The initial link in the social system of Scandinavia in the 9th - 11th centuries. - a tribal collective inherited from previous centuries, a union of relatives uniting the entire genealogical extent of male relatives.
Each member of the collective was obliged to defend and protect the life of each of the relatives, or to take revenge, or to receive payment, a legal fee for this life from the murderer and his family. A tribal collective uniting relatives with a set of mutual rights and obligations that ensure the existence of each of the relatives. The "yard" was the basic unit of measure for social community. It included a family consisting of blood relatives.The pledge of the unity of the relatives, which ensured their immunity, was inalienable, sacred, like the house and the home world, the ancestral land ownership - odal. Occupying land in undeveloped areas, the settlers surrounded the boundaries of the site with fire. After four generations, such property turned into an odal. Odal was a hereditary possession, consisting of arable land, meadow, pasture, forest, water and other lands. Being one of the collective co-owners of the odal, each of these full-fledged community members could sooner or later claim the title of landsdrottinn - "master of the land", "owner", full-fledged bond. The central subject of Scandinavian customary law dating back to the Viking Age was the odalsbond, the head of an independent family, the owner of the estate, the full owner of the odal. The category of “powerful bonds”, which is one of the leading forces of the era. “Mighty bonds” based on large hereditary land holdings, numerous own families (including households, servants, slaves), who had branched tribal ties, acted as a kind of “strength nodes” of social ties. They were able to put up their own armed forces, organize a military campaign or a military expedition. In the 11th-12th centuries. the process of differentiation of bonds is unfolding, many are losing their honor. Those who keep it, odalmans, turn into petty patrimonials, hold-knights. The Viking Age was the time of the appearance, the highest rise and the beginning of the decomposition of the layer of “mighty bonds”, the time of the full and last flowering of the social system based on peasant land ownership.
Within the framework of the Viking Age, one can trace the beginning of its subjugation to the dominant feudal hierarchy and its transformation into the way of the oppressed class of feudal society, although oppressed, but, unlike other European countries, never enslaved.
viking family
crafts
Crafts in Scandinavia were poorly developed, the only exception was shipbuilding. The tools of agricultural labor are the same as in the 7th - 8th centuries: iron plowshares, sickles, scythes; rotary stone millstones are distributed. The assortment of handicraft tools is represented by forms that have developed even before the Viking Age and remained practically unchanged until the beginning of the industrial era. Qualitative shifts occur in the development of vehicles. The people of the Viking Age used skis to move in the snow in winter. The developed samples include horse harness: stirrups, spurs, belts and bridles, saddles with metal lining. Sledges, four-wheeled carts, as well as paving streets and building bridges, testify to the development of land transport. However, the leading role is played by water transport. The arsenal of the Vikings expanded and rapidly developed.
The process of improving the military organization of the Normans was even more clearly manifested in the sharp expansion and rapid development of the Viking arsenal. Along with traditional, lanceolate spears, Scandinavian artisans in the 9th - first half of the 10th centuries. Western, Frankish samples are mastered, their local varieties are being developed. In the middle of the 10th c. from borrowing, repetition, northern masters are moving to creative processing of imported samples, striving to combine the combat qualities of traditional local and Western copies in new types of arrowheads. There is also a development of northern mass weapons, battle axes. The types of axes inherited from previous periods are improved and modernized.
The greatest diversity of types occurs in the second half of the ninth century. In the 10th century this search ends with a certain unification in the form of the famous battle axes of the Vikings. The swords of the Viking Age are represented by about three dozen types. At the beginning of the Viking Age, swords became widespread. They are characterized by complex, richly decorated swords. In the 10th century their design is being improved (concave guards, complexly profiled tops).
Ceremonial weapons are widespread. In the second half of the 10th c. in connection with the emerging isolation of the military squad organization, the concentration of its social functions, the sword becomes an attribute of a relatively narrow and clearly defined early feudal layer. Its semantic ambiguity is reduced, the requirements for combat qualities are increasing. At the same time, the rich ceremonial weapons common in the Viking environment are falling into disuse.
So, the original variety of relatively simple types of the early Viking Age is replaced by the 11th century. rigid set of specialized forms.
Clothing also remained traditional in many ways - made of woolen and linen fabrics, fur, and leather. Men's attire usually consisted of tight pants, a long shirt and a jacket that was loose and belted. They also wore cloaks fastened on the shoulder with a fibula or a pin; in winter - clothes made of sheepskin and furs of other animals. Women dressed in long dresses with shoulder straps (they were fastened with a pair of brooches, usually tortoiseshell). The innovations characteristic of the Viking Age relate mainly to materials for ceremonial clothes, various additional decorations. For the holidays, they dressed in red cloth dresses lined with furs, with gold and silver clasps, sometimes with gold jewelry on the sleeves. They wore silver belts with buckles; large heavy rings covered the hands and elbows. From the East came the fashion for typesetting belts, to which various household items were hung (except for weapons). But the basis of the outfit remained traditional and uniform.
Agriculture
The agricultural and pastoral economy was based on small farms. On the Scandinavian Peninsula, only the southern tip - Skåne - is flat, with fertile soils. Almost half of the entire area of Scandinavia is occupied by forests. Natural conditions - mountains, poverty of soils - did not favor agriculture. Today, in Norway, cultivated land accounts for only 3% of the total area, in Sweden - 9%, and in Iceland less than 1%. Because of the abundance of rainfall and the short growing season in many parts of the Scandinavian Peninsula, the cereals are dominated by fast maturing varieties of oats and barley. Rye and wheat are common only in the southern regions. There was not enough bread in Scandinavia in the Middle Ages, and grain was imported from other countries. The methods of cultivating the land throughout the Middle Ages remained for the most part primitive.
Hoe farming was often practiced. The three-field crop rotation was little used, and crop yields were extremely low.
Cattle breeding was developed more widely. Great opportunities for him were given by mountain pastures - seters. They were used jointly by residents of many farms and entire districts. Peasants often had to worry not so much about plowing the field as about preparing fodder for livestock for the winter. Feed was scarce and livestock loss was common. Among the food products of Norwegians and Swedes, meat, milk, butter, and fish were in the first place. Whaling was also known. Hunger and its threat as a result of crop failure, loss of livestock, fish leaving the coast - an everyday reality in the life of the Scandinavians of that time.
Trade
Trade, like shipbuilding, was developed by the Scandinavians in very remote times. Roman coins from the era of the Republic and the Empire are found everywhere in Scandinavia. Numerous finds on the peninsula of bronze, gold, silver, glass and clay vessels, jewelry, weapons and other items from the Roman provinces also speak of the long-standing trade relations of Northern Europe with other countries. The demand for weapons from countries where the craft was more developed was especially great.
Among the shopping centers that existed at that time in Sweden and Norway, a dozen had the same name - Birka. According to the Swedish scientist E. Wadstein, these points got their names due to the fact that trade, a common law for all of them, operated on their territory.
By the time of the Viking campaigns, there are many thousands of coins from different countries found in all regions of Scandinavia. Here are coins from England, Germany, France and Byzantium, a lot of them from the Arab Caliphate.
The Vikings did not have their own silver, it was all imported. Nowhere is it found in such abundance as on the way “from the Varangians to the Greeks”. Gotland turned out to be the richest treasure on this path. The following figures best testify to the scope of the Gotlanders' commercial activity. Along with various things and decorations, about 90 thousand whole coins and 16.5 thousand of their fragments were found here. Of this number, only three coins are gold, the rest are silver. There are especially many coins of German origin - 37 thousand, as well as Arabic - 26 thousand, English - 20 thousand. For comparison, we can say that only about 40 thousand coins were found in Sweden.
Shipbuilding was extremely successful among the Vikings; on their boats, the Vikings sailed all the seas washing Europe and went to the expanses of the North Atlantic.
Some ships have survived to our time in burials. The Norwegians have been seafaring for many centuries, as evidenced by both the finds of their boat and rock art. But in the preceding period, ships and boats could sail along the coast without moving away from them; now, technical improvements in shipbuilding made it possible to sail far into the sea. The Viking ship - the drakar - unlike its predecessors, had not only oars, but also a rudder and a mast with a sail; the keel gave it stability; its sides were sewn from narrow, flexible, oak planks connected with frames; such ships were not afraid of the impacts of ocean waves, they were distinguished by considerable speed, they could land on almost any coast, go deep into the mouths of rivers and almost did not depend on currents and winds. At the beginning of the 9th century, large trading centers appeared, such as Skiringsal-Kaupang in Norway, Hideby and Ribe in Denmark, Birka in Sweden. Western countries exported silver and highly skilled handicrafts to the north. The Muslim East exported the same. Raw materials were mainly exported from the North. The most important export item was furs, as well as honey, wax, flax, leather, wood, amber, etc. Although Viking trade was closely intertwined with piracy and robbery, nevertheless, the Viking Age is a time of significant development of trade in the Baltic and North Seas. The ships found in the mounds of South-Eastern Norway (they date back to the end of the 9th - beginning of the 10th centuries) had a length of 20-23 m, a width of 4-5 m, and were driven by 11-16 pairs of oars. But the Vikings also had larger ships with a significant carrying capacity.
Burial of a noble Varangian (or Rus of Varangian origin).
They often wore cloaks. One of the Icelandic types of cloak was a square carved from sheepskin, or a fabric so shaggy that it resembled a fleece. The Norwegian king Harald Greycloak made such clothes fashionable at his court as a courtesy to the Icelander, who could not find a buyer for these products, with which he loaded the whole ship; hence Harald received such a nickname. The large mantles worn by many of the figures depicted on the Gotland stones look more majestic: they look like draperies sticking out from the front (Fig. 33). They apparently resembled the Frankish cloaks worn by Charlemagne. They were twice as long as they were wide; they were worn on the left shoulder, in front and behind they hung almost to the ground, but on the left they only reached the knee. They were stabbed on the right shoulder, on the right side the edges of the cloak were open, leaving the right hand free. Shorter cloaks, also pinned at the right shoulder, can be seen on the Oseberg carpet (see inset).
Most Vikings wore their hair long enough to cover their necks and fastened it with patterned barrettes; others favored a shorter haircut while keeping bangs long, judging by the angry laments of an 11th-century Englishman who wrote that even in Wessex, men had Danish haircuts and walked "with bare necks and blinded eyes." In addition, the Vikings wore mustaches and often a neat pointed beard (Fig. 32) and used combs. Hats were different: round or pointed caps, hoods and wide-brimmed hats.
From the sagas, we learn that the lower part of the legs was covered with leggings sewn to measure, to which socks were sewn, and sometimes just footcloths from strips of fabric. Shoes were made of soft leather, and wool was left on winter shoes for warmth. There were also primitive, but very durable boots (such boots are called "rivlin" in Scotland) made of untanned leather with a cow's back leg with wool outward with processes protruding on the heels. It is said that such shoes were perfect for wet weather and slippery stones. Hands were protected with gloves.
In addition to spinning and weaving, the other main task of the Scandinavian woman was the preparation and serving of food. During the day there were two main meals: one very early in the morning, probably around eight or nine in the morning, when the men had already worked for two hours; the other - early in the evening, at the end of the working day, around seven or eight. The time could vary depending on local customs and the time of year. It can be assumed that during the day there were short breaks to rest and eat, although we do not know exactly when.
Many of the main dishes of Iceland did not require special preparation - for example, cheeses, skyr, corned beef and dried fish, which were oiled before eating nama-iy. Naturally, there were many things that had to be cooked: fresh meat, fish, porridge - pro-etu and dairy, as well as baking bread.
They drank mostly ale; honey (a drink made from fermented honey) was most likely imported from more southerly countries, as well as, of course, wine, which was very valuable, a luxury item.
The kitchen utensils that have come down to us are made of metal or steatite (soapstone). Steatite is a very useful material and is easy to cut and shape; he is fireproof. There are natural deposits of steatite in Norway, Orkney and Shetland, as well as in Greenland, but they are absent in Iceland, so vessels from this stone had to be imported. Both iron and steatite were used to make pots and cauldrons up to 18 inches across with lugs or loops to insert an iron handle into and hang from chains over a fire. There were also cups, spoons, saucers, pans and skewers; all this could be both iron and steatite (Fig. 34). Pottery was hardly used, and everything that was found in Iceland, apparently, was imported from the continent.
And of course, there were many vessels made of wood or leather. In those rare cases when the composition of the soil contributes to the preservation of wooden objects in burials (for example, in Norwegian burials in ships), the variety and skill with which they are made are simply amazing. Such vessels were more suitable for storing or serving food than for cooking, although some cooking methods (for example, slow heating in coals) were also suitable for wooden utensils: it is said that a leather bag can also be hung over a fire and, as long as its contents remain moist, it won't light up.
The Viking Age hearths testify to the fact that at that time food was prepared in many ways. Of course, the meat could be fried on a spit (Fig. 35) or baked in a deep pit filled with red-hot coals and covered with earth (this method was also suitable for bread). Often the long open hearths had a flat stone slab at one end, which was supposed to be very hot - an ideal place for baking bread and oatmeal, as well as slowly simmering meat. The kitchen in the oldest house at Jarlshof had both an open hearth and a stone oven partly built into the wall. It was used as follows: small stones were heated red-hot on an open fire, then rolled into an oven along an inclined stone slab and covered with fresh, damp grass. Food was placed on top, protected by an additional layer of grass, and covered with another layer of hot stones. In the Jarl-Shof this was mainly the way fish was cooked: the bones of the sea pike, saithe and cod were found in the oven.
It has often been argued that the heaps of small fire-splintered stones commonly found near the homes of the Eekings are evidence of the use of a primitive method of boiling liquids in wooden vessels by adding red-hot stones to them, and there are indeed allusions to this in the sagas. However, evidence from Jarlshof and some other places in Scotland suggests that the stones were split on purpose (they were heated and cold water was poured over them) simply in order to obtain stones of the right size. They lay in a heap by the kitchen door, ready to be used in a frying pit, or in an oven like the one described above.
The family had breakfast and dinner in the main room. Here, on a raised floor that formed a platform along each wall, were various low benches and chairs. IN
In rich houses, the seats were covered with fabrics, and the floor was covered with chi straw or reeds. It was also possible to sit upright on the floor: studies of Icelandic skeletons showed that women were more likely to squat than straight. The two places of honor were in the center of the room opposite each other on either side of the hearth and between the four most ornately carved pillars that supported the roof, the so-called "throne pillars". The two seats of honor were carved benches; each was wide enough for two people to sit on. The first was intended for the owner and mistress of the house, the second - for the most honored guests. The rest of the household, including the servants, sat in two rows along the walls of the room, and the seats closer to the center were considered more honorable than those farther away. Small low tables - just boards on the goats - were brought into the room right before the meal and placed in front of the diners.
Scientists suggest that pagan temples had a similar architecture.
Vikings
The word Viking comes from the Old Norse word "Vikingr". There are several hypotheses regarding its meaning - the most convincing of which raises it to "vik" - a fiord, a bay. Thus, the word Viking according to this version means "man from the fiord." The French called the Vikings Normans (people from the north), the British called them Danes. In Russian and Greek (as well as Khazar and Arabic) the term Varyags was used. Geographically, the Vikings were located on the territory of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Denmark, Iceland and Greenland, however, thanks to their excellent navigation skills, the Vikings founded settlements in many countries - in the East they reached Persia, and in the West - North America. Chronologically, the Viking Age falls on the 8th-11th centuries.
Classes
In history, the Vikings are best known as seafarers, sea robbers, traders and colonizers. At home, the Vikings were engaged in agriculture, cattle breeding, hunting and fishing. Far from the last role in the sea wanderings of the Vikings was played by the overpopulation of the coastal regions of Scandinavia and the lack of fertile land.
Architecture
In forested Scandinavia, the Vikings built houses from wood combined with clay, while in Iceland and Greenland, due to a shortage of wood, stone was predominantly used. The central room of the house was low and dark, with a large hearth in the middle. They cooked, ate and slept in it. Sometimes inside the house, along the walls, supports were installed in a row to support the roof, and the fenced-off side rooms were used as bedrooms.
Means of transport
The pride of the Vikings were their ships - Drakkars and Snekkars. They were kept in order. The narrow frame of the vessel was convenient for approaching the shore and sailing along rivers and lakes. Light ships could be dragged to get around rapids, waterfalls, dams and fortifications. The disadvantage of the ships was their unsuitability for navigation on the high seas, which was compensated by the navigational art of the Vikings. Viking ships differed in the number of pairs of rowing oars, large ships - in the number of rowing benches. The smallest ship had 13 pairs of oars. The very first ships were designed for 30-80 people each, and a large ship of the 11th century. accommodated several hundred people. Large ships were most often used for trade and colonization, and small ships for coastal robbery and piracy. Viking ships moved with the help of sails and oars. A simple square sail was made from rough canvas and painted into stripes and checks.
Weapon
The Vikings were armed with swords, spears and battle axes, as well as bows and arrows. Viking shields were round or oval in shape. The shields were made of wood and were upholstered on the sides with iron strips. In the center of the shield was a pointed iron plaque to protect the hand. Of the armor, ordinary warriors wore metal (often with horns) and leather helmets, and noble warriors wore chain mail.
Art and literature
The art of the Vikings was applied and decorative. The main types are woodcarving, jewelry, runic inscriptions on stones and monuments. The main motifs are animals (mostly fictional) and compositions of intertwining ribbons. Viking literature was oral in nature. The runic alphabet (which was previously used only for religious purposes - mystical inscriptions, divination, inscriptions on tombstones, etc.) began to be used for writing itself after the end of the Viking Age.
Religion.
The religion of the Vikings was polytheistic in nature (paganism). The most revered of the gods were Thor, Din, Frey and the goddess Freya, Njord, Ull, Balder and a number of other gods were of lesser importance. The gods were worshiped in temples or sacred forests, groves and springs. The Vikings also believed in supernatural beings: trolls, elves, giants, mermen. There was a cult of sacrifices - mostly animals were sacrificed, but there were also human sacrifices. As in most pagan religions, the Viking religion had the idea of people's dependence on the will and whims of the gods. It was believed that people and gods are doomed (at the end of time) to go through a powerful cataclysm called Ragnark (Isl. - “end of the world”). Over time, Scandinavian paganism gave way to Christianity. In Denmark and Norway, Christianity was established in the 10th century, the Icelandic Viking leaders adopted the new religion in 1000, and the Swedes in the 11th century, but pagan survivals (including rune divination) persisted for several centuries after the end of the Viking Age.
Who are the Vikings and why was everyone afraid of them? You will learn where the Vikings lived from this article.
Where did the Vikings live?
The period of the VIII-XI centuries is rightly called the Viking Age. But who are these warlike people? The Vikings, or as the Normans called them, belonged to a group of northern peoples who came from Scandinavia.
The modern countries where the Vikings lived is Norway, Sweden and Denmark. The Vikings lived in coastal areas, so their life and way of life in general are closely connected with the sea. Even the origin of the name means "the inhabitants of the coast of the bay." Although in other foreign countries these warriors were called by other names. For example, in Spain they were called madhus, which in the local language means "pagan monsters"; in Ireland, the Vikings were called finngalls, that is, "bright strangers"; in France, Nortmanns or Norsmanns - "people from the north."
They inspired fear and horror on the nearest neighbors, and then on the whole of Western Europe. And all because of frequent campaigns for the purpose of robbery and robbery, where the people earned the fame of cruel warriors. So, since the end of the 8th century, the Vikings for the first time leave their native lands in search of new territories rich in food and fertile lands. Detachments rapidly attacked other countries, killed people, robbed and burned cities, stole food, livestock and other property. That is why the Vikings "became famous" as cruel and ruthless robbers.
For many years they carried out raids on the territory of the northern coast of France and the British Isles. As a result, Viking settlements appeared on the coasts of Scotland, Ireland and England in the 9th century. Moreover, in 1013 and 1016, under the leadership of the leaders Sven Forkbeard and Knut the Great, they managed to capture all of England, albeit for a while.
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Viking culture - the heart of ancient Scandinavia
Viking traditions are a special layer of world cultural heritage, because in this case we are talking about an entire era (which, by the way, is called the Viking Age). Scandinavian traditions include an extensive list of cultural, in particular, ritual actions and phenomena that have come down to us by no means in a folklore and mythological shell. Rich archaeological material and surviving historical documents (first of all, the works of medieval chroniclers) are the scientific basis for modern knowledge about Scandinavian culture.
Usually, the culture of the Vikings means the life and traditions of peoples who lived not only on the territory of the Scandinavian Peninsula (mainly Norway and Sweden), but also in nearby regions, such as Denmark and the island state of Iceland. Of course, the German-Scandinavian culture also includes the beliefs, life and traditional way of life of the peoples of Northern Europe, in particular, the territory of modern Germany and, to a lesser extent, Great Britain. On the other hand, it is obvious that the culture of Scandinavia in the Early Middle Ages had a large-scale impact on the culture of the entire European and even partially Asian region (this is primarily trade and cultural ties between the Vikings and representatives of Ancient Russia).
But in this regard, a logical question arises - what exactly do we mean when we talk about the culture of the Vikings or Scandinavian traditions? After all, these are not only powerful gods and unshakable heroes, epic myths about the formation and death of the Universe. The traditions of the Vikings are proud drakkars, cutting through the leaden expanse of the northern seas. The Viking tradition is a long journey to heavenly Vinland hundreds of years before Columbus and Vespucci. Viking traditions are spectacular "long houses", cruel rites like the famous "bloody eagle" and legendary warriors - berserkers and ulvhendars. These are erili - stone carvers, and skalds - poets, clutching a sword in one hand, and the art of versification in the other. This is the whole depth of the Scandinavian culture, in many ways still not understood by us.
Viking Age: who built Europe?
Traditionally, the Viking Age is called the period of the Early Middle Ages, corresponding to the following chronological framework - the VIII-XI century AD. The Viking Age in Northern Europe immediately follows the so-called "Germanic Iron Age" (IV-VIII centuries). The legendary period of the rule of the northern warriors precedes the attack of the Scandinavian warriors on the English city of Dorset in 789. In the future, the Vikings regularly raided England, Ireland, and France. In 860, the Scandinavians, as part of the Rus army, come to Constantinople. Ten years later, Norwegian navigators discover Iceland, and five years later, Greenland.
During the Viking Age, Scandinavian warriors, explorers and pioneers repeatedly besieged European cities, ruled individual regions and even entire countries. They traded and traveled abundantly, and therefore the Viking Age in Europe is rightly considered a special historical phenomenon that left the deepest mark on the cultural and historical heritage of all European states. The end of the Viking Age in Europe (and throughout the world) is considered the legendary Battle of Stamford Bridge (1066) and the death of the last Scandinavian king, King of Norway, Harald III the Severe.
That is, in fact, the Viking Age is a three-hundred-year primacy of Scandinavian culture over medieval European peoples. As a result, many ruling dynasties of the Late Middle Ages trace their ancestry precisely from the Vikings, fearless foreign invaders (that's what they were called in the southern regions). Therefore, it is not surprising that the life, religion and culture of the Vikings are so interesting to us today, because it was these desperate warriors who largely created the world that we know today from school history books. The world we see around us. A world that many of us would like to see...
A separate block is the theme of the paganism of the Vikings. This is also an integral part of the Scandinavian culture, but other sections of the RUNARIUM information portal are devoted to this issue. In the "Culture" section, Viking paganism as such is not reflected, except perhaps in rituals and those materials where consideration of specific elements of the Viking tradition is impossible outside the cultural and religious context. Basically, we will talk about Viking ships, their weapons, military culture, life and, of course, about famous (and not so) people whose deeds the Scandinavian skalds glorified for centuries.
The Vikings were early medieval seafarers. Peasants who were free. The Vikings worshiped Scandinavian gods. Not belonging to any of the nobility, the Vikings were looking for a better life outside their homeland.
Some of them were engaged in piracy, robbery and robbery. The Vikings lived in large families.
The dwellings were simple one-room houses. They were made of timber, and they did not lay it horizontally, as we are used to, but vertically. Slots or cracks were covered with clay, so there was no wind in the room. In some settlements there was a great shortage of wood, and the Vikings used stones ninety or more centimeters thick to build their dwellings, and the roof was covered with peat.
In the center of the house there was a long fire, and it was used for cooking, as well as a source of light and heat. On the sides were sleeping quarters. The peasant clothes of the Scandinavians were simple. Woolen long shirt, short, shallow trousers and a rectangular cape. In order to indicate their position in society, the Vikings used metal jewelry. The upper classes wore long trousers, socks and bright capes, as well as woolen mittens and hats. The women wore long clothes. Unmarried women had their hair tied up with a ribbon.
The warriors were armed with spears one hundred and fifty centimeters long, and the Scandinavian axes were distinguished by their wide symmetrical blade. By the way, the Vikings were great masters in shipbuilding. They built perfect ships of their era. Warships were called , and merchant knorravs. Such ships allowed the Vikings to visit overseas countries, and settlers to overcome the seas in search of new lands. They were well oriented in the open sea, far from the coast. It is possible that the Scandinavians used a compass to determine their course. When a Viking died, his body was placed in a boat, lowered into the water and set on fire. Such a funeral rite was associated with the idea of a ship of the dead. This rite was, not only among the Vikings, but also met in other eras. The harsh time determined the severity and organization of the life of the Vikings.
