Important in initial period The reign of Alexander I had an eastern foreign policy direction, where Russia traditionally had difficult relations with the Ottoman Empire and Persia (Iran).
The key issue here can be considered the problem of control over the Black Sea straits (Bosporus, Dardanelles) and the division of spheres of influence on the Balkan Peninsula, which belongs to Turkey, but has a Slavic and predominantly Orthodox population. The Caucasus was also of fundamental economic and military-strategic importance, where Russia sought to establish its power.
In accordance with the Treaty of Georgievsk (1783) , Eastern Georgia, fearing a Persian and Turkish invasion, came under the protection of Russia. At the end of 1800, the last Georgian king from the Bagratid dynasty abdicated power in favor of the Russian sovereign. During 1801–1804 all of Georgia voluntarily joined Russian Empire, and a Russian administration was created on its territory, headed by a governor appointed in St. Petersburg.
Russian expansion in Transcaucasia aroused the indignation of the Persian Shah.
In 1804, the Russian-Iranian war began, which lasted until 1813. The Russian army had a huge superiority over the poorly armed and poorly organized Persian troops. As a result, on October 12, 1813, a peace treaty was signed in the village of Gulistan, according to which Iran recognized the entry into the Russian Empire of not only Georgia, but also Dagestan and Northern Azerbaijan, and in addition, Russia received the exclusive right to maintain a military fleet in the Caspian Sea .
In 1806, relying on the support of France, the Turkish Sultan Selim III closed the Black Sea straits to Russian ships. He also replaced the Russian-friendly rulers of Moldavia and Wallachia (Ypsilanti and Muruzi), which was a direct violation of existing Russian-Turkish agreements. The war, which began in December 1806, lasted until 1812. Among the Russian commanders who took part in it, it should be noted General I.I. Mikhelson and Vice Admiral D.N. Sinyavin, who defeated the Turkish fleet in the Battle of Athos (June 19, 1807). In the spring of 1811, General M.I. was appointed commander-in-chief. Kutuzov, who won the major battle of Rushchuk in October 1811. May 28, 1812 M.I. Kutuzov signed Peace of Bucharest , according to which Bessarabia became part of Russia (the border was established along the Prut River), and Moldova, Wallachia and Serbia received autonomy within Ottoman Empire. This treaty was signed a few days before Napoleon's invasion of Russia and ensured Turkey's neutrality in the upcoming Patriotic War 1812
The main foreign policy interests of Russia during the entire reign of Alexander I (1801–1825) were concentrated on the western direction .
At the turn of the 18th–19th centuries. France, Great Britain and Austria began the next repartition of Europe, which went down in history under the name "Napoleonic Wars". Of course, the Russian Empire, which has the status of a great European power and is constantly striving to strengthen its influence on the continent, could not help but take part in this process.
At first, the government of Alexander I tried to take the position of arbiter in European affairs, and “become welcome to everyone, without accepting any obligations towards anyone.” Already in March - June 1801, steps were taken to normalize relations with Great Britain, and in September 1801 a peace agreement was signed with France. There was a temporary lull in Europe, which lasted until the spring of 1805, when the third anti-Napoleonic coalition was created(Russia, Great Britain, Austria). Napoleon acted decisively.
In October 1805, he defeated Austria and occupied Vienna.
November 20, 1805 occurred major battle near Austerlitz, in which the allied Russian-Austrian troops, led by M.I. Kutuzov, were defeated. This defeat forced Alexander I to withdraw his army from Europe and in June 1806 sign an unfavorable peace with France.
However, already at the end of 1806, a new (fourth) anti-Napoleonic coalition was formed, in which Prussia and Sweden took the place of Austria. The French emperor attacked the allies in the fall of 1806. In October he occupied Berlin, defeating the Prussian army at Jena. Here he announced the establishment of a continental blockade of England.
At the beginning of 1807, a major battle took place at Preussisch-Eylau between the French and the Russian army, commanded by General L.L. Bennigsen. Napoleon failed to win a decisive victory then, but already on June 2 of the same year, at the Battle of Friedland, Bennigsen was defeated and was forced to retreat beyond the Neman.
On June 25, 1807, a meeting between Alexander I and Napoleon took place in Tilsit, as a result of which the emperors not only signed peace, but also signed an alliance treaty. The conditions of this world were extremely unfavorable and even insulting for Russia.
Alexander I had to recognize all French conquests in Europe and approve the creation of the Duchy of Warsaw (meanwhile, the revival of Polish statehood was contrary to the interests of Russia).
Alexander also pledged to sever relations with Great Britain and join the continental blockade. This condition violated the economic and political sovereignty of the Russian Empire.
The alliance between Alexander and Napoleon also had positive consequences for Russia - France approved the expansionist plans of the Russian Empire in relation to northern Europe.
From February 1808 to August 1809. The last Russian-Swedish war in history took place, ending with the signing of the Friedrichsham Peace Treaty. Under its terms, Finland (which received broad autonomy) and the Åland Islands became part of Russia, and Sweden pledged to join the continental blockade.
It is obvious that the Tilsit Peace Treaty did not resolve, but only aggravated the contradictions between France and Russia. The situation remained tense even after the meeting of the two emperors in Erfrut (September - October 1808). In 1811, the Russian Empire actually emerged from the continental blockade, increased its army, looked for allies and prepared for an attack on the Duchy of Warsaw.
At the beginning of the 19th century. Russia pursued an active foreign policy. Its main directions were western (European) and southern. The quintessence of European foreign policy was the struggle between Russia and France for leadership on the continent. The southern direction included relations with Iran (Persia) and Turkey (Ottoman Empire) (Diagram 135).
In 1805, a third coalition against France formed in Europe, consisting of Russia, England and Austria. The outbreak of hostilities did not bring luck to the allies: in the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805, their troops suffered a serious defeat. This coalition soon fell apart.
In 1806, with the active participation of Russia, a fourth coalition was created, which included Russia, Prussia, England, Saxony, and Sweden. The defeat and capitulation of Prussia, and then the Russian army in the battle of Friedland, forced Alexander I to begin peace negotiations with the French emperor.
Modern historians tend to believe that the coalition wars of 1805–1807 were predatory on both sides, with a clear predominance in the politics of the coalitions of the “spirit of reaction” over the “spirit of revival”. These wars waged by governments brought numerous misfortunes to their people. According to historian N.A. Troitsky, the goals of the third and fourth coalitions boiled down to two main directions: territorial expansion, seizure and plunder of new lands as a minimum and domination in Europe as a maximum; preserving the survivors on the continent and restoring the feudal regimes overthrown by the French Revolution and Napoleon.
Scheme 135
In 1807, in Tilsit, France and Russia signed an agreement, according to which Russia undertook to join the continental blockade of England and sever political relations with it. The Treaty of Tilsit also provided for the creation of the Duchy of Warsaw under Napoleon's protectorate from Polish lands seized from Prussia (Diagram 136). Subsequently, they will serve as a springboard for an attack on Russia.
Scheme 136
The Peace of Tilsit caused damage to the Russian economy due to the severance of traditional trade ties with England. Nevertheless, it gave the country a temporary respite and allowed it to intensify policy in the northwestern and southern directions.
The Erfurt meeting of the two emperors in 1809 confirmed their previous agreements and stabilized the situation on the European continent for some time.
In 1808, Russia, adhering to the terms of the Peace of Tilsit and the alliance with Napoleon, entered the war with Sweden, which refused to sever trade relations with England. In 1809 Sweden was defeated. Russia annexed Finland. The Grand Duchy of Finland was created, the head of which was Russian Emperor, became part of Russia with broad internal autonomy (Table 17).
Table 17
Russo-Swedish War 1808–1809
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Sweden's refusal to join the continental blockade and its allied relations with England. Russia’s desire to capture Finland and thereby eliminate the centuries-old threat to the country’s northern borders. France pushing Russia towards aggression against Sweden |
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February 1808 - Russian troops invaded Finland and captured most of Finnish territory. March 1809 - Russian troops marched across the ice of the Gulf of Bothnia. Capture of the Åland Islands and invasion of Swedish territory. March - August 1809 - movement of Russian troops along the northern coast of the Gulf of Bothnia towards Stockholm. Surrender of the Swedish army |
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September 5, 1809 – Treaty of Fredericksburg Russia and Sweden, according to which: ü Sweden pledged to join the continental blockade and break the alliance with England; ü Finland became part of Russia with broad rights of internal autonomy |
Tensions developed on the southern borders (Table 18). Turkey did not want to recognize Russia’s conquest of the Black Sea coast, and primarily the annexation of Crimea at the end of the 18th century. The main tasks of Russia were the following: to ensure the most favorable regime in the Black Sea straits of the Bosphorus and Dardanelles and to prevent foreign military vessels from entering the Black Sea.
Table 18
The southern direction of Alexander I's foreign policy
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Progress of hostilities |
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Russian-Iranian War 1804-1813 |
The clash of interests of Russia and Persia (Iran) in Transcaucasia. The accession of Georgia to Russia. In 1804, Russian troops occupied the Ganja Khanate (for raids on Georgia), Iran declared war on Russia |
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The conclusion of the Gulistan Peace Treaty in 1813, according to which: ü Russia received the right to have a fleet in the Caspian Sea; ü Iran recognized the annexation of northern Azerbaijan and Dagestan to Russia |
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Russian-Turkish War 1806-1812 |
Contradictions between Russia and Turkey:
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The conclusion of the Bucharest Peace Treaty in 1812, according to which: ü Russia received Bessarabia, the border along the river. Prut and a number of regions in Transcaucasia; ü Russia was guaranteed the right of patronage to Christians who were subjects of Turkey |
Russia actively used the right of patronage of Balkan Christians, subjects of the Ottoman Empire, which it received under the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi (1774) and Yassky (1791) treaties. Contradictions between Russia and Turkey led in 1806 to a new war, which ended in 1812 with the victory of Russia. Under the terms of the Bucharest Peace Treaty signed in May 1812, Bessarabia and a significant section of the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus, along with the city of Sukhumi, went to Russia. Moldova, Wallachia and Serbia, remaining within the Ottoman Empire, received autonomy.
The treaty, concluded a month before Napoleon's attack on Russia, made it possible to concentrate all forces on the fight against Napoleonic aggression.
In the Caucasus, where the interests of Russia, Turkey and Iran collided, the Russian government also pursued an active policy. In 1801, Georgia voluntarily became part of the Russian Empire. The result of the Russian-Iranian war of 1804–1813. was the inclusion of the territory of Northern Azerbaijan and Dagestan into Russia. The first stage of the annexation of the Caucasus to the Russian Empire was completed.
Alexander (Blessed) I – Emperor of the Russian Empire, who reigned from 1801 to 1825. The autocrat tried to maneuver between France and Great Britain and expanded the territory of his state. His domestic and foreign policies were aimed at improving public administration and gaining international prestige.
The reign of Alexander 1 became an important stage in our history. Russia under Alexander emerged victorious from the war with Napoleon and underwent a number of serious changes.
In contact with
Early years and beginning of reign
The future tsar was born on December 23, 1777 and was named Alexander by his grandmother - in honor of the hero and famous prince Alexander Nevsky. His teachers were Nikolai Saltykov and Frederic Cesar. A huge impact on shaping the personality of the future ruler provided by his grandmother. He spent his entire childhood with Catherine II - away from his parents.
Alexander ascended the throne immediately after killing his father. The conspirators, among whom were diplomat Nikita Panin, General Nikolai Zubov and his closest associate Peter Palen, were dissatisfied with his unpredictable decisions in foreign and domestic policy. Historians still do not know whether the future emperor knew about the murder of his father.
March 24, 1801 Alexander becomes emperor- a few hours after the overthrow of Paul I. Upon his accession to the throne, the emperor pardoned thousands of people who were convicted at the whim of his father.
The Russian Tsar also wanted to quickly improve relations with Great Britain and Austria, which had suffered seriously under the previous ruler, who acted impulsively and unwisely. Six months later, the young emperor restored the former alliance relations and even signed a peace treaty with the French.
Domestic policy
Features of the tsar's domestic policy are largely caused by his associates. Even before ascending the throne, he surrounded himself with smart and talented people, among whom were Count Kochubey, Count Stroganov, Count Novosiltsev and Prince Czartoryski. With their help, the emperor wanted transform the state, for which the Secret Committee was created.
Secret committee - government agency, which was unofficial and existed from 1801 to 1803.
The main directions of the domestic policy of the Russian sovereign were to carry out the so-called liberal reforms, which were supposed to turn Russia to a new country. Under his leadership the following were carried out:
- reform of central government bodies;
- financial reform;
- education reform.
| Reform | Description |
| Central authorities | The essence of the reform was the creation of an official council that helped the emperor decide important government issues. Thus, on his initiative, a “Variable Council” was created, which included twelve representatives titled nobility. In 1810 it was renamed the State Council. This body could not independently issue laws, but only gave advice to the emperor and helped make decisions. He also organized a Secret Committee of his closest associates. As part of the reform, eight ministries: internal and foreign affairs, military and naval forces, commerce, finance, justice and public education. |
| Financial sector | As a result of the war against Napoleon in the country the financial crisis began. At first the government wanted to overcome it by printing even more paper money, however this is only caused inflation to rise. The sovereign was forced to carry out reforms that raised taxes exactly twice. This saved the country from the financial crisis, but caused wave of discontent to the monarch. |
| The sphere of education | In 1803 it was reformed the sphere of education. Now it could be obtained regardless of social class. At the primary levels, education became free. As part of the reforms, new universities were founded and received partial autonomy. |
| Military sphere | After the victory over Napoleon, the sovereign realized that recruitment was not able to provide the country with a professional army. After the end of the conflict, they also cannot organize demobilization as soon as possible. In 1815 there was a decree was issued, which provided for the creation of military settlements. The king created a new class of military farmers. The reform caused sharp discontent in all layers of society. |
In addition to the above reforms, it was planned to eliminate the estates, but this did not happen due to lack of support in higher circles.
Attention! Alexander planned by issuing decrees that reduced injustice against serfs.
If you are asked: “Give me overall assessment internal policy of Alexander 1,” we can answer that at first he took all the necessary steps that would turned an empire into a modern state of European standards. The main achievements of the tsar were reforms in the field of education and the creation of centralized government bodies, among which he played an important role Unspoken committee. Attempts to cancel should also be considered positive. serfdom.
However, internal activities in the second half of the reign cause negative assessments among historians. Under Alexander 1, taxes were significantly increased and military reform, which caused even more sharp reaction in the empire.
Thus, we can highlight the following features of the internal policy of Alexander I:
- liberal reforms on initial stages boards that had a positive effect in the process of development of the Russian Empire;
- the desire to create a state according to European standards;
- row failed reforms in the financial and military spheres;
- cooling towards any kind of reforms in the second half of the reign;
- complete renunciation of government at the end of life.
Foreign policy
In the first years of his reign, the vector of Alexander 1’s foreign policy was directed to eliminate the threat from Napoleon. In 1805, our country became a member of the Third Anti-French Coalition, which also included Great Britain, Austria, the Kingdom of Naples and Sweden.
The Tsar personally led the Russian army. His mismanagement and lack of military experience led to defeat of the united army Austrians and Russians at the Battle of Austerlitz. This battle went down in history as the “Battle of Three Emperors.” Napoleon inflicted a crushing defeat on his opponents and forced the Russian army to leave Austria.
In 1806, Prussia declared war on France, after which Alexander violated the terms of the peace treaty and also sent an army against Napoleon. In 1807 the French Emperor defeats opponents, and Alexander is forced to negotiate.
After his defeat in 1807, Alexander was forced, under pressure from Napoleon, to declare war on Sweden. Without an official announcement of the start of hostilities Russian army crosses the Swedish border.
The beginning of the war for Alexander was disastrous, but during the fighting a radical change occurred, which led to the victory of the Russian Empire in 1809. As a result of the agreement, the Swedes joined the continental blockade against the British, entered into an alliance with the Russian Empire and ceded Finland to that country.
In 1812, Napoleon invades Russia. Alexander 1 announces about the beginning of the Patriotic War. During the fighting and under the influence of severe frosts, Napoleon suffered a crushing defeat, losing most of his army.
After Napoleon's flight, the emperor takes part in the attack on France. In 1814 he entered Paris as a victor. During this time, Alexander I represented the interests of Russia.
results
The foreign policy of Alexander 1 can be briefly formulated in one phrase - the desire for geographical expansion of the empire's space. During the years of his reign, the following territories were included in the state:
- Western and Eastern Georgia;
- Finland;
- Imereti (Georgia);
- Mingrelia (Georgia);
- most of territories of Poland;
- Bessarabia.
In general, the results of the tsar’s international actions were positive value For further development the role of the Russian state in the international arena.
Last stage of life
In their last years emperor lost all interest to state affairs. His indifference was so deep that he repeatedly said that he was ready to abdicate the throne.
Shortly before his death, he issues a secret manifesto, in which he transfers the right to inherit the throne to his younger brother Nikolai. Alexander I dies in 1825 in Taganrog. His death raised a lot of questions.
At the age of 47, the emperor was practically not ill, and no one wanted to recognize such a quick death as natural.
Attention! There is an opinion that the emperor faked his death and became a hermit.
Results of the reign
During the first period of his reign the emperor was energetic and wanted to carry out a wide series of reforms that would change the Russian Empire. His policy was initially characterized by activity. Changes in the government and educational spheres have been successful. Financial reform saved the country from crisis, but caused discontent, however, like the military one. Russia under Alexander 1 was not freed from serfdom, although the emperor understood that this step was already inevitable.
Foreign and domestic policy
Conclusion on the topic
The results of Alexander I's foreign policy were great importance for the future of the country, since the territory of the empire was expanded and authority was gained in the international arena. The achievements of the beginning of the reign were largely negated in the last years of the emperor's life. His indifference led to growing crisis, prompted the Decembrist movement and caused the creation secret societies. After his death the emperor becomes Nikolai's younger brother, subsequently named .
At the beginning of the 19th century, Russia pursued an active foreign policy. The foreign policy situation forced Alexander I to maneuver between France and Great Britain, and also to participate in several wars. Under him, the possessions of the Russian Empire expanded significantly due to the annexed territories.
The main directions of Russian foreign policy at the beginning of the 19th century were western (Russia’s relations with European countries and the struggle between Russia and France for leadership on the continent) and southern (relations with Iran (Persia) and Turkey (Ottoman Empire)).
Western direction
In 1805, a third coalition against France formed in Europe, consisting of Russia, England and Austria. The outbreak of hostilities did not bring good luck to the allies: on November 20, 1805, their troops suffered a serious defeat in the Battle of Austerlitz in Moravia. This coalition soon fell apart.
In 1806, with the active participation of Russia, the fourth coalition was created, which included Russia, Prussia, England, Saxony, and Sweden. On January 26-27, 1807, a bloody battle between Russian and French troops took place near the Prussian village of Preussisch-Eylau. And on June 2, Russia and Prussia were defeated at Friedland in East Prussia. This forced Alexander I to begin peace negotiations with the French emperor.
In 1807, in Tilsit, France and Russia signed an agreement, according to which Russia undertook to join the continental blockade of England and sever political relations with it. Russia was limited in access to the Mediterranean Sea and was forced to transfer to France the Ionian Islands and the Bay of Kotor, occupied by the Russian fleet. The Treaty of Tilsit also provided for the division of spheres of influence (France - Western and Central Europe, Russia - Northern and Southern Europe) and the creation by Russia of the Duchy of Warsaw under the protectorate of Napoleon from lands seized from Prussia (later they will serve as a springboard for an attack on Russia).
On September 30, 1809, the Erfurt Union Conference between Russia and France took place. It confirmed their previous agreements and stabilized the situation on the European continent for some time. France recognized Russia's rights to Finland, Moldova and Wallachia.
The Peace of Tilsit caused damage to the Russian economy due to the severance of traditional trade ties with England. However, it gave the country a temporary respite and allowed it to intensify policy in the northwestern and southern directions.
Adhering to the terms of the Peace of Tilsit and the alliance with Napoleon, Russia entered into a war with Sweden (1808-1809), which refused to sever trade relations with England. In addition, Russia sought to capture Finland and thereby eliminate the centuries-old threat to the country’s northern borders.
In February 1808, Russian troops invaded Finland and captured most of Finnish territory. In March 1809, Russian troops marched across the ice of the Gulf of Bothnia, captured the Åland Islands and invaded Sweden. By August, Russian troops advanced to Stockholm, and in 1809 Sweden was defeated. On September 5, 1809, the Friedricham Peace Treaty was signed between Russia and Sweden, according to which Sweden pledged to join the continental blockade and break the alliance with England. Finland, according to this agreement, became part of Russia with broad rights of internal autonomy.
On the eve of 1812, relations between Russia and France became increasingly tense. Russia was not satisfied with the Peace of Tilsit, and since 1810 it has not actually observed the continental blockade, which was one of the reasons for France’s entry into the war. In addition, Alexander I, who sought influence on European politics, hindered Napoleon's desire for absolute domination in Europe. All this led to serious contradictions between Russia and France, which developed into military actions, called in our history the Patriotic War of 1812.
Napoleon's goal in this war was not the conquest of Russia (he understood that this was impossible), but the defeat of the main Russian forces during a short-term campaign and the conclusion of a new, more stringent treaty obliging Russia to follow in the wake of French policy. The total number of Napoleon’s “great” army was 647 thousand people, including contingents of the French Empire, the Kingdom of Italy, the Austrian Empire, the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily, Prussia, Denmark, Bavaria, Saxony, Württemberg, Westphalia, etc. The army was commanded by experienced marshals: N. Oudinot, M. Ney, I. Murat and others.
Russia's strategic plan was different. She tried to avoid general battles and draw the French deeper into the country. And although such a doctrine of warfare seemed incorrect to many (General P.I. Bagration was especially ardently opposed to it) and even treacherous, it was approved by Emperor Alexander I. The Russian army was not inferior in potential to the French, its number during the war reached 700 thousand . people, including Cossacks and militia.
But in the initial period of the war, the first echelon of French troops that invaded Russia (448 thousand people) was numerically superior to the Russian armies (320 thousand people) covering the western borders. At that time, the 1st Army under the command of Barclay de Tolly was located in the Baltic States, the 2nd Army under the command of P.I. Bagration was in Belarus, the 3rd Army under the command of A.P. Tormasova occupied positions in Northern Ukraine.
On June 12, 1812, the first echelon of French troops began the invasion of Russia, crossing the river. Neman. The Russian armies covering the western border fought rearguard battles and retreated inland; the 1st and 2nd Russian armies united in the Smolensk region, where a bloody battle took place on August 4-6. Our soldiers defended themselves with dignity (the soldiers and officers of the corps of generals D.S. Dokhturov and N.N. Raevsky especially distinguished themselves), but for the sake of preserving the army, according to overall plan, still left the city.
This caused some discontent in the army and society. Therefore, on August 8, 1812, Alexander I appointed M.I. as commander-in-chief of the Russian army. Kutuzova. On August 17, 1812, he arrived with the troops and began preparations for a general battle, the place for which was chosen 110 km from Moscow, near the village of Borodino.
The Battle of Borodino took place on August 26, 1812. The Russian command set itself the task of not allowing the army of invaders to reach Moscow. The French planned to defeat the Russian army in a decisive battle. All this manifested itself during the battle: Napoleon continuously attacked, hoping to knock the Russians off their positions, and Kutuzov methodically defended himself, counterattacking. At that time, the size of the Russian army was 132 thousand people, Napoleon's army numbered 135 thousand people.
The battle began with a French attack on the positions of the Russian army, which were called Bagration's flushes. The onslaught lasted seven hours, the fortifications changed hands several times, Bagration himself was seriously wounded and taken from the battlefield. In the middle of the day, Napoleon shifted the direction of the main attack to the center of the Borodino field, where the defense was held by the battery of General Ranevsky. As dusk fell, the battle died down. Both sides suffered huge losses (the French - from 20 to 40 thousand people, the Russians - from 30 to 50 thousand people).
After the Battle of Borodino, Kutuzov decided to leave Moscow in order to preserve the Russian army. Russian troops, having arrived in the city, carried out the so-called Tarutino maneuver, setting up a military camp 80 km from Moscow on the river. Nare near the village of Tarutino, thereby closing the French passage to the south of the country.
- On September 2, 1812, Napoleon entered Moscow, and almost immediately a fire began, destroying a significant part of the city's buildings. The French army faced serious difficulties: military discipline fell, robberies and looting intensified. During the five weeks it was in Moscow, the French army lost about 30 thousand people. Napoleon repeatedly turned to Alexander I with a proposal to conclude peace, but was invariably refused.
- On October 11, 1812, Napoleon's main forces left Moscow and tried to break through to the southwest. Kutuzov's army stood in their way. On October 12, 1812, a major battle took place in Maloyaroslavets. Having failed to achieve victory, Napoleon gave the order to retreat towards the western border. Russian troops pursued the French and inflicted a number of significant blows on them (October 22 - near Vyazma, November 3-6 - near the village of Krasny, November 14-16 - on the Berezina River). The disorderly flight of the remnants of the French troops began. On December 3, 1812, Napoleon's army left Russia. The Patriotic War of 1812 played a significant role in the fate of Russia and was of great historical significance.
The victory of the Russian army in the Patriotic War of 1812 was facilitated by the following circumstances:
- · The dedication and heroism of the Russian people, united in a single patriotic impulse to defend the fatherland;
- · Military leadership talent M.I. Kutuzova, M.B. Barclay de Tolly and other military leaders;
- · Miscalculations and mistakes of Napoleon, expressed in ignorance of the natural and climatic conditions of Russia and its resources;
- · Irreplaceable losses of personnel, difficulties in supplying food and fodder to the French.
The people's militia and partisan movement. The people's militia was created in Russia on the basis of tsarist manifestos of July 6 and 18, 1812 with the aim of creating strategic reserves and organizing resistance to the French. It was staffed by province and headed by experienced military leaders. So, before the appointment of M.I. as commander-in-chief of the Russian troops. Kutuzov led the people's militia of the St. Petersburg province. The Moscow (30 thousand people) and Smolensk (14 thousand people) militias took part in the Battle of Borodino.
The partisan movement played an equally important role in the war against Napoleon. One of the initiators of the creation of partisan detachments was M.B. Barclay de Tolly. In total, 36 Cossack, seven cavalry and five infantry regiments operated behind enemy lines. The most famous partisan commanders were A.N. Seslavin, A.S. Figner, D.V. Davydov, A.Kh. Benckendorf, F.F. Wintzingerode et al.
Peasant partisan detachments that arose spontaneously provided great assistance to the active army. They were led by Fyodor Potapov, Ermolai Chetvertakov, Gerasim Kurin, Vasilisa Kozhina.
M.I. Kutuzov called the partisan movement a “small war” and always emphasized the enormous contribution of the partisans to the common victory in the Patriotic War of 1812.
In 1813-1814 Russian troops entered Europe, where they continued the battle with the recreated Napoleonic army. The military initiative remained with Russia and its allies - Prussia and Austria. They won a number of victories over Napoleon (August 17-18, 1813 - near Kulm, October 4-7, 1813 - near Leipzig). In January 1814, Russian troops entered French territory. On March 18, 1814, Allied troops entered Paris. Napoleon was dethroned and exiled to Fr. Elbe in the Mediterranean Sea. The monarchy of the Bourbon dynasty was restored in France. On May 18, 1814, the Treaty of Paris was signed between France and the participants of the 5th anti-French coalition. It was decided to convene the Congress of Vienna to approve new system relations in Europe.
From September 1814 to June 1815 the Congress of Vienna was in force. According to his decisions, most of the Duchy of Warsaw (Kingdom of Poland) went to Russia, Malta and the Ionian Islands went to England, Austria extended its power to northern Italy, France was deprived of all its conquests.
On September 14, 1815, Russia, Prussia and Austria created the Holy Alliance (Union of Monarchs), the purpose of which was to maintain European borders and fight revolutionary movements. Later, England, Austria and other European states joined the Holy Alliance.
Ticket 1. Domestic policy Alexandra I
At the beginning of his reign, Alexander I tried to carry out a number of reforms that were supposed to stabilize the economic and political situation in the country. In his reform activities he relied on the so-called A secret committee, which included statesmen of moderate liberal sentiments (Stroganov, Kochubey, Czartoryski, Novosiltsev). The most serious reforms were in the sphere of the political system. In 1802, new central governing bodies appeared - ministries, which, together with local institutions introduced by the provincial reform of 1775, formed a single, strictly centralized bureaucratic system of governing Russia. In the same year, the Senate's place in this system was determined as a supervisory body - again, purely bureaucratic - over compliance with the rule of law. Such transformations made it easier for the autocratic authorities to govern the country, but did not introduce anything fundamentally new into the state system. In the socio-economic sphere, Alexander I made several timid attempts to soften serfdom. By the Decree of 1803 on free cultivators, the landowner was given the opportunity to free his peasants with land for a ransom. It was assumed that thanks to this decree a new class of personally free peasants would arise; The landowners will receive funds to reorganize their economy in a new, bourgeois way. However, the landowners were not interested in this possibility - the decree, which was non-binding, had practically no consequences. After the Peace of Tilsit (1807), the tsar again raised the question of reforms. In 1808 - 1809 M. M. Speransky, the closest collaborator of Alexander I, developed the “Plan of State Transformation”, according to which, in parallel with the administrative-bureaucratic management system pursuing the policy of the center, it was planned to create a system of elected local government bodies - a kind of pyramid of volost, district (district) and provincial dumas. The State Duma, the highest legislative body of the country, was supposed to crown this pyramid. Speransky's plan, which provided for the introduction of a constitutional system in Russia, aroused sharp criticism from senior dignitaries and the capital's nobility. Due to the opposition of conservative dignitaries, it was possible to establish only the State Council - the prototype of the upper house of the Duma (1810). Despite the fact that the project was created in accordance with the instructions of the king himself, it was never implemented. Speransky was sent into exile in 1812. The Patriotic War and foreign campaigns distracted Alexander I from internal political problems for a long time. During these years, the king experiences a serious spiritual crisis, becomes a mystic and, in fact, refuses to solve pressing problems. The last decade of his reign went down in history as Arakcheevism - after the name of the Tsar’s main confidant A. A. Arakcheev, a strong-willed, energetic and merciless person. This time is characterized by the desire to establish bureaucratic order in all spheres of Russian life. Its most striking signs were the pogroms of young Russian universities - Kazan, Kharkov, St. Petersburg, from which professors objectionable to the government were expelled, and military settlements - an attempt to make part of the army self-sustaining, planting it on the ground, combining a soldier and a farmer in one person. This experiment was extremely unsuccessful and caused powerful uprisings of military settlers, which were mercilessly suppressed by the government.
2. Foreign policy of Alexander I.
During the reign of Alexander 1, the Russian Empire steadily expanded its possessions and pursued an active foreign policy. The rapprochement between Russia and Georgia, which began in the 18th century, continued. Georgia sought protection from the expansion of Iran and Turkey in an alliance with Russia. In 1801, the Georgian Tsar George X11 abdicated power in favor of the Russian Tsar.
From 1804 to 1813 there was a war between Russia and Persia. According to the Gulistan Treaty of 1813, Dagestan and Northern Azerbaijan became part of Russia. The peoples of Dagestan even earlier expressed a desire to accept Russian citizenship and took oaths of allegiance. This has now been enshrined in an international treaty.
In 1805, Russia entered into an alliance with England and Austria against France. In France, Napoleon Bonaparte came to power and proclaimed himself emperor. Napoleon won a brilliant victory over the Allied army at the Battle of Austerlitz. Türkiye, incited by France, closed the Bosphorus Strait to Russian ships. This was the reason for the Russian-Turkish war, which began in 1806 and lasted until 1812. Military operations took place in Moldova, Wallachia and Bulgaria.
In Europe, a new coalition consisting of England, Russia, Prussia, Saxony and Sweden is taking shape against France. The wars of European countries against Napoleonic expansion were called coalition wars. The armies of Russia and Prussia fought uncoordinatedly in 1806-1807. Napoleon won a number of serious victories. In 1807 The Russian army was defeated at Friedland. After the meeting between Napoleon and Alexander in the town of Tilsit, a peace treaty was concluded, which many considered a disgrace for Russia.
According to the Treaty of Tilsit, Russia was forced to join the continental blockade of England, that is, to cease trade relations with it. By this Napoleon wanted to weaken the economic power of England. Sweden refused to break off relations with England. There was a threat of attack on St. Petersburg. Under pressure from Napoleon, Alexander declared war on Sweden, which lasted from 1808 to 1809. As a result, Sweden was defeated and Finland went to Russia. As part of the Russian Empire, Finland received autonomy and, together with Vyborg, began to be called the Grand Duchy of Finland. It minted its own coins and had a customs border with Russia.
Russia's relations with France were getting worse. Russia suffered losses from the cessation of trade with England, which it supplied with grain. Russia resumed trade with England on American ships, and a customs war broke out between Russia and France. The destruction of Russia became Napoleon's goal. And at this time the Russian army is at war with Turkey, which, despite the defeats, is delaying the signing of peace under the influence of France. In 1811, Kutuzov became the commander of this army, who not only won a number of military victories, but also, demonstrating diplomatic skills, signed a peace treaty with Turkey a month before Napoleon’s invasion of Russia. According to the Belgrade Treaty of 1812, the border with Turkey was established along the Prut River, and Bessarabia went to Russia. Serbia remained under Turkish rule, but received autonomy.
Patriotic War
The cause of the war was the violation by Russia and France of the terms of the Tilsit Treaty. Russia actually abandoned the blockade of England, accepting ships with British goods under neutral flags in its ports. France annexed the Duchy of Oldenburg, and Napoleon considered Alexander's demand for the withdrawal of French troops from Prussia and the Duchy of Warsaw offensive. A military clash between the two great powers was becoming inevitable. June 12, 1812 Napoleon at the head of an army of 600 thousand, crossing the river. Neman invaded Russia. Having an army of about 240 thousand people, Russian troops were forced to retreat before the French Armada. On August 3, the 1st and 2nd Russian armies united near Smolensk, and a battle was fought. Napoleon failed to achieve complete victory. In August, M.I. Kutuzov was appointed commander-in-chief. A talented strategist with extensive military experience, he was extremely popular among the people and in the army. Kutuzov decided to give battle in the area of the village of Borodino. A good position for the troops was chosen. The right flank was protected by the Koloch River, the left was protected by earthen fortifications - flashes, they were defended by the troops of P.I. Bagration. The troops of General N.N. Raevsky and artillery stood in the center. Their positions were covered by the Shevardinsky redoubt. Napoleon intended to break through the Russian formation from the left flank, and then direct all efforts to the center and press Kutuzov’s army to the river. He directed the fire of 400 guns at Bagration's flashes. The French launched 8 attacks, starting at 5 a.m., suffering huge losses. Only by 4 o'clock in the afternoon did the French manage to advance in the center, temporarily capturing Raevsky's batteries. At the height of the battle, a desperate raid behind French lines was carried out by the lancers of the 1st Cavalry Corps F.P. Uvarov and the Cossacks of Ataman M.I. Platov. This restrained the attacking impulse of the French. Napoleon did not dare to bring the old guard into battle and lose the core of the army away from France. The battle ended late in the evening. The troops suffered huge losses: the French - 58 thousand people, the Russians - 44 thousand. Napoleon considered himself the winner in this battle, but later admitted: “Near Moscow, the Russians won the right to be invincible.” In the Battle of Borodino, the Russian army won a great moral and political victory over the European dictator. On September 1, 1812, at a meeting in Fili, Kutuzov decided to leave Moscow. The retreat was necessary to preserve the army and further fight for the independence of the Fatherland. Napoleon entered Moscow on September 2 and stayed there until October 7, 1812. , expecting peace proposals. During this time, most of the city was destroyed by fires. Bonaparte's attempts to make peace with Alexander I were unsuccessful.
Kutuzov stopped in the Kaluga direction in the village of Tarutino (80 km south of Moscow), covering Kaluga with large reserves of fodder and Tula with its arsenals. In the Tarutino camp, the Russian army replenished its reserves and received equipment. Meanwhile, guerrilla warfare broke out. The peasant detachments of Gerasim Kurin, Fyodor Potapov, and Vasilisa Kozhina crushed the French food detachments. Special army detachments of D.V. Davydov and A.N. Seslavin operated.
Having left Moscow in October, Napoleon tried to go to Kaluga and spend the winter in a province not devastated by the war. On October 12, near Maloyaroslavets, Napoleon’s army was defeated and began to retreat along the devastated Smolensk road, driven by frost and hunger. Pursuing the retreating French, Russian troops destroyed their formations in parts. The final defeat of Napoleon's army took place in the battle of the river. Berezina November 14-16. Only 30 thousand French soldiers were able to leave Russia. On December 25, Alexander I issued a manifesto on the victorious end of the Patriotic War.
In 1813-1814, the Russian army launched a foreign campaign for the liberation of Europe from Napoleon's rule. In alliance with Austria, Prussia and Sweden, Russian troops inflicted a series of defeats on the French, the largest being the “Battle of the Nations” near Leipzig. The Treaty of Paris on May 18, 1814 deprived Napoleon of the throne and returned France to the borders of 1793.
