1. Causes and mechanisms of internal changes in language
2. Explanatory theories of internal historical changes in the language
a) system pressure theory
b) the theory of probabilistic development of the language
c) Innovation theory
d) the theory of contradictions (antinomy).
Rubret I.B. Analytical tendency in language evolution // Philological sciences. 2003, №1, p. 54-62.
Tumanyan G. On the nature of language changes // Questions of linguistics. 1999, №5.
Nikolaev T.M. Diachrony or evolution? On a tendency of language development // issues of linguistics. 1991, №2, p. 12-26.
Kasatkin L.L. One of the trends in the development of phonetics of the Russian language // Questions of linguistics. 1989, №6.
The theory of language development is discussed taking into account such a circle of concepts: dynamics, change, development, evolution that focus on attention different sides (details) language change in time.
Dynamic is one of the important properties of the language system. This feature of the language is detected in its ability to develop and improve.
The language system refers to self-organizing systems, the source of the transformation of which is usually lies in the system itself.
Opposition - the minimum organization of paradigmatic cut, systems (for example: the wind is a hurricane (it elements are in the relationship of choice)).
(paradigmatic) Wind: Hurricane ( epidigmatic) hurricane, ( syntagmatic) Hurricane wind
hurricane \u003d hurricane wind
There are elements that generate redundancy (double forms).
The desire for motivation and the desire to expose semantics through the structure of the word.
What internal factors determine the development of the language system:
1. Organic communication language with thinking;
2. The device of the language system, which contains in itself very rich potential opportunities for updating language tools.
This is determined by the fact that the language units have a combinatorial nature, and the combination capabilities of the tongue are implemented only in part. Therefore, the formation of new words is an elementary act that is generated by the language system itself (more complex units are generated from simpler units).
(paradigmatic) rain: rain shower goes like shore Storm rain
Livni.
The enrichment of the language occurs in the process of variationing language units, which are also organic property of the language system.
External and internal factors in the development of the language are exposed to dialectics of necessity and opportunity. External factors Require changes from the language, enrichment of funds, and internal factors determine which funds will be.
So, among the vocabulary associated with astronautics, there are units that are:
a. The result of the combination of morphem (fall)
b. The result of combining nominative phrases (spacecraft)
c. The result of semantic variation (soft landing).
When considering the issue (problems) on the development of the language, the question arises that the development occurs, which law is based on the development of the language.
The contradiction is the main source of development.
Language develops by overcoming the contradictions complex:
1. Contradiction in the relationship of language and society;
2. Contradiction in speech activity;
3. Inspected contradictions;
4. Contradictions inside a person as a native media.
Contradictions that cannot be finally overcome are called antinomy .
Being permitted at a particular stage of system development, immediately arise again.
The Antinomy Theory was successfully applied to the analysis of changes in Russian vocabulary (the monograph 1968 "Russian Language and Soviet Society: a vocabulary of the modern Russian language").
Contradictions in the relationship between language and society are implemented through 4 Antinomies:
1. Actual innovation as a result of the requirements of the norm, which keeps the language in the ultrasound and does not give it to develop.
2. Expressiveness and expressivity, they are opposed to standardization of the language.
3. The language must have a stylistic diversity, and is opposed to this uniformity of interstile vocabulary.
4. Economy (desire for economy), but at the same time moderate redundancy
The development of the language is determined by the desire of speaking stabilizing the use of language units and the inability to do this. The norm limits the use of the language and their combination. And the living needs of communication overcome regulatory limitations of the language using its potential opportunities. In this regard, the normative phrases "matter", "play the role" are freely transformed.
Language and thinking
When considering this difficult problem, the ratio of language and thinking, three approaches are being implemented:
- epistemological,
- psychological,
- Neurophysiological.
Gnosic approach It is considered within the framework of the ratio of logical units with linguistic (these essences are different, but correlated), such as the word and concept, proposal and judgment.
Psychological approach Reselects the interaction of the language and thinking in the process of speech activities of individuals who owns these languages. In this regard, it is valuable to observe the establishment of a child's speech and observation of the rely-off activity of the Bilingwa. The observation of the child's speech has led to valuable theoretical results:
1. Cognitive opportunities for the child are ahead of his speech development;
2. There are non-verbal types of thinking;
3. There is no compulsory communication of cognitive activity with his speech activities;
4. The process of formation of speech passes certain stages;
5. The language that the child masters, as a system of concepts, is created in the process of development of intelligence, as a result of a child's actions in the environment;
6. The child's intelligence begins with action.
Relevant to understand how the language exists in the human brain, is two points in the development of the language:
- Early mastering a person of another language,
- When a child takes on the second language aged 11-19 years.
As a result of the use of equipment, it was found that in early bilinguals, the speech center is fixed in the same part in the area of \u200b\u200bthe broc.
Neurophysiological approach Looking for ways to identify language and thinking on a physiological basis.
1. Neurolinguistics is detected by the functional formations of the brain, which ensure the assimilation and use of units of the language. As part of this approach, both hemispheres are identified. The differences in the development of these hemispheres in men and women are determined.
2. Neurolinguistics is trying to understand how abstract thinking is being developed.
3. Neyrolynguistics are interested in how linguistic units are stored in the brain.
When using vowels and consonant sounds, different mechanisms are involved, which makes it possible to understand that the consonants appear later than vowels.
The most important and most difficult problem in the study of language and thinking is the answer to the question: Does all human thinking connected with the language? How tongue helps to be done with thinking, and if this help exists, then what effect does the process occurs on the basis of the language?
If this issue is clarified, a correlation is established between different forms of thinking and participation in this language process.
Virtually effective thinking is in short, but may have a linguistic expression.
A man thinks not at some national language, but by means of a universal and subject code.
No off-language thinking, any thinking is carried out on the basis of the language, but there is no wonderful thinking.
Inner speech
The most important element Thinking systems are inner speech in which thought and language is combined into a holistic complex, acting as a speech mechanism of thinking.
· In the inner speech there is a value with the unity of words and thoughts.
· Inner speech has a special structure and quality and differs from external speech.
· Inner speech is a speech consisting primarily from predicates.
· Internal swollen speech, it is grammarized.
It should be noted that the human body is by no means indifferent to how the language mechanism is arranged. It tries to react in a certain way to all the phenomena arising in the language mechanism, which not sufficiently correspond to certain physiological characteristics of the body. Thus, there is a permanent tendency to adapt the language mechanism to the peculiarities of the human body, practically expressed in the trends of a more private nature. Here are examples of internal speakers:
1) in phonetics: the appearance of new sounds (for example, there were no hissing in the early Praslavyan language: [W], [h], [sh] - rather late sounds in all Slavic languages \u200b\u200barising from softening sounds, respectively [g], [ K], [x |); The loss of some sounds (for example, two different sounds cease to differ: So, the ancient Russian sound, denoted by an old letter%, in Russian and Belarusian languages \u200b\u200bcoincided with the sound [E], and in Ukrainian - with sound [i], cf. .-Russian. A & G, Rus, Belarusian, Snow, Ukr. SSHG).
2) in grammar: the loss of some grammatical values \u200b\u200band forms (for example, in Praslavyansky, all names, pronouns and verbs have, except for the forms of the only and multiple number, still forms of the dual number used when it was about two subjects; Later, the category of evidence in all Slavic languages, except Slovenian); Examples of the opposite process: Formation (already in the written history of Slavic languages) special verb form - Tempecia; The separation of previously single name into two parts of speech is nouns and adjectives; the formation of a part of the speech is relatively new in the Slavic languages \u200b\u200b- numeral. Sometimes the grammatical form changes without changing the value: the cities, snow, and now cities, snow, said.
3) in vocabulary: numerous and exceptionally diverse changes in vocabulary, phraseology and lexical semantics. It is enough to say that in the publication "New words and meanings: a dictionary-directory on the press materials and literature of the 70s / ed. N. 3. Kotelova" see, 1984. - VOB C), which included only the most noticeable innovations of ten About 5500 Word Articles.
I. Trend towards facilitating pronunciation.
The presence in the languages \u200b\u200bof a well-known trend towards facilitating pronunciation has repeatedly noted by researchers. At the same time, there were skeptics, inclined not to give it much importance. They motivated their skeptical ratio by the fact that the criteria for lightness or the difficulty of pronunciation are too subjective, as they are usually considered through the prism of a particular language. What seems difficult to utterly thanks to the action of a systemic "phonological synthet" by the carrier of one language may not be presented with any difficulties for a carrier of another language. Observations on the history of the development of the phonetic building of various languages \u200b\u200bof the world with sufficient persuasiveness also testify also to the fact that in all languages \u200b\u200bthere are relatively difficult for pronunciation of sounds and combinations of sounds, from which every language tends to free themselves or turn them into lighter for the pronunciation of sounds and Combination of sounds.
II. Trend to expression different values Different forms.
The trend towards the expression of different values \u200b\u200bby different forms is sometimes called repulsion from homonymy.
Arabic in a more ancient era of its existence had only two verb time - Perfect, for example, Katabtu "I wrote" and Aktubu's imperfect "I wrote." These times originally had a species value, but not temporary. With regard to their ability to express the attitude of the action to a specific temporary plan, in this regard, the above times were polishamantic. For example, the imperfect could have the importance of this, future and past time. This communicative inconvenience demanded additional funds. For example, the connection to the forms of the Perfect particle of QAD contributed to a clearer gradation of the perfect actually, for example, QAD Kataba "he (already) wrote. Attaching the prefix SA to the forms of imperfect, for example, Sanaktubu "We will write" or "will write" gave the opportunity to more clearly express the future. Finally, the use of perfect forms from the auxiliary verb Kāna "be" in connection with the forms of imperfect, for example, Kāna Jaktubu "He wrote" made it possible to more clearly express the past long.
III. The tendency to express the same or close values \u200b\u200bof the same form.
This trend finds a manifestation in a number widely distributed in various languages \u200b\u200bof the world of phenomena, which is usually called alignment of forms by analogy. It is possible to note the two most typical cases of alignment of forms by analogy: 1) alignment of forms, absolutely the same by value, but of various appearance and 2) alignment of forms, various appearance and detecting only partial similarity of functions or values.
Words like a table, horse and son in ancient Russian language had specific endings of the dutiful and composite case of a plural.
D. Table Conience Sonm
T. Tables Koni Son
P. Town Konihe Sonh
In modern Russian, they have one general ending: tables, tables, tables; horses, horses, horses; Sons, Sons, Sons. These common endings arose as a result of transfer by the appropriate case endings of the names of nouns representing the old bases on -ā, -jā type sister, land, cf. Dr.-Russian. sister, sisters, sister; Lands, lands, lands, etc. For alignment, by analogy of the similarity of the case, it turned out to be quite sufficient.
IV. Trend towards creating clear boundaries between morphems.
It may happen that the boundary between the base and suffixes becomes not enough for the merger of the final vowel base with the initial vowel suffix. For example, the characteristic feature of the types of decoration in Indo-European language was the basis of the basis of the foundation and its distinctive feature in the paradigm, that is, the final vowel base. As an example, for comparison, a reconstructed paradigm for the declining of the Russian word is a wife, compared with the paradigm of the declination of this word in modern Russian. Given only forms single number.
I. Genā wife
P. Genā-s wife
D. Genā-i wife
V. Genā-M wife
M. Genā-i wife
It is easy to note that in the paradigm of the word of the word Wife's former axis of paradigm - the basis on -ā - no longer maintained due to its modifications in indirect cases as a result<244> various phonetic changes that led in some cases to the merge of the vowel base and with the vowels of the newly formed case of the case of The consciousness of the speakers occurred by recycling foundations, and the sound, which previously performed as the final vowel base, was departed to suffix.
V. The tendency to save language funds.
The tendency to save language funds is one of the most powerful internal trends that are manifested in various languages \u200b\u200bof the world. It is a priori to argue that there is not a single language on the globe, in which 150 phonemes would differ, 50 verb times and 30 different expirations of the plural. The language of this kind, burdened by the detailed arsenal of expressive means, would not make it easier, but on the contrary, it made it difficult to communicate people. Therefore, each language has the natural resistance of excessive detail. In the process of drinking a language as a means of communication, often spontaneously and independently of the will of the speaking themselves, the principle of the most rational and economical selection of the most necessary for the purposes of communication of the linguistic agents is carried out.
The results of this trend are the manifestation of the language in a wide variety of spheres. For example, in one form of the cartonal case, its various meanings can be concluded: the creatorial figure, the efficient circumstators, the efficient objective, the cooling limitations, the efficient predicative, the efficient exemnatory, the efficient comparison, etc., not less wealth has a particular meaning of individual values. : genitive quantitative, genitive predicative, genitive accessories, genitive weight, genitive object, etc. If each of these values \u200b\u200bwas expressed separate formThis would lead to the incredible cumbersome of the pelvic system.
The vocabulary composition of the language, which has many tens of thousands of words, opens up ample opportunities for implementing a huge number of sounds and their various shades. In fact, each tongue is content with a relatively small number of phones endowed with a sense distinguishing function. How these few functions are allocated, no one has ever investigated. Modern phonologists are studying the function of the phone, but not the history of their origin. It is possible only to a priority that some natural rational rational selection occurred in this area, subordinate to a certain principle. In each language, it happened, obviously, the selection of the complex in the background associated with the useful opposition, although the appearance in the language of new sounds is not explained only by these reasons. With the principle of savings, apparently, a tendency is associated with the designation of the same values \u200b\u200bof the same form.
One of the bright manifestations of the trend towards saving is the trend towards the creation of typical monotony. Each language is constantly striving for the creation of typical monotony.
Vi. Trend towards restricting the complexity of speech messages.
The latest studies suggest that in the process of generating speech, the factors of a psychological plan are operating, limiting the complexity of speech messages.
The process of speech generation occurs, in all likelihood, by consistently crossing the background in the morphemes, morpheme in words and words in the sentence. On some of these levels, transcoding is not carried out in long-term, but in the operational memory of the person, the volume of which is limited and is equal to 7 ± 2 message characters. Therefore, the maximum number of units low level Language contained in one unit higher level, provided that the transition from the lowest level to the highest memory is carried out in RAM, cannot exceed 9: 1.
The capacity of RAM imposes limitations not only to the depth, but also for the length of words. As a result of a number of linguopsychological experiments, it was discovered that with an increase in the length of words over seven syllables, there was a deterioration in the perception of the message. For this reason, with an increase in the length of words, the likelihood of their appearance in the texts is sharply reduced. This limit of perception of the length of the words is found in experiments with isolated words. The context facilitates perception to a certain extent. The upper limit of the perception of words in the context is about 10 syllables.
If we take into account the favorable role of the context - intrasloval and inter-slang - when identifying words, it should be expected that the exceeding the critical length of words in 9 syllables, determined by the amount of RAM, makes a large extent to their perception. These linguopsychological experiments definitely indicate that the amount of perception of the length and depth of words is equal to the volume of human RAM. And in those styles of natural languages \u200b\u200bthat are focused on the oral form of communication, the maximum length of words cannot exceed 9 syllables, and their maximum depth is 9 morpheme.
VII. The tendency to change the phonetic appearance of the word with the loss of lexical value.
The most visual expression, this trend receives in the process of turning a significant word in the suffix. So, for example, in the Chuvash language there is a cooling case, characterized by the suffix -p, -p, cf. Feel Paradashpa "Pencil", Vyype "force". This ending developed from the Palalan village, the beam "C"
In the English spoken speech, the auxiliary verb hashes in the perfect form, having lost its lexical importance, actually reduced to sound "V, and the shape of the HAD - to sound" D, for example, I "V Written" I wrote ", he" D Written "he wrote " etc.
The phonetic look of the word is changing in frequently used words due to the change in their initial value. A bright example is the non-reference to the final g in the Russian Word Thank you, ascending to the phrase, save God. Frequent use of this word and associated change value Save God\u003e Thank you - led to the destruction of his initial phonetic appearance.
VIII. Trend towards creating languages \u200b\u200bof a simple morphological structure.
In the world languages, a certain tendency to create a language type is found characterized by the simplest way to compound by morpheme. It is curious that in the languages \u200b\u200bof the world, the most absolutely predominant majority of the languages \u200b\u200bof agglutinative type. Languages \u200b\u200bwith internal flexions are relatively rare.
This fact has its own certain reasons. In agglutinating morpheme languages, as a rule, they are indicated, the boundaries of them in the word are defined. This creates a clear intrasloous context that allows you to identify morphemes in the longest sequences. The advantage of agglutinative languages \u200b\u200bwas indicated by I. N. Boduen de Kurgea, who wrote about this: "Languages \u200b\u200bin which all attention in terms of morphological exhibitors focuses on the next after the main morpheme (root) of affixes (Ural-Altaic languages , thro-Finnish, etc.), are more sober and require much less spending of mental energy, rather than languages \u200b\u200bin which morphological exhibitors are additions at the beginning of the word, and gain in end word, and psycho-componial alternations inside the word. "
Type - incorporating languages
In the languages \u200b\u200bof this type, objects of actions and circumstances of their commitment are expressed not by special members of the proposal (additions and circumstances), and the affixes that are part of the verb. Sometimes a subject of action (subjectable) can obtain an expression as part of the verb-fag. Thus, all members of the sentence may be included in the same word, so they often say that words-proposals are functioning in incorrupting languages.
In the Chinook language - the language of the state of the Oregon- The word "I-N-I-Á-L-U-D-AM" means "I specifically gave her it." Consider what it means each of the morpheme:
i - past time;
n - 1st face of the singular;
i - the object of action "This";
Á - the second object "she";
l is an indication that the object is not direct, but an indirect ("her");
u is an indication that the action is directed from the speaker;
d - root with the value "Give"
aM is an indication of the target action.
Over time, languages \u200b\u200bchange. Obviously, these changes occur not spontaneously, but in a certain direction. Because the language is closely related to the life of society, changes in it are aimed at ensuring that it is better to serve the need to communicate inside the language team, which in this language speaks.
Among the factors that cause linguistic changes, it is customary to distinguish the causes of external and internal.
External connected with characteristic features Language team that uses this language and with historical events that this language team is experiencing. There is reason to assume that under the influence of typical of this language team, the singularities of communication every language is gradually developing and improving those traits that are inherent in four types languages.
If a homogeneous language and numerous language team uses the tongue, then the feature is obtained in it flexiveness and synthetism . For example, the Russian language in which there are all prerequisites for the formation of a large number of words that transmit the finest shades of meaning (boy, boy, boy, boy, etc.) and to be able to express grammatical significance in different words using various affixes.
If the language team is mixed with another language team and becomes inhomogeneous, then in the language analytism : The number of affixes is reduced, and many grammatical values \u200b\u200bbegin to be expressed using official words. These changes underwent in the process of its development English.
If the language has long exists in the non-uniform language team, it can turn into a tongue isoic Type. In this case, it loses all forms of wordinity, and grammatical values \u200b\u200bbegin to be expressed in it solely by the order of words or official words. Obviously, such a way passed Chinese.
Incorporing Languages \u200b\u200bare characteristic of very small, isolated teams, members of which are so well aware of all current events that there are sufficiently short and capacious sentences to exchange information, in which the verb bases are connected to the affixes that indicate objects and the circumstances of the action.
The problem of the origin of the language includes two questions. The first question is related to the problem of the origin of the language in general, how the human language has developed how a person learned to speak the second - with the origin of each individual language. The evidence of this period was not preserved therefore, when studying the origin of the language, generally linguists have to operate not only by language facts but also data of related sciences. Interest in the problem of the origin of the language has emerged for a long time.
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Language as a developing phenomenon. External and internal language development factors
The problem of the origin of the language includes two questions. The first question is associated with the problem of the origin of the language at all (as the human language has developed, how did a person learned to speak), the second - with the origin of each individual language.
In the first case, it should be referred to by the time a person just started to develop as a biological species (homo Sapiens. ). Evidence of this period has not been preserved, therefore, when studying the origin of the language, generally linguists have to operate not only by the language facts, but also by the data of the adjacent sciences. In the second case, it is possible to trace the formation and development of individual languages \u200b\u200bthrough the study of written monuments, as well as the comparison of the facts of related languages.
Interest in the problem of the origin of the language has emerged for a long time. IN different time And various scientists she was solved unequally. The ancient Greeks justified two concepts of origin of the word. Supporters of the first concept considered the appearance of words supernatural, divine, which occurred without human intervention. This concept got a namecreative. In XX A century of her branch was the theory of alien origin of life on Earth. According to the second concept, words are reflections of things, phenomena and arise as a result of the impact on the people of the real world. People themselves give names to all things, based on their qualities.
A number of theories of the origin of the language was put forward in a new time and inXIX. A century is the concept of a public contract, a sound-resistant theory, intermediate theory, labor theory, etc. Sound-pressing theory explained the appearance of the first words to the imitation of the sounds of nature. According to supporters of the interdudice theory, the language of the first people was a poetic language, expressed by human emotions. According to the theory of labor shouts, the first words were the exclamations that broke down in people during labor movements. According to the labor theory, labor was the basis for the development of society, since it caused the cohesion of the Pluream Society, and in the context of joint activities there was a need to transfer information through the language.
At the stage of primitive communal, the language existed in the form of tribal languages. Tribal languages \u200b\u200bexist now, for example, the languages \u200b\u200bof the North Indians and South America, some Caucasian languages. Separate life of related tribes for a long time led to the emergence of specific features in their languages. Therefore, it is believed that tribal languages \u200b\u200bwere the most first and ancient dialects. The dialect is a type of language that has a number of phonetic, lexical, grammatical features that are inherent in the speech of individual groups of people.
Tribal dialects were replaced by territorial dialects. Territorial dialects go beyond the individual or the union of related tribes. Their appearance is associated with the development of human society, the replacement of blood-study links with territorial, state, as well as with the formation of inter-barded communities and then nations. Tribal languages \u200b\u200bare gradually turning into national languages.
National language is heterogeneous, it is characterized by a dialectful fragility. Thus, an ancient Greek tongue performed in different versions: Attic, Ionian, Dorian, etc., it is the local disunity over time that leads to dialectic differentiation. For example, the formation of two dialects of the Mari language is associated with the division of the Language Arala by the Volga. In other cases, administrative division of the territories prevented free language communication. For example, the historical settlement of the country on feudal dots affected the dialect crushing of the language (in German, Italian).
National language folds on a certain historical stage, in the period of the formation of the national unity of the state. Nation is a historical category associated with the processes of economic and political consolidation of the nationality. Consolidation processes are reflected in the language. This is manifested in the fact that the need for a single general language increases, which, in turn, leads to the weakening of territorial dialects, which are gradually leveled.
Important distinctive featuresliterary languages The national period is their processed, normalization and codification (fixation of norms in dictionaries and reference books), traditionalness and obligation of norms for all members of the team, the presence of written and oral forms of speech.
Along with the literary standards, other varieties of language exist in the national era - territorial and social dialects.Territorial Dialects acquire social labeling, as they become a means of communication in the main rural population.Social Dialects are a type of language whose specific feature is the limitations of their social base, i.e. They serve as a means of communication (and additional) not all of the people, but only individual social groups. Social dialects include professional, group, conditional languages.
Language by nature is subject to change. Causes of language changes are made to divide into internal (linguistic) and external (extrallinguistic).
Internal the reasons for changing the language system are associated with the essence of the language. The development of the language is due to internal structural contradictions of the language system. This, for example, the desire of a language for unification (the likeness of heterogeneous forms) and, on the contrary, to differentiation (the interaction of units similar to any respect). Another contradiction is the contradiction of the interests of the speaking and listening. It lies in the fact that the speaker trying to simplify its speech at the level of pronunciation (reduction) and syntactic structures (incomplete, truncated proposals). But a strong change in sounds or a reduction in proposals makes it difficult to understand the listening.
At different levels of the language, changes are flowing at different speeds. Most of all is subject to changes in the lexical system, since it is fundamentally opened by external influence (the emergence of new realities requiring new nominations, and the death of old realities, and with them nominations). More resistant to changes in phonetic and grammatic language.
Changes in the language can occur immediately at several levels. For example, in the Old English language, the nouns were a category of kind, a complex decline system and a change in four cases. Due to the phonetic processes (the disappearance of unstressed vowels at the end of the word), the nouns have lost the category of the genus and frozen in one case form.
External The reasons for changing languages \u200b\u200bare primarily a change in the surrounding reality, social conditions for the development of society. The processes of their interaction are a special role in the development of languages \u200b\u200band the convergence.
Divergence is a discrepancy, separation of languages \u200b\u200bin the development process. The language of languages \u200b\u200bwas associated with the territorial settlement of people, geographical and political separation. As a result, lexical, phonetic and grammatical options who distinguished the speech of people living in different territories were accumulated in the speech.
Convergence - This is the rapprochement of individual languages \u200b\u200bbased on long contacts. Convergence may assume ethnic mixing and linguistic assimilation, i.e. Dissolving one language in another. At the same time, one of them acts assubstrate . Language that was distributed in this territory earlier. The language of the eligible ethnic groups can also assimilate with local languages \u200b\u200band leave part of their linguistic features in the form ofsuperstratus.
The problem of language and speech in linguistic theory
Language - Publication Publication: It arises and develops in human society and ceases its existence if the people who speak on it ceases to exist. When dividing the people to more or less autonomous parts (geographically isolated groups, social, professional groups), new varieties of language appear. The language accompanies a person in all matters, regardless of his desire is present in his thoughts, participates in the plans. A person, in contrast to animals, probably, from birth is emphasized with a special ability - to learn at least one national language.
Emil Benvenist wrote: "Language is a special symbolic system, organized in two plans. On the one hand, the language is a physical phenomenon: it requires the vocal apparatus when producing and mediating a hearing aid for perception. In this material form, it is led by observation, description and registration. On the other hand, the language is an intangible structure, the transfer of meant, which replace the phenomena of the surrounding world or knowledge about them "reminding". Such is the bilateral essence of the language. "
So, the language is a means of human communication, and the language is a system of signs. Language as an abstract system - the domain of the entire team speaking on it. In this regard, the language is fundamentally contrastedspeech As an individual manifestation of this language in a variety of life situations.
We are inextricably linked with the language, since the language is realistic only in speech. All information about the language system, including dictionary and grammar, are learned by scientists from speech practice. At the same time, the term "speech" is used and as a synonym for speech activity in any language, and as a result, the product of this activity, i.e. Oral or written texts in the appropriate language.
The main provisions of the sausage are reduced to the following: "The study of language activity breaks into two parts: one of them, the main one, has its own language, that is, something social essentially and independent of the individual. Another secondary, has the subject of the individual side of speech activity, that is, including speaking "; And further: "Both of these items are closely related to each other and each other mutually suggest: the language is necessary that the speech is understandable and produce all its action, the speech in turn is necessary in order to establish a language; Historically, the fact of speech is always preceded by the language. " Having put forward the social nature of the language and the individual nature of speech, the sausure is a language in the form of a certain intangible psychological essence.
Speech activities at the same time and social, and psychophysiologic. The social nature is, firstly, in the fact that it represents a part of the general social activity of a person (public interaction), and secondly, it is determined by the fact that the situation itself has a social structure: both participants in the communicative situation - public personalitiesincluded in the overall context.
The process of communication is impossible without language, but not all signs of this process (for example, the peculiarities of the voice of the speaker, deviations in the pronunciation of sounds, etc.) are essential for the language as a system. Significant in this case are the system signs: the sound composition, the structure of the word and the features of its value, the rules of the combination of sounds, morpheme and words.
At the same time, speaking or writing constantly creates new compositions, combinations of words, but within those already existing in the rules, samples that are used by all speakers in this language. It can be said that in the language dominates the general and constant, and in speech - a single and variable. All new in the language comes from speech, where it arises for the first time, then "work out" in the form of multiple repetition and playback.
The real, sounding speech is mimoletny and unique. Nevertheless, she has its own patterns, the rules of construction. Such speech rules include, for example, models of speech genres.
So, the language and speech are not opposite phenomena, but only different manifestations of the general entity, which for the correct understanding of their understanding must be studied and together - as part of this common, and separately.
The sign nature of the language. Specificity of language as a sign system
The most important function of the language is to be a means of communication (communicative function) - is successfully implemented due to the fact that the language is a system of signs by which language communication between people is carried out.
Sign - This is a means of transmitting information, a material object, which under certain conditions (when an iconic situation occurs) corresponds to some value. Any sign is a bilateral entity: on the one hand, it is material, has an expression plan (meaning ), on the other hand, is a carrier of intangible meaning, i.e. has a content plan (meant).
Any item can be endowed with a sign function, subject to its inclusion in a significant situation that takes place in cases where the objects that are reported not to themselves are used in the communication process, but something replaced by these objects.
An important feature of the sign is its systematic. Each sign is a member of a certain sign system. The value of the sign is due to the meaning of other characters associated with it, is detected in or contrasting with signs forming a specific system. Since the Social Systems functioning in society are intended for storing and transmitting information, the stability of the signs forming these systems is necessary for the storage and transmission of information. The sign is reproduced in the finished form, it is traditional and not amenable to an arbitrary replacement. Individual or any public team cannot freely, at its discretion, change the signs already existing in society, for this it would be necessary to conclude a new convention with all members of society.
All of the above properties of signs -bilateral, replacement, presenlation, conventional, systemism, reproducibility - Inherent in language units. That is why the language is a sign (semiotic) system. Let us dwell on the semiotic properties of the linguistic units.
Language sign is bilateral. The meaningful language sign advocates its sound side, meaning - meaning. In the language sign, the material form and value are closely related. The sound side of the language sign in normal use does not have an independent value, it is not separable from the value.
However, not any unit of the language is familiar, since not all linguistic units have bilateral. So, sounds and syllables have an expression plan, but do not have a content plan; Sema (the minimum component of the value of the language unit) does not have an independent expression plan. Therefore, the sound, syllable and sema are not iconic units of the language.
The main language sign is a word that has a material form (sound sequence) and value. According to semiotic properties, the word is close to sustainable combinations (phraseological units) - integrated in terms of content formally dissected units reproduced in the process of communication, like words, in the finished form. The linguistic signs of the special kind are morphmes, phrases and suggestions. Morphemes are bilateral units, but they are usually not used in speech communication as independent media, but are only used as part of words and implement their importance in combinations with other morphems.
Language signs, like other signs, act as objects replacing other objects. The word creates an idea of \u200b\u200bthe appropriate subject or phenomenon, so it serves as a sign of this presentation. An important property of the language sign is the ability to designate, notice a single object, but a lot of objects and phenomena. So, in a wordtree It is called not only a concrete tree, but also all the trees. Language sign not only indicates objects and phenomena, but also forms a person's idea of \u200b\u200bthe character, the properties of the designated (refheresent ). A combination of information (knowledge) on a denotable language sign of the object and its connections with other objects is calledconcept Sign. Thus, the language sign has a dual benchmark: to the world of things and to the world of ideas.
Among the language signs there are both unmotivated, with the conditional bond meaning and meaning and motivated, in which the means and meaning are related to the relationships of suchness and contamination.
Language as system-structural education
Currently conceptssystem and structure demarcated as follows: termsystem denotes an object as a whole, and understructure It is understood by the combination of connections and relations between the components of the elements. The system is an ordered hierarchical whole, which has a structure embodied in this substance, and intended for the fulfillment of certain purposes.
The language system has several types of units, of which the most defined and generally accepted are phonemes, morphem and lexeme. They were intuitively allocated long before approval in the system of principle of systemism. These units appear in two kinds - abstract and concrete. Thus, an abstract unit of a phonem tier - a phoneme - always performs in the form of allophones, the morpheme performs in the form of allestones, etc.
One of the common approaches to the language consists in its representation in the form of a complex system, which form units of different levels.Levels - These are the subsystems of the general language system, each of which is characterized by a set of relatively homogeneous units and a set of rules governing their use and grouping in various classes and subclasses.
Within one level of the unit, enter into direct relationships in each other, in which units of different levels cannot enter. These relationships (paradigmatic and syntagmatic) are very similar or even coincide for different levels of language, which ensures its unity as a multi-level, but homogeneous (homogeneous) system.
There is a phonam level, morpheme level, levels of words, level of phrases, level of proposals, since there are unites - foundation, morpheme, word, phrase, offer. Sometimes there is also a level of text, higher in relation to the level of supply, and as lower level - level differential signs Family.
There are paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations between units within one level of language. INparadigmatic Relationships are groups of units, more or less homogeneous, close by function, for example, the decline in the same nouns or the form of the assumption of the same verb. Of these groups stored in the memory of speakers and listening in the form of a set of means providing opportunities for choice, during the construction of each specific statement extracted individual units that are inextricably linked with other units and involving their simultaneous existence. The paradigm makes units mutually exclusive in one position.
Syntagmatic The relationship between language signs is a linear relationship (in the speech stream) dependences that are manifested in the fact that the use of one unit allows, requires or prohibiting the use of the other unit associated with it.
Paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations are inextricably linked: the presence of paradigs of homogeneous units (options for phonemes, synonymous morpheme, words-synonyms, forms of word condense, etc.) creates the need to choose, and syntagmatic dependencies determine the direction and result of the choice.
Paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations are detected at all levels of the language and in the structure of all languages \u200b\u200bof the world.
Language elements are non-equivance: they are inhierarchical Relationship relationships forming a model of a vertical language as consisting of tiers. Lower levels (tiers) are phonetic and morphological, higher - lexical and syntax. The hierarchical relations between units of different levels are to enter the low-level unit as part of a higher level unit.
It is the close relationship of all elements of the language, their interdependence and interactiveness make it possible to talk about the language as a single structure. At the same time, each tongue has its own special structure that has developed as a result of a long historical Development.
Structural and social typology of languages
The basis of the morphological typology of languages \u200b\u200blies several basic signs:
1) as expressed in the language of grammatical meaning;
2) What morpheme is built word;
3) What methods of compounding morphem inside the word prevail in the language.
For insulating (amorphous) Languages \u200b\u200bare characteristic of the absence of the word, the expression of grammatical values \u200b\u200bby the analytical way (word order, official words, not lost relations with significant words, musical stress and intonation), weak contrasting of significant and service words, the predominance of root morpheme, full or almost complete lack of affixes with derivational value . This type includes Chinese and most languages \u200b\u200bof Southeast Asia.
Agglutinative (agglutinating) Languages \u200b\u200bare characterized by a developed system of word-formative and word-substitution-revenue affixes, the absence of phonetically unconditional changes at the junction of morpheme, a single type of decline and hinge, grammatical uniqueness of affixes, lack of significant alternations. This type includes Türkic and Bantu languages.
For flexive Languages \u200b\u200bare characterized by polyfunctionality of grammatical morpheme (cumulation), the presence of fusion, phhusically not caused root changes, big number phonetically and semantically unmotivated types of declining and leasing. This type includes, for example, Slavic and Baltic languages.
Incorporing (polysintic) Languages \u200b\u200bare characterized by the possibility of inclusion in the composition of the verb-taent of other members of the sentence (most often direct add-on). In other words, the polysintic system is characterized by the wide use of affixes for registration of not only words, but also phrases and proposals; In one morphological whole, several foundations are combined, autonomous in their lexical meaning. In such incorporating complexes, many affixes are represented, so the Morpham connection method will be strictly agglutinative, and each affix occupies a certain place here. These languages \u200b\u200binclude Chukotka-Kamchatka, the languages \u200b\u200bof the Indians of North and South America.
Most languages \u200b\u200boccupy an intermediate position as part of the specified types.
The popularity has acquired the classification of the sepira by the degree of synthesis, that is, (somewhat simplifying) by the number of morpheme in the word. A weak degree of synthesis (on average 1-2 morphemes for the word) characterizes Vietnamese, Chinese, English, Tajik, Hindi, French. Such languages \u200b\u200bare calledanalytic . Languages \u200b\u200bbow, Turkic, Russian, Finnish refer tosynthetic . In them, the average number of morpheme is increasing.
If we compare languages \u200b\u200bfrom the point of view of typology, there are no languages \u200b\u200bof large and small, strengths and weak, rich and poor. Analytical system is not better and no worse than synthetic. Structural diversity of languages \u200b\u200bis nothing more than a technique, different means Content expressions.
Meanwhile, fate of languages, their social history and prospects are deeply different. No matter how bitterly recognize, but there are no social equality between languages. "Languages \u200b\u200bare equal to God and Linguist," said one American researcher, "there is no equality between the English language and the extinct language of the Indian tribe."
If the structural differences between the languages \u200b\u200bcan be compared with the anthropol-psychological differences between people, then the sociolinguistic features resemble differences between people in their social status and status, in education, in the lifestyle, kind of classes, in authority or prestigiousness in certain social groups or society as a whole.
In the sociolinguistic questionnaire of languages, it is advisable to take into account the following signs:
1) communicative language rankcorresponding to the volume and functional diversity of communication on a particular language; 2)availability of writing and the duration of a written tradition; 3)degree of standardizedness (normalization of the language); four)legal status of language (state, official, constitutional, title, etc.) and its actual position in multilingual conditions; five)confessional language status; 6) educational and pedagogical status Language (as academic subject, as the language of teaching, as "foreign" or "classic", etc.
Communicative ranks, the volume and structure of communication in this language depend: 1) on the number of speakers in this language; 2) on the number of ethnic groups speaking in this language, 3) on the number of countries in which language is used, 4) from the composition of social functions and social spheres in which the language is used.
The volume of communication is distributed between the countries of the world is extremely uneven. At the 13 most common languages \u200b\u200bin the world, 75% of the 5-billion population of the Earth spoke, and in 25 languages \u200b\u200b- more than 90%. (Seattle University data for 1995).
In sociolinguistics distinguishfive communicative language ranksdefined depending on the functions of languages \u200b\u200bin interstate and inter-ethnic communication. At the top of this pyramid - 6 so-calledworld languages , Based on hundreds of pretty "local" languages \u200b\u200bthat are used in everyday domestic communication only within their ethnic team.
World languages - These are the languages \u200b\u200bof inter-ethnic and interstate communication, which have the status of official and working languages \u200b\u200bof the UN:english, Arabic, Spanish, Chinese, Russian, French.The composition of the "club" of world languages \u200b\u200bis historically changeable. In Europe, Mediterranean, in the Middle East the first world has beengreek. Latin later He became the second (after Greek) the language of the Christian church, school, science. Latin and Greek continued to be world tongues to the era of great geographical discoveries.
In 14-17 centuries. The first world has becomeportuguese , in the 18th century He gave way to the championshipfrench Later, in the middle of 19 century. Pavedenglish . If in antiquity and in the Middle Ages, world languages \u200b\u200bwere known only within the borders of their cultural and religious worlds, if in 16-19 V.portuguese, French, English Used within the borders of the colonial empires, then in the 20th century. Spread of English language It became planetary.
International language -these languages \u200b\u200bare widely used in international and inter-ethnic communication and, as a rule, have the legal status of a state or official language in a number of states. For example,portuguese, Vietnamese. Vietnamese Being relatives for 51 out of 57 million population of Vietnam, is the official language of the country, in addition to Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, New Caledonia, as well as in France and the United States.Swahili - Official language, along with English, in Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, is also common in Zaire and Mozambique. It speaks about 50 million people.
State (national) languages . They have the legal status of a state or official language or actually fulfill the function of the main language in one country. In an inspexed society, this is usually the language of the majority of the population. There are exceptions in the Republic of Philippines, with a population of 52 million people, state language, along with English, has become a languagetagali, at the same time Tagalov only 12 million, which is almost two times less than the number of peoplebisai . And yet, as a rule, this is the language of the majority of the population:georgian language in Georgia, Lithuanian language in Lithuania, Hindi in India.
Regional languages. These languages \u200b\u200bare usually written, but not having the status of official or state. Examples:tibetan Language in the Tibetan autonomous region of China (over 4 million speakers, the language of inter-barded communication and office work). Regional languages \u200b\u200bof Europe - for example,breton and Provencali in France, Sardinsky on Sardinia. However, these languages \u200b\u200bare not taught in schools, they do not have official status.
Local languages . As a rule, these are non-written languages. There are many hundreds of such languages. They are used in oral informal communication only inside ethnic groups in polyethic societies. Often, local television and radio transmission are underway. In elementary school, the local language is sometimes used as an auxiliary language necessary for the transition of students to the language of study in this school.
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The change and development of the language occurs according to certain laws. The presence of language laws is evidenced by the fact that the language does not constitute a combination of scattered, isolated elements. Changing, evolving linguistic phenomena are among themselves in regular, causal relations. Language laws are divided into internal and external.
Internal The laws are called causal processes occurring in separate languages \u200b\u200band in certain language levels. These include the laws of phonetics, morphology, syntax, vocabulary: the fall of reduced in Russian; Movement of consonants in German. Domestic laws are regular relations between language phenomena and processes that arise as a result of spontaneous, independent reasons for external influences. It is internal laws that evidence that the language is a relatively independent, self-developing and self-regulating system. Domestic laws are divided into common and private.
External laws Called laws caused by communication with the history of society, various parties to human activity. Thus, territorial or social restriction in the use of the language leads to the formation of territorial and social dialects. The patterns between the language and development of public formations are found during the historical development of society. For example, the education of nations and national states led to the formation of national languages. The complication of social life, the division of labor caused the formation of styles, scientific and professional plyasks.
The external structure of the language is directly opposed to changes in the historical movement of society. Under the influence of living conditions, the vocabulary of the language changes, local and social dialects, jargon, styles, genres are formed.
The change and complication of the external structure of the tongue also affects its internal structure. However, the historical change of the forms of public life of the people does not violate the identities of the language, its independence. The change in the internal structure of the language is calculated by many centuries.
General laws Encompass all languages \u200b\u200band all levels of language. These include the law of systemism, the law of tradition, the law of analogy, the law of economy, the laws of contradictions (anti-nuclei).
Law Systems Detected in different languages \u200b\u200band in different language levels.
For example, all languages \u200b\u200bhave a similar level structure in which constitutional units are allocated. Reducing the number of cases in Russian (six of the nine) led to an increase in analytical features in a syntax strict language. The change in the semantics of the word is reflected on its syntactic bonds and on its form.Law of Language Tradition Explained by the desire for stability. If this stability is loosened, prohibitive measures coming from linguist specialists come into effect. In the dictionaries, reference books, official prescriptions there are guidance on the eligibility or non-affordability of the use of language signs. An artificial preservation of tradition occurs. For example, the rules retain the tradition of consumption of verbs ringing - ringing, ringing; Inclusion - turn on, turn on; Press - hand, hand.Although in many verbs the tradition was broken. For example, I used to exist walk - Warus: Raven is not fry, not boiled (I. Wings); The oven pot is more expensive: you cook yourself in it (A. Pushkin).
Law of the language analogy It is manifested in the internal overcoming of the linguistic anomalies, which is carried out as a result of the likelihood of one form of the linguistic expression. The result is some unification of forms. The essence of the analogy lies in the alignment of forms in pronunciation, in the emphasis, in grammar. For example, an analogy is caused by the transition of verbs from one class to another: by analogy with the forms of verbs read - reads, throw - throws Forms appeared dripping (droplet), hesitates (chiflest).
Contracting laws (antinomy) Explained by the inconsistency of the language. These include:
a) the antinomy of the speaker and listening is created as a result of the differences in the interests of communicants. Talking is interested in simplifying and cutting a statement (the law of saving effort is manifested here), and the listening time is to simplify and relieve perception and understanding of the statements.
For example, in Russian XX century. There was a lot of abbreviations, which was convenient for compilers of texts. However, currently appears more and more disabled items: animal Protection Society, Organized Crime Managementwho have great impacts because they carry open content;b) Uzus antinomy and the capabilities of the language system (system and norms) is that the ability of the language (system) is significantly wider than the use of language signs adopted in the literary language. The traditional norm acts towards the restriction, while the system is able to satisfy large requests for communication. For example, the norm fixes the absence of opposition by types in bivid verbs. Eating compensates for no lack. For example, contrary to the norm, pairs are created attack - Attack, organize - organize;
c) the antinomy caused by the asymmetricness of the language sign manifests itself in the fact that there are always in a state of conflict. Meaning (value) seeks to acquire new, more accurate means of expression, and meaning (sign) - to acquire new values. For example, the asymmetry of the language sign leads to a narrowing or expansion of words of words: dash"The lighting of the horizon before the sunrise or sunset" and "the beginning, the birth of something";
d) the antinomy of the two functions of the language - information and expressive. The information function leads to a one-dimension, the standard of language units, expressive - encourages the novelty, the originality of the expression. Speech standard is fixed in the official spheres of communication - in business correspondence, legal literature, state acts. Expression, the novelty of the expression is more peculiar to speech by oratory, journalistic, artistic;
e) the antinomy of the two forms of the tongue - writing and oral. Currently, rather separate forms of language implementation are beginning to close. Oral speech perceives the elements of the book, written - widely uses the principles of collaboration.
Private laws Take place in separate languages. In Russian, for example, they include reduction of vowels in unstressed syllables, regressive assimilation of consonants, stunning consonants at the end of the word.
Linguists celebrate various pace of change and development of languages. There are some common patterns of the rate of change. So, in the additional period, the language system varies faster than in the written. Writing slows down changes, but does not stop them.
The pace for changing the language, according to some linguists, is influenced by the number of people speaking. Max Muller noted that the smaller the language, the more he is inconsistent and the faster it is reborn. There is a feedback between the size of the tongue and the speed of evolution of its system. However, such regularity is not traced in all languages. Yuri Vladimirovich Christmas notes that some additional languages \u200b\u200bchange their system faster than others, even if these languages \u200b\u200bhad a common language. So, the system of Icelandic has changed significantly slower than the structure of English, although quantitative Icelanders are significantly inferior to the British. Seems to be a special geographical position, Isolation of the Icelandic. It is also known that Lithuanian language to a greater extent saved the elements ancient building Indo-European languages \u200b\u200bthan slavic languagesDespite the balto-Slavic linguistic unity in antiquity.
There are cases of rare stability of the language of the language throughout historically long time. N.G. Chernyshevsky pointed to the amazing stability of the language in the colonies of the Greeks, Germans, the British and other peoples. Arabic in the nomadic Bedouins of Arabia for many centuries has practically not changed.
Different types of change are observed in the history of the same language. Thus, the drop in reduced vowels in ancient Russian language occurred, in terms of language changes, relatively fast in the X-XII centuries, especially considering that these vowels were still in Indo-European-based. The consequences of this phonetic law were very significant for the phonetic, morphological and lexical system of the Russian language: restructuring of the system of vowels and consonants, stunning ringing consonants in the end of the word, assimilation and dissimulation of consonants; The appearance of fluent vowels, unprofitable consonants, various concrete concretion; Changing the sound of the morphem, words. At the same time, the relative stability of the building of the National Russian Literary Literature in the period from Pushkin to this day is noted. Pushkin language, according to its phonetic, grammatical, word-formation, semantic and stylistic system, can not be taken off from modern language. However, the Russian language of the middle of the XVII century, distant from the language of Pushkin on the same period of time, can not be called modern language.
Thus, in the history of the same language there are periods of relative sustainability and intensive change.
Some linguists believe that language is an objective phenomenon developing in their laws, and therefore it is not subject to subjective impact. It is unacceptable arbitrary introduction into a common language of those or other units of the language, a change in its norms. In Russian, you can only specify on individual cases The introduction of copyright words to the vocabulary of the Russian language, although the author's neologisms are characteristic of the style of many writers.
However, part of the lingules, for example, E.D. Polyivans, representatives of the PLC believe that there is a need for subjective "intervention" into the organization of language funds. It can be expressed in the codification of language agents; In the establishment of the norms of the literary language for all speakers.
The subjective impact on the language occurs in scientific sublays when organizing thermosystems. This is due to the conventional nature of the term: it is usually entered by condition.
In a certain era of development, a personal, subjective impact on a literary language is provided to the decisive language. The creation of national literary languages \u200b\u200boccurs under the influence of outstanding national writers, poets.
