russia was full of significant events that, in a sense, turned the course of history. In January, for the first time in history, a wedding ceremony for the reign of the young Prince Ivan IV took place.
Two weeks later, a wedding took place between the young tsar and Anastasia Zakharyina. The king's wife went down in history as a wise and unusually kind woman who had tremendous political influence.
Reign wedding
The royal wedding procedure was widely practiced among the Byzantine emperors. In the eyes of Ivan IV he himself and the whole country were the recipients of the power of Byzantium. Therefore, the desire of the king to bear a divine character for the people is justified by the goal of creating a strong state.
The wedding of the king to the reign was very beneficial for the representatives of the church, this opened them a direct path to state power. During the ritual of the wedding to the reign, the metropolitan solemnly placed on Ivan IV all the attributes of royal power: the Monomakh's hat, a cross made of a life-giving tree, as well as barmas.
In conclusion, the king was anointed with peace, which meant the recognition of his being chosen by God. The inorganic autocratic power, which Ivan so passionately dreamed of in his youth, was now in his hands.
In European countries, the word "king" was translated as "emperor", which allowed Ivan IV to have the same status as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire. This praised him in the eyes of foreign diplomacy.
The Catholic Church reacted very harshly to the coronation of Ivan Vasilyevich: it considered him unworthy to be the bearer of divine power and perceived him primarily as an impostor, and the procedure for wedding to the kingdom as an unheard of insolence.
First difficulties
Less than six months after Ivan IV ascended the throne, Russia was engulfed in major fires, which became a real test for the young tsar. On June 21, 1547, the fire practically completely destroyed Moscow: 26 thousand houses burned down, about 2 thousand people died.
Paradoxical as it may seem, the people laid the responsibility for the arson on the royal couple and the princes Glinsky who were close to them. Ivan IV and his wife were forced to leave for the Moscow region, the Glinsky family found refuge in a monastery.
The population of the city arranged a veche cathedral, at which it was decided to take revenge on the organizers of the arson. The townspeople destroyed the Glinsky estate and killed one of the family members.
The tsar still managed to go to a truce with the inhabitants of Moscow, but a new test awaited him ahead - uprisings in other cities. Crop failure and higher taxes caused a riot among the peasants, who were on the verge of starvation.
The tsar adopted a number of reforms, which, by and large, did not have a positive effect on the socio - economic state of the country, but only contributed to its centralization. In the first months of the tsar's reign, the actual power in the country belonged to the Glinsky, who, as the closest relatives of his mother, had a huge influence on the decisions of Ivan Vasilyevich.
But after the events of the summer of 1547, the Glinsky family fell. For the first time, the king realized all the complexities of sole rule and developed his own system of politics
Ivan the Terrible belonged to those rare rulers who not only introduce new political practices, but also bring new political ideas to the throne. One of such ideological innovations, which changed the face of the Moscow autocracy, will be discussed.
The case concerned the imperial title of the Moscow sovereigns. The first of the great Moscow princes, who began to call himself tsar, was the grandfather of Ivan the Terrible, Ivan III. He's the first time in russian history crowned his grandson Dmitry, who, however, was soon removed from the throne in favor of his son Vasily III, the father of the Terrible. However, neither Ivan III nor Vasily III dared to be called tsars before foreign sovereigns. Their royal title was intended only for domestic, household use: it was mentioned in government acts that circulated exclusively within the Moscow state.
16-year-old Ivan Vasilyevich boldly threw this false modesty.
The young sovereign was lucky that there was a man at court who embodied the best features of education and morality of that time - Metropolitan Macarius. His contemporaries unanimously recognize that his extraordinary personality is a truly nationwide pastoral authority. Already in Novgorod, during the time of his archbishopric, Macarius was unusually popular - he was revered as a "teaching" and "holy" person. He possessed the gift of a simple, heartfelt word and a wonderful talent as a preacher, - "he talked with the people with many stories" so accessible and understandable that everyone "wondered what wisdom from God was given to him in Divine Scripture - just to explain to everyone (the Word of God)" ... Eloquence and education were combined in him with an everyday mind and practical skill.
Having moved from Novgorod to Moscow to the Metropolitanate, Macarius with heartfelt contrition found here not only state troubles, but also a young man, wild and withdrawn, abandoned by everyone and completely left to himself. He was probably the first who tried to seriously make up for the shortcomings in Ivan's education and upbringing. The appearance next to Ivan Makarii, familiar with the entire circle of the then reading, could not but expand the literary interests of the young man, gifted by nature with intelligence and curiosity. Ivan eagerly pounced on books, reading everything indiscriminately - the Bible and church history, Russian chronicles and Byzantine chronographs - then history textbooks.
Makarii's teachings did not merge, however, with the spiritual essence of Ivan, except for those conversations in which the metropolitan could relate to the exclusiveness of the religious and political position of the Moscow state as the heir to Byzantium (these ideas matured primarily in the educated church environment), and the sacred, mystical significance of the autocratic authorities. For around these two questions Ivan's thought swirled relentlessly, bewitched and absorbed by their greatness. He found his own method of reading the Holy Scriptures, looking in the sacred texts for the secret of his fate and interpreting the word of God under the dictation of irritated feelings.
The book was for him the subject of intense reflections and acute experiences. In ancient texts, Ivan looked for and found examples, teachings, predictions and prophecies concerning his time and himself. “There is no power, if not from God”; “Every soul must obey the powers that be”; “Woe to the hail that many have” - Ivan understood these biblical aphorisms and teachings in his own way, tried them on to himself, applied them to his position. They gave him confirmation, sanctified by God's name, of his own observations and conclusions drawn by him from the court revolts, and made it possible to find a moral justification for the hatred that overwhelmed him for people who had robbed him of the dignity of man and sovereign. The majestic images of the Old Testament chosen and anointed of God - Moses, Saul, David, Solomon - fascinated his imagination; looking at them as in a mirror, he saw on his face the reflection of their glory and greatness. From childhood, having created for himself his ideal of the sovereign, the Tsar of Kings, the heir of the world state-religious tradition - Roman Caesarism and Greek Orthodoxy, he gained in books the confidence that before it was only a guess: this sovereign is himself.
In this opinion, he could also be strengthened by reading the Russian chronicles, which spoke of the many omens that marked his birth. He could read about himself that even “when the boy grew in his mother's womb, the sadness from the heart of men receded”; that one holy fool, by the name of Dementius, to the question of pregnant Elena, whom she would give birth to, answered: “A son of Titus, that is, a broad mind, will be born”; finally, that on August 25, 1530, a terrible thunder suddenly rolled over the whole Russian land, lightning flashed and the earth shook! After they learned that at that hour Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich was born. The chroniclers did not attach such importance to any princely birth. There was something to dizzy with! ..
And so, gradually, from reading a wide variety of sources, Ivan developed and strengthened the consciousness of his high chosenness. He was the first of the Moscow sovereigns to feel in himself a tsar in the true biblical sense, an anointed of God. This political revelation about himself turned out to be fatal for him. The earthly dust imagines itself to be God in its possession.
On January 14, 1547, after a prayer service in the Assumption Cathedral, the clergy and all the boyars were invited to the Grand Duke, who announced to them his intention to “look for the ancestral ranks, just as our ancestors, kings and grand dukes sat on the kingdom and the great reign, and I also want to fulfill this rite and sit on the kingdom and the great reign ”.
The royal wedding took place two days later, on Sunday. In the Assumption Cathedral, Metropolitan Macarius blessed him and placed a cross, barmas and a crown on the Grand Duke. This entire rite, with some variations, was a repetition of the wedding ceremony of Grand Duke Dmitry, grandson of Ivan III, which took place half a century ago. However, it was January 16, 1547 that can be considered the true birthday of the tsarist power in Russia. Ivan the Terrible became the first Russian tsar not because certain rites were performed over him, but because he was the first to understand all the political and mystical significance of the tsarist power. His wedding to the kingdom was given the significance of an ecumenical church act. In a council decree of 1561 issued on this occasion, Grozny was called "the sovereign of all Christians from East to West." In other words, from now on, the Moscow tsar openly declared to the whole world that he was the ecumenical king of Orthodoxy, the keeper of the true faith and the protector of all Orthodox Christians. It was precisely this sacred significance that the royal power had in Byzantium, which served as a political model for Ivan the Terrible.
Throne of Ivan the Terrible
Russian scribes and, in general, all educated Russian people of that time attached great importance to Ivan's crowning with the royal crown - in his radiance they saw a reflection of the increased power and glory of Russia. The general enthusiasm was genuine. Even the Novgorod Chronicle, which cannot be suspected of an excess of sympathy for Moscow, responded to this event with an enthusiastic panegyric: “And the Tsar and the Grand Duke, the great autocrat of all the greats of Russia, was called ... And he kept all pagan countries in fear ... he was not glorified as a tsar in Russia, none of them dared to become tsar and be called by that new name, fearing envy and revolt of filthy kings against them. "
So, in the exorbitant self-conceit of a 16-year-old youth, Russia acquired a national idea and for the first time realized the majestic exclusivity of its state existence. By his wedding to the kingdom, Ivan the Terrible turned Russia into a world power with that "special article", which is mentioned in the famous Tyutchev quatrain. And this power very soon forced both the Asian East and the European West to reckon with themselves.
Received his nickname "Grozny" not from the day of his rule. At first, when he ruled under the regency of his mother, and then the boyars, no one thought that this boy would terrify many. My father died when he was only three years old.
Under the young tsar, his mother, Elena Glinskaya, began to rule. But five years later she died, there is a version that the boyars poisoned her. So he remained in the care of the boyar clans. They were in a constant struggle for power, so the little sovereign had to see intrigues and reprisals. When the young man was 17 years old, it was decided to hold a wedding in the kingdom.
Ivan's life 4 before the wedding
Before going through the wedding procedure, he had a hard time. His childhood life was not so joyful. As mentioned above, very cruel things were happening before his eyes. was born in 1530. The boy was healthy and handsome. Three years later, not long before his death, Vasily III appointed a special Guardianship Council under the boy. This body was supposed to govern the state until the young man came of age. That is, when he turned 17 years old and the wedding to the kingdom took place, the young man received all the power.
Before the wedding, the boy was not particularly favored, he later wrote in his correspondence more than once about his childhood. spoke about the boyars' mistreatment of him and his brother Yuri. They did not receive human warmth, they were poorly fed and clothed. And sometimes they were forced to do things, not for years by adults. Thus I learned a cruel lesson. From childhood, he became suspicious, later this feeling grew with age. And by the last decade of life, it had become simply threatening. The king suspected everyone around of treason and infidelity.
Everything was different when the state receptions took place. There, in front of the little sovereign, everyone showed their respect and humility. But then there came again coldness in attitude. I remembered this more than once in my adult life. In addition, in 1542 he experienced a very strong fear. Then the boyar clan decided to deal with Metropolitan Josaph. The Metropolitan took refuge in the little one’s house. But the boyars knocked out the windows there and broke into the emperor's bedroom, thereby frightening. This greatly crippled his psychological state.
The cruelty among which Ivan 4 grew up, by the time of the wedding gave rise to a great sense of fear in him. From an early age he began to think that no one should be trusted. This made him constantly look around and suspect many. He constantly waited and tried to prevent the attack of the enemies. This feeling soon became commonplace for him. And by old age, he became completely paranoid. It is clear that the constant feeling of fear made Ivan commit cruel acts.
Ivan the Terrible wedding procedure 4
So, at the age of 16 I decided to get married. A bride was picked up for him. Then the sovereign wanted to accept a new title that the rulers of Russia had not previously bore - tsar. There are several points of view here. No one can say with complete certainty who initiated the royal wedding. One point of view gives the palm. Allegedly suffering a bad attitude from the boyars from childhood, he zealously strove for power. The second point of view attributes the initiative to Metropolitan Macarius. They say that when he gave a blessing for marriage, he advised him to marry the kingdom.
The wedding ceremony took place in the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow. The ceremony took place on January 16, 1547. In order to accept the title of tsar, the metropolitan had to conduct a special detachment - chrismation. That is, the king is the anointed of God, his governor on earth, endowed with power. During the wedding, the future king was entrusted with special regalia - a Monomakh hat, a life-giving cross and gold chain... The order of the wedding was determined by a special document - "Order of the wedding to the kingdom."
Kingdom wedding
On January 16, 1547, the wedding ceremony for the reign of Ivan IV took place. Acceptance of the royal title, of course, was a very important step both for Ivan himself and for the country. In Russia, the emperors of Byzantium and the khans of the Golden Horde were called tsars. And now his own monarch appeared with a title equal to the titles of foreign rulers. The "Tsar", in contrast to the "Grand Duke", was perceived not as the first among equals, but as standing on a higher level, above all. And in international relations, the title of the king corresponded to the titles of king and emperor.
TSAR (from lat. caesar - Caesar, title of Roman emperors) - the official title of the head of state in Russia since 1547.
For the first time in Russia the term "tsar" is found in the 11th century. in the record of the death of Yaroslav the Wise (1054) on the wall of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kiev. As scientists have found out, in the 11-13 centuries. the title "king" did not necessarily denote the oldest of the princes and was not the opposite of the title "prince". It was used in the glorification of the prince using Byzantine eloquence in order to emphasize the political weight of the prince.
During the period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, the rulers of the Golden Horde were considered “kings” in Russia, and the Russian princes treated them like slaves to their master. But with the strengthening of the Moscow Grand Duchy in the 14th century. the situation has changed. In the end. 14th century Temnik Mamai appropriated a royal title that did not belong to him, which gave Dmitry Ivanovich legal grounds to oppose the usurper in 1380.
All R. 15th century, after the collapse of the Golden Horde and death Byzantine Empire (1453), the Russian state remained the only Orthodox state that retained its independence. Therefore, Russian sovereigns began to include the title "Tsar" in their titles. From the end. 15th century, under Ivan III the title "Tsar" appears in some Russian foreign policy documents. The question of the royal title was also raised during the reign of Ivan's son, Vasily III. On the gold seal attached to the letter with the text of the peace treaty with Denmark (1516), Vasily Ivanovich is referred to as "the tsar and the sovereign". The same title can be found in the letter of Basil III to the Pope (1526).
The official tsarist title was the first in Russia to be accepted by Ivan IV Vasilyevich the Terrible, who was crowned tsar in 1547.
In 1721, Tsar Peter I assumed the title of emperor. The term "king" was retained as part of the full imperial title. E. G.
IVA? N IV VASI? LEVICH GRO? ZNY (08/25/1530– 03/18/1584) - Grand Duke of Moscow and All Russia from 1533, the first Russian tsar from 1547.
Son of Grand Duke Vasily III Ivanovich and his second wife Elena Vasilievna Glinskaya. In 1533 Vasily III died, and the three-year-old Ivan Vasilievich became the Grand Duke of Moscow.
In the early childhood of the Grand Duke, the state was ruled by his mother Elena Glinskaya. In 1538, she died suddenly, and power actually passed to the Boyar Duma. Constant intrigues and a fierce struggle for power between various boyar groups had a significant impact on the formation of the character of the young sovereign. From the age of twelve, Ivan IV began to make independent decisions. In 1543 he ordered to send boyar Andrei Shuisky to the hunters to be mocked. On the way to the prison, Shuisky was killed. Ivan sent many boyars to exile, to prison, and to whom he ordered to have their tongue cut out.
On January 16, 1547, in the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin, Ivan IV Vasilyevich was married to the kingdom and was the first of the Moscow sovereigns to be officially called tsar. This act meant that the Russian state put itself on a par with the most powerful powers in Europe.
The first Russian tsar surrounded himself with new advisers, whose opinion on how to conduct state affairs, he greatly valued. At that time, his confessor, priest of the Kremlin Cathedral of the Annunciation, Sylvester, nobleman Alexei Adashev, and Metropolitan Macarius, enjoyed special influence on the tsar. These people headed a new, close council under the sovereign ("Chosen Rada"), which ousted the Boyar Duma. The “Chosen Rada” pursued a policy of state centralization, sought to reconcile the interests of boyars, nobles, clergy and subordinate them to national tasks. The reforms carried out by "Rada" with the personal and very active participation of the tsar made it possible to significantly strengthen the Russian state and expand its borders.
In 1551, on the initiative of Ivan IV, the Stoglavy Cathedral took place, which made the most important decisions on the organization of church life. In May - October 1552, the tsar took part in the campaign against Kazan, which ended with the annexation of the Kazan Khanate. In 1556 the Astrakhan Khanate was conquered. In 1558, on the initiative of the tsar, the Livonian War began, the purpose of which was to return the Russian lands in the Baltic.
In March 1553 Ivan IV fell seriously ill and was close to death. Boyars and princes had to swear allegiance to the Tsarevich, the baby Dmitry. In the boyar environment, feuds arose, in which Prince Vladimir Andreevich Staritsky, a cousin of the tsar, took part. The boyars were not opposed to swearing allegiance to Dmitry, but did not want to strengthen the power of the Zakharyin family, the relatives of the tsarevich. But in the end, the oath was taken. Later, Ivan IV, who recovered, viewed these disputes as a boyar conspiracy in favor of Vladimir Staritsky and treason.
Ivan IV was burdened by the fact that his actions were discussed by members of the "Chosen Rada" and boyars. In the end. 1550s Sylvester and Adashev were removed from Moscow. Later, many other boyars and nobles were persecuted and executed. Metropolitan Macarius died in 1563.
In the winter of 1564-1565. Ivan IV unexpectedly left Moscow and moved to the Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda. At his request, the entire state was divided into two parts - oprichnina and zemstvo. The oprichnina became a special inheritance ruled by the tsar himself - it included many districts in different regions of the country, including part of the territory of Moscow. The oprichnina had its own army, its own thought, its own orders and the royal oprichnina court.
Life in the Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda was organized following the example and likeness of monasteries. Those close to the king were considered monks, and the king himself was considered the abbot of this peculiar monastery.
With the help of the oprichnina army, Ivan IV began persecuting his subjects, for which he received his nickname the Terrible. During the oprichnina more than 4,000 people were executed. The execution acquired a special scope in 1568-1570, when Novgorod and Pskov were destroyed, Metropolitan Philip was secretly strangled, and several princely and boyar families were destroyed. Vladimir Andreevich Staritsky was also executed with the whole family. The king personally took part in many executions.
In 1572 the oprichnina was canceled, Ivan returned to Moscow, but the repressions continued for several more years. During the time of the oprichnina, the autocratic power of the tsar significantly increased, but the state was subjected to terrible ruin.
In 1573, Ivan the Terrible set out to take the Polish throne. For two years, he negotiated this matter. In October 1575, Ivan IV unexpectedly renounced the royal throne and installed the baptized Tatar, Kasimov's khan Simeon Bekbulatovich, as a grand duke in Moscow. He himself called himself the prince of Moscow and left the Kremlin. And Ivan Vasilyevich wrote loyal petitions to the Grand Duke Simeon: "To the Sovereign Grand Duke Simeon Bekbulatovich of All Russia, Ivanets Vasilyev with his children, with Ivanets and Fedortsov, beats with his forehead." In the same year, new repressions began, to which the former guardsmen were now primarily subjected. Only in August 1576, Ivan IV returned to the royal throne.
In 1579-1580. Russian troops suffered several serious defeats in the Livonian War. Ivan the Terrible decided to start peace negotiations and turned to the mediation of Pope Gregory XIII. In 1582-1583. peace agreements were signed with Poland and Sweden. The Livonian War ended with the defeat of Russia.
In 1582 Ivan the Terrible reconsidered his attitude to those executed during the years of the oprichnina. By his decree, the "Synodik" was compiled - a memorial list of those executed, for whose souls one should pray in all churches and monasteries.
Ivan the Terrible was married several times. In his first marriage with Anastasia Romanovna Zakharyina-Yuryeva, he had three sons and three daughters. The first son, Dmitry, died in 1553 in infancy - he drowned in the lake during the pilgrimage of the royal family to the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery. The second son, Ivan Ivanovich, in 1581 was killed by his father during a quarrel. The third son, Fyodor Ivanovich (1557-1598), succeeded to the throne after the death of his father. The daughters died in childhood.
After the death of Anastasia Romanovna in 1560, Ivan the Terrible had six more wives. In 1561 he married Maria Temryukovna Cherkasskaya. In this marriage, they had a son, Vasily, who died in childhood. In 1571 the tsar married Martha Sobakina, but 15 days later she died. Anna Koltovskaya became the fourth wife of Ivan the Terrible, but already in 1572 she was forcibly tonsured into a nun. In the end. 1570s the fifth wife of the tsar, Anna Vasilchikova, ended up in the monastery. Then Ivan IV took a sixth wife - a certain Vasilisa Melentyevna. But this marriage was not a church one. The last queen in 1580 was Maria Feodorovna Nagaya, in a marriage with whom another son of Ivan the Terrible, Dmitry Ivanovich (1582-1591), was born.
In the last years of his life, Ivan IV was seriously ill for a long time. There were various rumors about the reasons for his death. They said that death happened "by the will of the stars." Later, the version spread that the tsar was poisoned not without the participation of Boris Godunov. It is only known that Ivan Vasilyevich died suddenly, while playing chess.
Ivan IV the Terrible was the author of several letters. An outstanding work of ser. 16th century are his letters to Prince A. M. Kurbsky, in which he formulated his religious, historical and political views. According to modern researchers, Ivan the Terrible was the author of several church hymns (stichera) and chants. S. P.
A WEDDING IN TSA? Rstvo is a solemn ceremony of the Russian monarch taking power.
The wedding to the kingdom was accompanied by a number of indispensable actions. The most important of them is the sacrament of chrismation, the communion of the new sovereign with the Holy Mysteries, revealed only to prophets and kings. Thus, the tsar became the only person in the state to be awarded the second chrismation (over all the others, the sacrament of chrismation is performed once - at baptism). That is why the Russian sovereigns were called "God's anointed ones."
The form of the rite of the wedding to the kingdom in the Russian state was borrowed from Byzantium. The ceremony was performed by the head of the Russian Orthodox Church: until 1598 - the metropolitan, then - the patriarch. During the ceremony, the new sovereign was in a certain order placed barmas, a wedding hat ("Monomakh's hat"), a scepter and orb were handed over, and the sovereign ascended to the imperial throne. In some cases, the sovereign gave a "kissing record" or an oath.
The first "wedding" to the throne was held on February 4, 1498. On this day, the Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan III elevated his grandson Dmitry Ivanovich as his co-ruler to the great reign of Moscow, Vladimir and Novgorod. A special "order of ordination" of Dmitry was drawn up, which later became the basis for all subsequent orders of "wedding to the kingdom."
During the reign of Ivan III's successor, Vasily III, the wedding ceremony was not carried out. The new sovereign limited himself to the traditional “enthronement”, although it was on this day, April 14, 1502, that Vasily III was officially titled “autocrat” for the first time.
The Rite of the Wedding of the Kingdom of Ivan IV, held on January 16, 1547, was compiled by Metropolitan Macarius on the basis of the rite performed at the wedding of Dmitry Vnuk. In addition to those used earlier, the "Arabian" gold chain was added to the number of royal regalia. For the first time, the "Monomakh hat" was mentioned as a wedding cap.
At the wedding of Fyodor Ivanovich to the kingdom (May 31, 1584), a number of changes were also made, borrowed from the Byzantine coronation ritual. The ceremony was complemented by the "great exit" of the tsar and his retinue to the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. In addition to other insignia, the orb was used ("golden apple", "sovereign apple") - a golden ball with a cross-shaped pommel.
At the wedding to the throne, Boris Fedorovich Godunov (September 3, 1598) used an unconventional oath, promising to share the last shirt with his subjects if he did not manage to end the poverty reigning in the state. The son of Boris Godunov, Fyodor Borisovich, did not manage to get married, since he was killed by supporters of False Dmitry I.
False Dmitry I himself was married to the kingdom on July 22, 1605. Patriarch Ignatius placed a royal crown on him and gave him a scepter and orb. At the same time, False Dmitry ascended the golden throne, which was sent by the Persian Shah Abbas I to Fedor Borisovich Godunov. On May 8, 1606, despite the protests of a part of the Russian clergy, the wedding ceremony of the wife of False Dmitry, Marina Mnishek, was celebrated, who refused Orthodox baptism and communion.
Vasily IV Ivanovich Shuisky, who was crowned to reign by Metropolitan Isidor of Novgorod on June 1, 1606, gave a special "kissing cross" in which he promised to rule the Russian land according to the law and not to condemn anyone without advice from the boyars.
During the wedding of Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov (11 July 1613), which was performed by Metropolitan Ephraim of Kazan, a new “golden throne” was used, replacing the throne of Shah Abbas desecrated by False Dmitry I.
For the solemn proclamation of Alexei Mikhailovich as the new tsar, which took place on September 28, 1645, some new regalia were made in Constantinople: the golden scepter, the new state and the "diadem". The wedding ceremony was performed by Patriarch Joseph.
The rite of the wedding of Fyodor Alekseevich (June 16, 1676) determined a clear division of the color of ceremonial clothes: for the sovereign - gold (yellow), for the prince - red.
After the Streltsy revolt of 1682, it was decided to elevate two half-brothers to the kingdom - Peter Alekseevich and Ivan Alekseevich. A special double silver throne was made, as well as the second "Monomakh's cap" - "Monomakh's cap of the second dress". The wedding of the brothers to the kingdom took place on June 25, 1682.
With the adoption by Peter I of the imperial title, the rite of crowning the kingdom was replaced by a coronation. V.V.
MAKA? RII (in the world - Michael) (1482–30.12.1563) - Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia since 1542, Orthodox saint.
Was born in Moscow. The spiritual education of the future metropolitan was greatly influenced by Archimandrite Cassian, the abbot of the Simonov monastery. In the end. 15th century young Mikhail entered the Pafnutyev-Borovsk monastery. In 1523, Macarius was elevated to the rank of archimandrite and appointed abbot of the Mozhaisky Luzhitsky monastery. In March 1526, he became archbishop of Novgorod and Pskov. When Macarius was sent to the place of his archpastoral service, the Grand Duke Vasily III handed him the "treasury" of the Novgorod saints, taken by Ivan III in 1478.
The Novgorod archbishop contributed to the spread of Christianity among the population of the northern outskirts of Russia, as well as the construction of monasteries there. Makarii's stay in Novgorod was accompanied by great cultural undertakings. Under him, restoration of many Novgorod icons and churches was carried out, a large bell was cast for the St. Sophia Cathedral, its frescoes and iconostasis were renewed. On his instructions, an archbishop's palace was built in Pskov, in which scribes and scribes worked. Writers and church leaders who were part of the circle of Macarius were engaged in the creation of the lives of the saints, translated Greek and Latin works, and compiled the annals. With his participation, 60 new lives were compiled. The result of collecting spiritual treasures was the first edition of "The Great Chetikh Minei", completed in 1541. Under his leadership, two other editions were prepared.
In 1542, Macarius became Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia. Macarius compiled the "Rite of the wedding to the kingdom", according to which the ceremony of the wedding to the kingdom of Ivan IV the Terrible took place in January 1547. In 1547 and 1549. on the initiative of Macarius, church councils were convened to resolve issues of canonization of Russian saints. As one of the tsar's closest advisers, Macarius defended the idea of \u200b\u200bautocracy as the main and necessary bulwark of Orthodoxy.
The greatest merit of Metropolitan Makarii was his support for book printing in Moscow.
In recent years, Macarius has been compiling the Book of Degrees.
Buried in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. Canonization of Macarius took place in 1988. Memorial Day: December 30 (January 12). G. A.
REGA? LII (from lat. regalis - royal) - signs of the supreme (royal) power. The same as insignia - (from lat. insignere - mark, highlight).
Information about the ancient symbols of supreme power - objects that distinguished the sovereign from his subjects, brought to us coins, seals, miniatures and other images. Detailed descriptions of the various attributes of the supreme power are contained in the "ranks" (statutes) of the coronation or wedding to the kingdom. Impressions about the use of regalia by Russian sovereigns were recorded by foreigners in their reports and notes.
Over the centuries, the regalia of Russian sovereigns changed. The first evidence of the "reigning" or the proclamation of a new prince is contained in the annals. One of the oldest princely regalia is the "table". The chronicle says about the reign of Vladimir Monomakh: "his father and grandfather are gray on the table." The Grand Duke of Kiev "put on the table" princes governors. The "table" was a flat seat without a back, with support walls at the ends. On the seat were cushions with oval ends.
After the establishment of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, Russian princes could not freely inherit their own "tables" and dispose of them. To obtain a label - a khan's letter for the right to occupy the "table" - they had to go to the headquarters of the Golden Horde Khan. From the 14th century. Horde ambassadors themselves came to Russia to put the prince - their "slave" on the "table", while a procedure was performed that was supposed to symbolize the subordinate position of Russia: the Grand Duke led the horse into the city by the bridle on which the Khan's ambassador sat. So, "Prince Vasily Dmitrievich will sit on the grand reign of Volodymyr on the table of his father, grandfather, and great-grandfather, and planted by the Tsar's Taktamyshev ambassador Shiakhmat."
The functions of the crown in Russia were performed by a princely hat. On ancient Russian miniatures, the cap was depicted in the form of a soft spherical headdress, with a fur trim. In the five-toothed "crown", similar to the crown of the Byzantine emperors, only Vladimir Svyatoslavich and sometimes Yaroslav Vladimirovich the Wise were depicted on the most ancient Russian coins. The only prince in Russia, crowned according to the Western European model, was Daniil Romanovich Galitsky.
The sword was considered a symbol of princely power and was passed down from generation to generation. On Russian miniatures, the sword is present in scenes of the planting of Svyatoslav Olgovich by Vsevolod Olgovich in Novgorod in 1136 and the reigning of Yuri Vladimirovich Dolgoruky in Kiev in 1155. E. K.
"SHA? PKA MONOMA? HA" is one of the regalia of the grand ducal and royal power.
The name "Monomakh's hat" was first encountered in the will of Ivan IV the Terrible (2nd half of the 16th century).
According to legend, "Monomakh's hat" was part of the gifts of the Byzantine emperor Constantine Monomakh, sent to the Kiev prince Vladimir Monomakh: the emperor took the life-giving cross from his neck, from his head the "royal crown" and, putting them on the "golden dish", sent them to Kiev.
The version about the Byzantine origin of the gifts is not shared by all historians. According to art critics and historians, the "Monomakh hat" was made in the late 13th - early 20th century. 14th century Its crown is made up of eight gold plates (hence its other name "gold"), covered with a delicate openwork pattern, and crowned with a gold cross. The hat trimmed with sable fur was later adorned with precious stones: rubies, emeralds, sapphires, tourmalines and pearls. From the 17th century. the cap was crowned with a double-headed eagle, made of gold and adorned with diamonds.
Later, another hat was made - "Kazanskaya". In its design, oriental motives are clearly traced, combined with the traditions of Russian applied art. Like the “cap of Monomakh”, the “Kazan cap” is decorated with stones - pearls, blue turquoise, pink almandines and is furred with sable. In addition to "Monomakhova" and "Kazanskaya", three more later hats are known - "Astrakhan", "Siberian" and "hat with ash", that is, with jewelry made of pearls, gold and precious stones.
Another hat - a copy of the "Monomakh's hat" was made in 1682, when two hats were needed at the same time during the wedding of two tsars - Peter and Ivan. N. P.
COAT OF ARMS OF THE STATE? polish herby) is a symbolic identification mark of the state, drawn up and approved according to certain rules. It is depicted on seals, coins, and may be an integral part of the national flag.
In the 16-17 centuries. the image of a rider on a horse was clearly interpreted as the "image" of the grand duke, king or heir. St. George was revered as the patron saint of the Kiev (then Vladimir and Moscow) princes, so Moscow princes were sometimes depicted on coins in the form of a horseman (without a halo, typical for images of saints), striking a serpent with a spear.
To clarify that the rider symbolizes precisely the Grand Duke, the image was accompanied by the letters "K", "K-N".
Already in the 16th century. the image of a rider with a spear was taken by foreigners for the coat of arms of the Russian state. In Western European books, next to the portrait of Vasily III, seated on the throne, was placed a coat of arms with the image of a horseman striking a dragon with a spear. In the 18th century. the image of the rider and the image of the revered saint - George the Serpent-fighter united into one whole and the "rider" began to be called George the Victorious.
A new seal was introduced in 1561 by Tsar Ivan IV - “he made a new folding seal: a double-headed eagle, and among him a man on a horse, and on the other side a double-headed eagle, and in the middle of it an inrog [unicorn]”. Since that time, the seal with a double-headed eagle has become predominant. "Rider" - the symbol of the Moscow Grand Duchy, became the emblem of the subordinate. New emblem - unicorn ( ancient symbol strength and power) until that time in Russia was almost never used. Legends about the unicorn came to the Russian lands together with the collection of Christian zoomythology "Physiologist" approx. 14th century But the images of the unicorn appeared only in the con. 15th century - on the seal of the Verei prince Mikhail Andreevich, who was married to the niece of Sophia Palaeologus. As a symbol of supreme power, the unicorn did not establish itself. All R. 16th century the unicorn was interpreted as a symbol of Christianity, a "rod of power" lifted over enemies with the blessing of Christ by the Russian sovereign: "The Lord will give strength to our prince and will lift up the horn of his Christ, the rod of power is sent by the Lord from Zion."
On the credentials of 1578, the so-called. The Great State Seal of Ivan IV: a two-headed eagle with a rider located in a central shield on the eagle's chest (on the reverse side - a unicorn), surrounded by 24 emblems of the lands of the Russian state (12 on each side). Around the emblems there are inscriptions: “The seal of the kingdom of Kazan, the seal of Pskov, the seal of the Great Principality of Tver, the seal of the Permian, the seal of the Bulgarian, the seal of Chernigov, the seal of the Novgorod Nizovsky land, the seal of Vyatskaya, the seal of the Ugra, the seal of the Grand Duchy of Smolensk, the seal of the kingdom of Ostorokhansk, the seal of the governor of the Great Novgorod "; on the reverse side: "the seal of the Polotsk, the seal of Yaroslavl, the seal of the Udora, the seal of the Kondinsky, the seal of the arfibiscop of Riga, the seal of the city of Kesi, the seal of the master of the Livonian land, the seal of the Siberian seal, the seal of the Obdorsk, the seal of Belozersk, the seal of Rostov, the seal of Ryazan." The seal of the Grand Duchy of Smolensk depicts an emblem - a prince's place with a hat on it. The Tver seal depicts a bear, the Yaroslavl seal depicts a fish, the Ryazan seal depicts a horse, the Astrakhan seal depicts a dog, a wolf in a crown, the Rostov seal depicts a bird, the Vyatka seal depicts a bow and arrow, the Nizhny Novgorod seal, a deer, an elk, the Perm seal, a fox, Siberian - an arrow, Kazan - a dragon in a crown. The diameter of the imprint of the Great Sovereign Seal is 11.7 cm.
The great state seal of Ivan IV served as a model for the seals of subsequent sovereigns: Fyodor Ivanovich (in 1585 and 1589), Boris Godunov (in 1598 and 1602), False Dmitry I and Vasily IV Shuisky (in 1606), Mikhail Fedorovich ( 1618). E. K.
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