Government finance statistics. Government Finance and Tax Statistics Self-Test Questions

LECTURE No. 1. Statistics as a science 1. The origin of the term "statistics" and its meaning Currently, the term "statistics" is used in various meanings. Statistics is a social science that studies the phenomena and processes of social life, it reveals the laws

After studying this chapter, the master should

know :

• objectives and system of indicators for government finance statistics;
• the basic principles of the functioning of the international financial and banking system.
• international financial organizations and their functions;
• aggregates of money supply and their structure;
• the importance of government finance statistics for solving economic problems arising in theory and practice;

be able to:

to use the acquired knowledge in practice to solve the set economic problems, using the apparatus of mathematical analysis;

own :

Conceptual apparatus in the field of government finance statistics.

The methodology for statistical analysis of public finance aims to provide a comprehensive conceptual and accounting framework suitable for analyzing and evaluating fiscal policy and public sector performance. The public sector includes the general government and government controlled units called public corporations (organizations), the main activity of which is to conduct commercial transactions, as well as the national bank.

The Statistical Study of Public Finance covers the measurement and analysis of:

• the size of the public sector, its contribution to aggregate demand, investment and savings;
• the impact of fiscal policy on the economy, including resource use, monetary conditions, and national debt;
• tax burden;
• tariff protectionism;
• social security and pension systems;
• indicators of government net debt, net worth and contingent claims on government.

A country's government bodies include government bodies and their institutions, which are structures formed as a result of political processes and possessing legislative, judicial or executive power within a given territory. The main economic functions of government bodies are as follows:

• 1) assume obligations to provide society with goods and services on a non-market basis for their collective or individual consumption;
• 2) redistribute income and property through transfer payments.

An important feature of governments is that these activities must be financed primarily through taxes or other compulsory transfers.

Classification of revenues of the budgetary system

General government units have four main sources of income: taxes and other compulsory transfers imposed by government units; property income derived from the ownership of assets; sales of goods and services; voluntary transfers received from other units.

Income is composed of disparate elements. Accordingly, these elements are classified according to different characteristics depending on the type of income. The tax classification scheme is mainly determined by the object of taxation. Grants are classified by source of income, and property income is classified by type of income. The complete classification system for budget revenues in international government finance statistics is given in Table. 8.1.

Table 8.1

Classification of income

Income reflected in accounting on an accrual basis, i.e. when activities, transactions or other events take place that result in claims for taxes or other types of income. The manner in which this general rule is applied to different types of income is indicated in each section of the classification as appropriate.

With the exception of taxes and social contributions / contributions, the amount of revenue to be recorded is the total amount for which the general government unit has an unconditional claim. As stated earlier, when recording taxes and social contributions / contributions, account should be taken of the fact that the recipient government unit is not usually a party to a transaction or other event that creates a liability to pay taxes or contributions. social security contributions. Therefore, many of these transactions and events constantly elude the tax authorities.

In government finance statistics, it is considered that the income of government units is generated only by those taxes and social security contributions that are actually confirmed by tax assessments and tax returns, customs declarations and other similar documents.

Compulsory transfers levied from other sites and earmarked for social security expenditures are taxes and are classified according to the relevant taxation item. In particular, receipts based on net income adjusted for individual deductions from the tax base and benefits are classified as income taxes, even if they are earmarked for social security benefits. Mandatory payments that are levied at a rate determined by earnings, payroll or number of employees, but do not guarantee eligibility for social security benefits, are classified as payroll taxes or labor taxes.

The coverage, timing and valuation of tax revenues in government finance statistics and SNA 93 are identical, but there are differences in classification systems. SNA-93 contains provisions on the compilation of statistics on 1) taxes on production and imports; 2) current taxes on income, property, etc. and 3) taxes on capital. The approach taken in government finance statistics is to classify taxes primarily by the object of taxation. Taxes are grouped into six main categories: 1) taxes on income, profits and capital gains; 2) taxes on payroll and labor; 3) property taxes; 4) taxes on goods and services; 5) taxes on international trade and operations; 6) other taxes.

As a rule, the direction of revenues from a particular tax to the intended use does not affect its classification. An exception is the distinction between payroll and labor taxes and social security contributions / contributions. If the income is intended to be used under a social security program, it is a social security contribution / deduction. Otherwise, they represent a tax on payroll and labor.

Taxes and other compulsory transfers should be recorded when activities, transactions or other events occur that result in government claims for taxes or other payments. This time is not necessarily the time the taxable event occurred. For example, a capital gains tax liability usually arises on the sale of an asset, rather than on an increase in its value.

Tax refunds are generally treated as negative taxes. Refunds are adjustments for amounts overpaid. They refer to the period in which the event that caused the overpayment took place. In the case of a tax (value added tax) taxpayers other than end consumers are generally eligible for a refund of taxes paid on purchases. If this refund exceeds the amount of taxes paid by that taxpayer, the net refund is shown as negative tax.

Tax credits are amounts deducted from tax that would otherwise be payable. Certain types of loans can result in a net payment by the government unit to the taxpayer. Such net payments are recognized as an expense and not as a negative tax.

In some cases, taxes are collected by one government unit, which then transfers part or all of them to another government unit. Depending on the mechanism in place, taxes transferred to a second government unit may be redistributed as part of the tax revenue of that unit, or recorded as tax revenue of the collecting unit and as a grant from this unit to another government unit.

As a rule, the tax is assigned to the state unit, which a) exercises its powers to collect tax (either as a principal or as a result of delegating the powers of the principal to it), b) has the right to independently make the final decision on establishing and changing the tax rate, and c) has the right to independently make the final decision on the use of funds.

Taxes on income, profits and capital gains, as a rule, they are charged 1) from wages, fees, commissions, additional social payments and other types of payment for labor services; 2) from income in the form of interest, dividends, rent and royalties; 3) from capital gains and losses, including the distribution of capital gains of investment funds; 4) from the profits of corporations, partnerships, enterprises without the formation of a legal entity, estate and trusts; 5) from the taxable part of social security, pensions, annuities, life insurance and other retirement accounts; 6) from various other items of income.

Taxes on income, profits and capital gains apply either to individuals or to corporations and other businesses. In the absence of the information required to determine whether taxes should be categorized as specified, those taxes are reported as non-categorized. Income taxes on estate are treated as taxes on individuals. Taxes on income of non-profit units are treated as corporate taxes. Taxes on the income of trusts, if the recipients of the income are individuals, are treated as taxes on individuals, and otherwise as taxes on corporations. These taxes may be levied on actual or estimated income and profits and on realized or unrealized capital gains. The amount of income subject to tax is usually less than gross income, as various deductions are allowed. Income tax is levied on the difference between income and allowable deductions.

Property taxes includes taxes on the use, ownership or transfer of property. These taxes can be levied on a regular basis, as a lump sum, or on a transfer of ownership. Property taxes fall into six categories: recurring taxes on real estate; periodic taxes on net worth; inheritance, inheritance and gift taxes; taxes on financial transactions and capital transactions; other non-recurring property taxes; other recurring property taxes.

Periodic taxes on real estate cover taxes regularly levied on the use or ownership of real estate, including land, buildings and other structures. These taxes can be levied on owners, tenants, or both. These taxes usually amount to a certain percentage of the property's assessed value, which is determined based on notional rental income, selling price, capitalized income, or other characteristics such as size or location. Unlike recurring taxes on net worth, the liabilities on the property are generally not taken into account when calculating these taxes.

Periodic taxes on net worth cover taxes regularly levied on net worth, which is generally defined as the value of a wide range of movable and immovable property less liabilities on that property.

Inheritance, inheritance and gift taxes are treated in the 1993 SNA as taxes on capital. In government finance statistics, they cover death transfer taxes and gift taxes. Taxes on the transfer of property in the event of death include inheritance taxes, which are usually based on total estate, and inheritance taxes, which may be determined by the amount received by the beneficiaries and / or their closeness to the deceased.

Taxes on financial transactions and capital transactions. This item includes taxes on the transfer of ownership, except in cases classified as gift, inheritance or transactions with inherited property. This category includes taxes on the issue, purchase and sale of securities, taxes on checks and other forms of payment, and taxes levied on specific legal transactions such as the approval of contracts and the sale of real estate. This category does not include taxes on the use of goods; capital gains taxes; periodic taxes on the net worth of assets; other non-recurring property taxes; fees paid to cover legal costs, fees for the issuance of certificates of birth, marriage or death; sales taxes and general stamp duties.

Other non-recurring property taxes also classified in the 1993 SNA as taxes on capital. In government finance statistics, this item covers taxes on net worth and property, levied on a lump sum or irregular basis. It includes taxes on net worth, levied to cover contingencies or reallocations of property; property taxes, improvement and reclamation taxes, taking into account the increase in the value of land in connection with the granting of permission by the government to develop land or the creation of additional infrastructure by the government; taxes on revaluation of capital, as well as any other special taxes on certain types of property.

Other recurring property taxes. This category includes all recurring property taxes not included in Categories 1131, 1132 or 1134, such as periodic gross taxes on personal property, jewelry, cattle, other livestock, other specific types of property, and outward signs of property. Taxes on the use of certain types of movable property, such as motor vehicles and firearms, are classified as taxes on the use of goods and on the authorization to use goods or to carry out activities.

Taxes on goods and services covers all types of taxes levied on the production, extraction, sale, transfer, rental or delivery of goods and the provision of services. In addition, it includes taxes on the use of goods and on permission to use them or to carry out activities.

This category does not include taxes on international trade and transactions, but includes taxes levied on the importation of products or on the crossing of a border, unless the corresponding obligation is solely related to the fact that the goods in question have crossed the border, but also applies to domestic goods or transactions.

General product taxes and services include all taxes, excluding customs and other import and export duties, levied on the production, lease, delivery, sale, purchase, or other transfer of ownership of a wide range of goods and the provision of a wide range of services. Such taxes may be levied regardless of whether the goods or services in question were produced domestically or imported, and may be imposed at any stage of production or distribution. This category includes income from adjustments made for these taxes when goods cross the border. Conversely, refunds of such taxes on the export of goods are recorded as negative taxes under this category. When taxes are levied on a limited list rather than a wide range of goods, such taxes are included in the excise category. Decisions on "borderline cases" are made in light of the dominant characteristic of the tax. This article is divided into the following categories.

Value added tax - This is a tax on goods or services, which is gradually collected by enterprises, but in the end is fully collected from end customers. It is called a deductible tax because manufacturers are usually not required to pay the government the full amount of tax that they bill their customers, as they are allowed to deduct from it the amount of tax that was charged when they bought goods or services for intermediate consumption. or the accumulation of fixed capital. VAT is usually calculated based on the price of a product or service, including any other taxes on that product. In addition, VAT may be levied on the import of goods or services in addition to any import duties or other import taxes.

Sales taxes includes all general taxes levied at only one stage - either at the stage of manufacture or production, or at the stage of wholesale or retail trade.

Turnover taxes and other general taxes on goods and services include multistage cumulative taxes, which are imposed every time an operation is performed, without a reduction in the amount of taxes paid for the input resources, as well as all general consumption taxes that combine elements of value added taxes, taxes with sales or multi-step taxes.

Excise taxes are taxes levied on certain types of products or on a limited list of products that cannot be classified as general taxes on goods and services, profits of fiscal monopolies, customs and other import duties or export taxes. Excise taxes can be levied at any stage of production or distribution and are usually based on the value, weight, concentration or quantity of the product. This category includes special taxes on certain products (sugar, beets, matches and chocolate); taxes levied on a certain range of goods at different rates; and taxes imposed on tobacco, alcoholic beverages, motor fuels and hydrocarbon oils. If a tax levied primarily on imported goods under the same law applies (or can be applied) also to comparable domestically produced goods, then the income from it is classified as income derived from excise taxes and not from import duties. This principle applies even in the absence of comparable domestically produced products or in the absence of the ability to produce such products. Electricity, gas, energy and energy taxes are treated as taxes on goods and relate to excise taxes, not taxes on specific services.

Profit of fiscal monopolies includes that part of the profit of fiscal monopolies, which is transferred to the government. Fiscal monopolies are state corporations (organizations) or state quasi-corporations that exercise the tax powers of the state through the use of monopoly rights over production or distribution of a certain type of product or service. Such monopolies are established for the purpose of collecting government revenues that might otherwise be collected through taxes levied on the production or distribution of the goods in question by the private sector. Typical goods subject to fiscal monopolies are tobacco, spirits, salt, matches, petroleum products and agricultural products.

A distinction is drawn between fiscal monopolies and state-owned enterprises, such as enterprises of railway transport, electricity, postal services and other communication services. Such enterprises can enjoy the rights of a monopoly or quasi-monopoly, but they are usually created primarily for the implementation of the tasks of state economic or social policy, and not for the purpose of collecting revenues for government bodies. Transfers from such state-owned enterprises to government are recorded as dividends or deductions from the income of quasi-corporations. The concept of fiscal monopoly does not apply to state lotteries, the profits from which are also considered dividends or deductions from the income of quasi-corporations. The profits of export or import monopolies remitted by sales organizations or other enterprises engaged in international trade are similar to those of fiscal monopolies, but are classified as profits of export or import monopolies.

In principle, only the amount by which the monopoly profit exceeds some conventionally accepted "normal" profit should be reflected as a tax, but it is difficult to estimate this amount, therefore, in practice, the amount of taxes should be considered equal to the amount of profit actually transferred by the fiscal monopolies to the government. This excludes any reserves created by fiscal monopolies. Such taxes are recognized at the time of transfer of funds, and not at the time of receipt of profit.

Taxes on specific services. This category includes all types of taxes that are levied on payments for specific services: taxes on transport fares, on insurance premiums, on banking services, entertainment, restaurants and advertising. In addition, this category includes taxes on gambling and betting on sweepstakes on horse races, football pools, lotteries, etc. Taxes on entry to casinos, horse racing, etc. also classified as selective service taxes. However, if these taxes are part of a general tax on goods and services, the related income is recorded in category 1141. Taxes on income earned by individuals from football pools or other income from gambling are classified as taxes on income, profits and capital gains. ... Profits paid to the government by state lotteries are treated as dividends or deductions from the income of quasi-corporations. Taxes on checks and on the issue, transfer or redemption of securities are classified as finance and equity taxes. Stamp duties that cannot be attributed to taxes on services or other transactions are classified as other taxes. Electricity, gas, energy and energy taxes are included in the excise category.

Taxes on the use of goods and on permission to use them or to carry out activities. One of the regulatory functions of the state is to establish bans on the possession of certain types of goods, their use or the implementation of certain types of activities without special permission in the form of a license or other certificate, for which a certain fee is required. If the issuance of such licenses is practically unrelated to any action on the part of the government and the licenses are issued automatically after the payment of the prescribed amounts, then they are probably nothing more than a means of collecting taxes, although the government may issue some kind of certificate in return. or permission. However, if governments use the issuance of licenses to carry out a specific regulatory function - for example, to test the competence or qualifications of the person concerned, to check the efficiency and safety of the operation of certain equipment, or to carry out some other form of control that they would not otherwise be required to do to implement, then these receipts should be recorded as sales of services and not as tax receipts, unless the receipts are clearly not comparable to the costs of providing those services. In practice, the line between taxes and administrative fees is not always clear-cut.

The following types of levies are considered as taxes: a) levies, the payers of which are not the beneficiaries, for example, levies levied from slaughterhouses to finance services provided to farmers; b) fees under which the state does not provide any specific service in return, even if the payer is issued a license, for example, a license for hunting, fishing or shooting without the right to use a certain area of ​​state land, and c) fees under which the beneficiaries are only payers of these fees, but the benefit to each individual is not necessarily proportional to the payments made, such as a milk marketing fee paid by farmers to promote milk consumption.

Motor vehicle taxes. This category includes taxes on the use of motor vehicles or on permission to use motor vehicles. It does not include taxes on motor vehicles as property or net worth, or charges for the use of roads, bridges and tunnels.

Other taxes on the use of goods and on permission to use them, or on the implementation of activities. This category includes licenses to conduct commercial and professional activities. Such licenses can take the form of taxes on permission to conduct business in general or a specific type of commercial or professional activity. This category includes general taxes or business licenses, which are levied either as a fixed amount, on a fixed scale depending on the specific type of activity, or calculated on the basis of various indicators, for example, size of area, installed horsepower, capital or tonnage of freight vehicles. This category excludes business taxes levied on gross sales, which are classified as general taxes on goods and services. Taxes or licenses for specific business activities include permits to sell goods or provide services. These taxes can be levied on a regular basis, as a lump sum, or every time the goods are used. In addition, this category includes taxes on environmental pollution levied on the release or discharge into the natural environment of poisonous gases, liquids or other harmful substances.

In addition to commercial and professional licenses, this category includes taxes on hunting, shooting or fishing permits and taxes on the ownership of pets where the right to conduct such activities is not granted as part of a normal commercial transaction. This category also includes licenses for radio and television broadcasting, with the exception of cases where government agencies broadcast radio and television to the entire population, and then there is not a tax, but a service fee.

Other taxes on goods and services Includes taxes on the extraction of minerals, fossil fuels and other non-renewable resources from deposits owned or owned by another government, as well as any other taxes on goods or services not included in categories 1141-1145. Taxes on the extraction of non-renewable resources are usually levied as a fixed amount per unit of quantity or weight, but may also be levied as a percentage of the value. These taxes are recorded when resources are mined. Payments for the extraction of non-renewable resources from deposits owned by the recipient government unit are classified as rent.

International trade and transaction taxes includes income from all types of taxes on goods imported into the country, or on services rendered to residents by non-residents. These taxes can be levied for income or protectionist purposes and are determined either on an individual basis or according to the value of the goods (on an ad valorem basis), but by law they should only apply to imported products. This category also includes fees imposed in accordance with the list of customs tariffs and additions to it, including tax surcharges based on the list of tariffs, consular, tonnage, statistical, fiscal charges and tax surcharges that are not based on the list of customs tariffs. Taxes that apply to imported goods only because the latter are included in a broader category of taxable goods are recorded as general goods and services taxes or excise taxes.

Where government or monetary monopoly power is exercised to obtain a margin between the purchase and sale price of foreign exchange, other than to cover administrative costs, the proceeds received represent a mandatory fee levied on both buyer and seller of foreign currency. Such a levy is the common equivalent of import and export duties levied under a single exchange rate system, or a tax on the sale or purchase of foreign exchange. Like the profits of export or import monopolies, these revenues are a mechanism for exercising monopoly rights for tax purposes and are included in tax revenues when received by the government. This category does not include any transfer to the government of exchange gains earned other than by maintaining the difference in exchange rates.

Foreign exchange taxes Includes taxes levied on the sale or purchase of foreign currency at either the same or different exchange rates. This category also includes taxes on transfers of funds abroad, if these taxes are levied on the purchase of the foreign currency transferred. Foreign currency transfer taxes that are not levied on purchases are shown by category other taxes on international trade and operations.

Contributions / deductions for social needs classified as social security contributions / contributions or other social security contributions / contributions, depending on the type of program to which they are enrolled.

Social security contributions / contributions classified according to the source of contributions / deductions. Employee contributions paid directly by employees or deducted from employees' wages and transferred on their behalf by the employer. Employer contributions paid directly by employers on behalf of their employees. Amounts paid by general government employers are not eliminated on consolidation if the payer and recipient units are in the same sector or sub-sector, as these contributions are deemed to be subject to notional reassignment (“rerouting”) and then paid workers. Contributions from self-employed or unemployed persons paid by payers who are not employees. Non-categorized contributions / deductions - these are contributions / deductions for which it is not possible to determine the source of their receipt. If contributions / contributions are made voluntarily, it is useful to present the total as a memo item for calculating the fiscal burden indicator and other purposes.

TO other social contributions / deductions refers to actual and imputed contributions / contributions to social security schemes administered by governments as employers on behalf of their employees, which do not provide retirement benefits. Unlike social security programs, social security programs for government employees tend to link the level of benefits directly to the level of contributions / contributions. Such programs are usually implemented by a government only for its employees, but they can also be implemented by one government on behalf of employees of many government bodies.

Employee contributions includes amounts paid directly by employees or transferred from wages and other forms of remuneration by employers on behalf of employees.

Employer contributions includes amounts paid by employers on behalf of their employees. As with employers' social security contributions, these contributions are not excluded on consolidation if the payer and recipient governments are in the same sector or sub-sector.

Imputed contributions / contributions This occurs when governments, as employers, provide social benefits directly to their employees, former employees, or their dependents from their own resources, without the involvement of an insurance company or autonomous or non-autonomous pension fund. In this case, current workers are considered to be protected from various agreed social risks, even if no payments are made to cover them. The sum of accrued income in this category is the amount of social contributions made by employers that would be required to ensure the actual rights of workers to receive social benefits.

Grants are non-compulsory current or capital transfers received by a government unit from another government unit or from an international organization. Grants are classified first by the type of unit providing the grant and then by whether the grant is current or capital.

In government finance statistics, three sources of grants are distinguished: grants from foreign governments, grants from international organizations, and grants from other units of the general government. The last category, grants from other general government units, is needed only when statistics are compiled for a subsector of the general government sector. Otherwise, these transactions are excluded during consolidation.

The current grants are those grants that are provided for the implementation of running costs and are not associated with the acquisition of any asset by their recipient and are not conditional on such an acquisition. Capital grants provide for the acquisition by the recipient of assets and may consist of a transfer of cash that the recipient is expected or required to use to acquire an asset or assets (other than inventories), transfer an asset (other than inventories and cash), or cancellation of the obligation by mutual agreement between the creditor and the debtor. If in doubt about the nature of a grant, it should be classified as current. The allocation of capital grants is required to calculate gross and net savings.

In addition to taxes, social contributions / contributions and grants, income includes property income, income from the sale of goods and services, and various other types of income, defined in the budget classification of income as other income.

Property income in government finance statistics, includes the different types of income generated by a general government unit when it places its financial and / or non-produced assets at the disposal of other units. Income attributable to this category can take the form of interest, dividends, deductions from quasi-corporation income, property income imputed to policyholders, or annuities.

Interest are receivable by general government units that own certain types of financial assets, namely deposits, securities other than shares, loans and receivables. These types of financial assets are created when a general government unit lends funds to another unit. Interest represents the income received by the creditor for granting permission to the debtor to use his funds. Interest income accrues on a continuous basis over the life of the financial asset. The rate at which the interest is calculated can be set as a percentage of the principal outstanding, as a predetermined amount of cash, or as a combination of the two.

Dividends. General government units that act as shareholders and owners of a corporation acquire the right to receive dividends by placing equity at the disposal of the corporation. Equity investments do not entitle shareholders to a fixed or predetermined return. Instead, the board of directors or other executives of the corporation must declare the amount of dividends paid in their sole discretion. Dividends are recorded either on the date they are declared for payment, or (in the absence of a preliminary announcement) on the date of payment.

General government units can receive dividends from private or public corporations. Distributions of profits by public corporations (organizations) may be irregular and need not be explicitly referred to as a dividend payment. However, except for the distributions noted below, dividends include all distributions of profits by corporations to their shareholders or owners, including profits from central banks to government units, profits from the performance of monetary authorities other than the central bank. and the transfer of profits from state lotteries. However, as indicated in the previous paragraphs, the distributions of the profits of the fiscal monopolies and the profits of the export or import monopolies are classified as taxes.

When receiving payments from public corporations (organizations), it can be difficult to decide whether they are dividends or equity deductions. Dividends are payments made by a corporation from its current income derived from its production activities. However, a corporation can equalize the level of dividends it pays from period to period, so that in some periods it pays more dividends than it receives from its production activities. Such payments are still dividends. Distributions by corporations to shareholders of proceeds from privatization and other asset sales, as well as large and exceptional one-off payments arising from accumulation of reserves or holding gains, are deductions from equity, not dividends.

Deductions from income of quasi-corporations. By definition, a quasi-corporation cannot distribute income in the form of dividends, however, the owner can decide to deduct (partially or completely) funds from the income of a quasi-corporation. In theory, deductions from such income are equivalent to the distribution of corporate income through dividends and are accounted for in the same way. The amount of income that the owner of a quasi-corporation decides to deduct depends largely on the amount of net income of the quasi-corporation. All such deductions are recognized on the date the payment is actually made.

As in the case of dividends, deductions from income of a quasi-corporation do not include deductions of proceeds from the sale or other disposal of the assets of a quasi-corporation. The transfer of funds received as a result of such disposal is recorded as a decrease in the value of the capital of quasi-corporations owned by the government. Similarly, funds deducted when large amounts of accumulated retained earnings or other reserves of a quasi-corporation are liquidated are treated as deductions from equity.

Property income imputed to policyholders. Insurance companies have technical reserves in the form of prepaid premiums, reserves for outstanding claims and actuarial reserves for risks associated with life insurance policies. These reserves are considered the assets of the policyholders or beneficiaries, including any government units that are the policyholders, and the liabilities of insurance companies. Any income generated from the investment of insurance technical reserves is also considered the property of the policyholders or beneficiaries and is shown as property income imputed to the policyholders. This type of property income is usually quite rare and / or negligible for general government units.

Rent represents property income earned under certain leases for land, subsoil resources and other natural assets. Other leases of these types of assets, in particular leases of the electromagnetic spectrum, may be considered a sale of an intangible non-produced asset. Like interest, annuity accrues to the owner of the asset continuously throughout the contract period. Thus, the annuity recorded for a specific reporting period is equal to the amount of accumulated annuity payable during that reporting period, and may differ from the amount of annuity that is due or is actually paid during this period.

Sales by market establishments. According to the earlier definition, an establishment is a part of an enterprise that is located in one place, where only one type of production activity is carried out, or where the main production activity accounts for most of the value added. A market establishment within a government unit is an establishment that sells or otherwise markets all or most of its produce at economically significant prices. This category includes sales by all market establishments that are part of the units for which statistics are compiled. Since all establishments of public corporations (organizations) are market establishments, this category includes all sales carried out by public corporations (organizations). Lease payments for produced assets are accounted for as sales of services and are included in this category. Sales of non-financial assets represent the disposal of non-financial assets, not sales of goods and services.

Administrative fees includes compulsory license fees and other administration fees that represent sales of services. Examples are driver's licenses, passports, court fees, and radio and television broadcasting licenses where public authorities broadcast radio and television to the general population. For these charges to be considered a sale of a service, the general government unit must perform some regulatory function - for example, checking the competence or qualifications of the person concerned, checking the efficiency and safety of certain equipment, or exercising some other form of control that would otherwise she would not be obliged to exercise. If the payment is clearly not comparable with the cost of providing the service, then this levy is classified as taxes on the use of goods and on the permission to use them or to carry out activities.

Market sales by non-market establishments. This item includes sales of goods and services by non-market establishments of general government units, excluding administrative fees. It includes sales that are not representative of the normal social or social activities of government departments and agencies, such as sales of products made in vocational schools, seeds obtained from experimental farms, sales of postcards and art reproductions by museums. fees for services in public hospitals and clinics, tuition fees in public schools, and fees for admission to public museums, parks, cultural institutions and recreational facilities that do not take the form of public corporations (organizations).

Imputed sales of goods and services. When an institutional unit produces goods and services for use as payment for workers in kind, this unit acts in two qualities: as an employer and as an ordinary producer of goods and services. To show the total wages of workers, it is necessary to present the amount paid in kind as if it had been paid in cash as wages, and then workers used this money to buy goods and services. This category includes the aggregate value of these imputed sales.

Sales of goods are recorded at the time of transfer of legal title. If it is impossible to accurately determine this moment, the transaction can be reflected in the accounting at the time of the physical change of ownership or transfer of the right of disposal. Service transactions are usually recorded at the date the service is provided. Some services are provided or take place on an ongoing basis. For example, operating leases and housing services are continuous flows and are recorded continuously as long as they are provided.

Fines and penalties are compulsory current transfers imposed on institutional units by courts or quasi-judicial bodies for violations of laws or administrative regulations. This category also includes out-of-court agreements. Penalties represent amounts that were deposited in favor of a general government unit pending the end of a legal or administrative proceeding and transferred to a general government unit as a result of such proceeding. Fines and penalties imposed for violation of applicable regulations and determined to be related to a specific tax are recorded along with that tax. Other fines and interest that may be identified as related to tax violations are classified as other taxes.

Most of the fines, interest and penalties are determined at a specific point in time. These transfers are accounted for when the general government unit is legally entitled to claim funds, which may be the case when a judgment is issued or when an administrative order is issued, or when a late payment or other violation automatically results in a fine or interest. ...

To category voluntary transfers, in addition to grants, includes donations and voluntary donations from individuals, private non-profit organizations, non-governmental foundations, corporations and from any other sources other than government bodies and international organizations. Ongoing voluntary transfers other than grants include, for example, the provision of food, blankets and medical supplies to governments in aid. Capital voluntary transfers, other than grants, include transfers for the construction or acquisition of hospitals, schools, museums, theaters, and cultural centers, as well as donations of land, buildings, or intangible assets such as patents and copyrights. If it is not clear whether the transfer is current or capital, it is classified as current. Allocation of capital transfers is required to calculate gross and net savings.

Category other and unidentified income covers all types of income that cannot be categorized elsewhere. This may include sales of used military goods or other goods not classified as assets; sale of waste; insurance claims (other than life insurance) to insurance companies; insurance premiums (other than life insurance) for insurance programs implemented by government bodies; payments received for damage caused to public property, other than those awarded as a result of legal proceedings; and any income for which there is insufficient information to classify it in other categories.

Government finance statistics are intended to provide an accounting basis for the analysis and assessment of the economic aspects of public administration performance. Its main task is to study the patterns of formation and spending of public finances. Statistical analysis of public finances involves determining their volume, structure, dynamics of structural changes occurring under the influence of economic processes, as well as identifying factors that significantly affect public finances and their components. In most cases, government finance statistics mean statistics of the state budget and statistics of state extra-budgetary funds, which are relatively closely related to each other. State budget statistics study the process of formation and use of the budget; the objects of study are elements of a unified budget system, including the budgets of different levels of government. One of the problems of statistics in this area is the determination of the time of recording economic transactions due to the fact that often in macroeconomics a considerable time passes between the beginning of many transactions and their completion. It is accepted to distinguish the following main methods of establishing the time of accounting for transactions: accrual method; the method of accounting on the basis of the due date of payment; commitment-based accounting method; cash method. By accrual basis transactions are recorded at the time the economic value changes. By maturity accounting- at the latest date when transactions can be paid without accruing additional fees or penalties, or on the date of payment, if it is made earlier. By liability method- when the general government unit commits to the transaction. By cash accounting- at the time of receipt or payment of funds.

The state budget characterizes the revenues and expenditures of the general government sector in accordance with the budget classification, which is the main document on the basis of which it is formed and executed. The modern budget classification of the Russian Federation (Fig. 5.1) is built similarly to the classifications of many other countries, taking into account the recommendations of international financial organizations and the peculiarities of the economy and state structure of our country.

State budget revenue structure The Russian Federation is focused on the international classification of state budget revenues, according to which such revenues are mandatory non-refundable payments received by the country's budget. Income consists of dissimilar elements and is classified according to different

Rice. 5.1.

characteristics depending on their type. The complete classification of RF budget revenues is shown in Fig. 5.2, it is customary to reflect them on an accrual basis.

State budget expenditures includes all uncollectible payments, regardless of their purpose for further use, and represent a decrease in net worth as a result of economic transactions in the general government. To account for expense transactions, three types of classifications are used: functional, economic and departmental. The functional classification represents the sections of expenditures due to the implementation of the main functions of the state, and coincides with the generally accepted classification of the functions of federal government bodies in the world: public administration; ensuring internal and external security; International activity; promotion of scientific and technological progress; social development. In Russia, there is a similar classification, while the 5 above-mentioned areas of expenditure are concretized and grouped into 10 smaller and more detailed groups: public services of general purpose; defense; public order and safety; economic issues; environmental protection; housing and communal services; healthcare; recreation, culture and religion; education; social protection. The indicators used are absolute, calculated in monetary terms and serve as initial information for cross-country comparisons. The economic classification of expenditures of the state budget of the Russian Federation is based on the recommendations of the IMF and is focused primarily on international comparisons of budget indicators. It includes the following main areas: remuneration of employees; use of goods and services; consumption of fixed capital; interest; subsidies; grants; social benefits; other expenses. Departmental classification reflects the distribution of budget funds by federal ministries and departments with reference to their specific functions. The directions of expenditures of each ministry or department are specified in detail, which allows

Rice. 5.2.

legislative authorities make decisions on the need for this type of activity and the amount of its financing, as well as monitor their implementation. The functional, departmental and economic structures (classifications) of state budget expenditures are cross-linked.

Financing the budget. This section of the budget classification reflects the volume of borrowed funds to finance budget expenditures. Funding involves changes in government liabilities and financial balances. According to international statistical standards, the borrowing of public finances is considered only as a source of financing the budget deficit and does not refer to its revenues. The structure of financing the state budget according to the criterion "sources of financing" can be presented in the following form (Fig. 5.3). It is consistent with the IMF's lender-type classification, reflecting the sources of funding needed to cover the general government deficit.

State debt is the sum of the officially recognized direct liabilities of government agencies

Rice. 5.3.

before other sectors of the economy and the "rest of the world" arising from economic transactions. In general, the public debt service is carried out through the payment of interest and repayment of the principal amount of the debt. The structure of Russia's public debt by type of debt holders is shown in Fig. 5.4. If necessary, classifications by sectors of the economy and types of debt obligations can be used as additional ones.

Statistics of state extra-budgetary funds studies the processes and results of the activities of these funds, which are forms of redistribution and use of financial resources attracted by the state to finance certain public needs. They allow: to influence the production processes in the country through financing, subsidizing and lending to domestic enterprises; to ensure the implementation of environmental measures with funding from specially allocated sources, as well as fines for environmental pollution; provide social services to the population of the country through the payment of benefits and pensions, the provision of services, full or partial financing of social infrastructure; provide loans, including to foreign partners and foreign countries in general.

At present, the Social Insurance Fund, the Pension Fund, the Mandatory Medical Insurance Fund, etc. operate in our country. The main typical statistical indicators of their activities are the following: total income, including by sources; Other income; the total amount of expenses, including by areas; other expenses; balances at the beginning and end of the period. The analysis of statistical indicators of the state budget involves: studying the dynamics of income and expenditure of the state budget, the degree of execution of the state budget, patterns of formation of the revenue side of the budget and spending of budgetary funds; determination of the role and economic significance of the main sources of income in the total volume of budget revenues; identification of expenditure items causing the state budget deficit; analysis of funding sources for the state budget, etc. The dynamic analysis of state budget indicators is a typical process for studying time series, which involves ensuring the comparability of the values ​​of indicators from different years. It involves a procedure for eliminating the impact of inflation based on the GDP Deflator Index and adjusting the “discrepancies” in the values ​​of indicators caused by differences in accounting methods in different years. Also important indicators are indicators of the structure of income and expenditure of the state budget. The availability of such data over a certain period of time makes it possible to identify structural shifts in the composition of income or expenses and the factors that supposedly caused such changes.

Rice. 5.4.

Consider the main indicators of government finance statistics. Indicators of the state budget deficit characterize the macroeconomic results of the financial activity of the general government sector. The size of the budget deficit is usually compared with the volume of GDP, while the financial position of the country is considered stable if the ratio of the budget deficit to the volume of GDP does not exceed 3%. To characterize the scale of state redistributive processes, the ratio of state budget revenues to the level of GDP is calculated. The intensity of changes in indicators over time is usually assessed using chain and basic indices for the corresponding periods and absolute changes. The absolute change in the total volume of tax deductions for one type of tax in the reporting period compared to the baseline due to changes in the volume of the tax base and the tax rate is calculated as follows:

where ANO- absolute change in the volume of tax deductions in the reporting period compared to the baseline; NO 0 and NO l- the amount of tax deductions in the base and reporting periods, respectively; A NO m- absolute change in the volume of tax deductions in the reporting period compared to the baseline due to changes in the tax rate; D NO m- absolute change in the volume of tax deductions in the reporting period compared to the baseline due to changes in the tax base.

Absolute changes in the volume of tax deductions due to the above factors can be determined as follows:

Tax rate changes

Changes to the tax base

where NB 0 and NB]- the volume of the tax base in the base and reporting periods; NS 0 and NS (- the value of the tax rate in the base and reporting periods, respectively.

Share of additional contributions to the budget (DDO) determined by the formulas:

By changing the tax rate

- by changing the tax base

Share of general government spending (DRGU)

where RGB- the total volume of state budget expenditures; VVP- the value of GDP.

Indicator tax shares (DN) characterizes how much of the revenue the government withholds from the private sector, and is defined as follows:

where DGUN- income of the general government sector from taxation.

To assess the social value of the results of the activities of government bodies, the indicator is used share of taxes and duties (DNS), indirectly characterizing the system of social security contributions, labor costs and price levels, job creation processes:

where NOSS- taxes and social security contributions.

It is considered that if the values ​​of the indicator share of taxes and fees grow faster than indicator values share of taxes, then we can conclude that the country's social security system has become too expensive.

Another macroeconomic indicator is share of government debt in GDP:

where ZA- the absolute value of the debt.

If, in this formula, the volume of GDP is replaced by the share of GDP intended for debt repayment, then we obtain the projected number of accounting periods required to repay the public debt:

where DVVP- the share of GDP allocated to debt repayment.

The final quality of the state budget execution is assessed by comparing the actual indicators of income and expenditures with the planned ones.

An important area of ​​activity of the federal authorities is the state statistical observation of prices for goods and services. There are two main concepts for such observation. The first, called the price list, is based on a documented complete accounting of prices, which was used in our country in a centralized planned economy with stable prices and a relatively narrow and little-changing range of goods. In other words, not actual prices were registered, but only their rare changes in accordance with regulatory documents. In market conditions, this approach turned out to be irrational due to the high cost and lack of actual observation of prices, the sampling concept, widely used in international statistical practice, was introduced, which is based on the following basic principles: the use of groupings of goods and services close to those adopted for international comparisons ; a small share of documented recording of prices in the total volume of observations; the use of the sampling method in space and time and the concept of "consumer basket"; coverage of major forms of trade and markets; constant monitoring of actual prices, taking into account the quality of goods and services. The formation of the sample population is carried out while taking into account the following features.

• 1. Periodicity. Monthly price registration is considered optimal. If necessary, for example, in conditions of increased inflation, two-week, weekly or daily price monitoring can be organized for the socially most important goods and services.
• 2. Principles of selection of goods (services)- representatives of the commodity group. The choice of representative goods (services), on average, characterizing the entire set of goods and services available on the market for a given purpose, and, as a consequence, common patterns for them. The selection of representatives can be carried out according to various criteria - most often according to the share of a given product or service in the volume of sales of a product group or a group of services and on the basis of the technical possibility of regularly receiving data. Other techniques can be used. The prices for the “Consumer basket” are also registered, which is the same for all regions of Russia as a set of goods and services that are most frequently consumed by the population. It includes goods and services of mass demand, taking into account their share in the general population, importance for the population, typicality in terms of reflecting price dynamics and the availability of goods and services on the market for a long time. The composition of the consumer basket is usually determined by the government of the country and can vary significantly in different countries and in different years. The cost of the consumer basket is closely related to the concept of "living wage".
• 3. Features of registration of prices. In modern statistical practice, the list and composition of commodity groups are centrally determined, as far as possible harmonized with international rules. For each representative product (service), state statistics bodies fill out a price registration form, which indicates the name of the trading company, country or manufacturer, purpose, model (technology), consumer characteristics, etc. The registration of the actual price of a product or service available on the market, excluding those sold on preferential terms, is carried out. In general, 4 price options are possible: modal; simple arithmetic mean; weighted arithmetic mean; randomly selected. In Russia, a modal price is used, that is, the price of a good or service with the highest sales volume in a commodity group or a group of services. In some cases, for each product or service, 5-7 prices can be recorded, comparable in the place of observation and product quality with the prices of the previous period. The average price is then calculated as a simple arithmetic average of the recorded prices or weighted based on their shares in total sales in the region. Goods and services with a price significantly different from the average and with a significantly limited volume of sales are not taken into account.
• 4. Territorial aspect. When choosing places for direct registration of prices for goods and services, the following basic approaches are usually used: an average representation of large, medium and small cities and settlements, evenly distributed over the territory of the country; observance of proportionality to the size of settlements (regions) - the sample includes all cities (regions) with a population of at least a given value, while the rest can also be included in the sample with weights depending on the size of the population; the formation of a sample based on the size of the variance - the variance of prices or incomes of the population in the region should not be more similar for the country as a whole; the use of cluster sampling - using groupings based on Euclidean distance or similar, regions that are sufficiently homogeneous in terms of the aggregate of prices are selected and combined, then the above approaches are applied. Other techniques are also used, while in practice, several of them are often used simultaneously. In different countries, the principles of monitoring the prices of goods and services are slightly different. Usually, the peculiarities of the methodology of statistical observation of prices are determined by the location of the state, the geographical size of its territory, the administrative division of the country, the volume of budgetary funding for statistical research, and the peculiarities of historical development. State statistical bodies also register prices for industrial goods and services, volumes of capital investments and material and technical resources, transportation tariffs, etc. The principles for forming the corresponding samples are similar to those indicated above, taking into account the industry specifics.

The essence of finance statistics

In order for the public financial policy to be effective, a thorough analysis of its current state and dynamics of its development is necessary.

The reliability of the data is based on the correct calculation of indicators and the choice of accounting methodology.

Modern International Finance Statistics (IFS) has greatly changed and improved in recent years. In countries with developed economies, they adhere to a unified statistical methodology.

So most countries will receive information through the census, census studies, which are carried out at regular intervals. These studies are established by law and executed in accordance with the decision of the executive bodies. Research is carried out by specially trained people.

Remark 1

Finance statistics provides information on various financial phenomena and value indicators and is a kind of reference point for participants in the financial sector.

In countries where there is a market economy, finance statistics determine the state budget, take into account revenues and expenditures in public administration. It also takes into account government debt and its assets. Finance statistics include data on the number of employees who are involved in public administration.

A distinctive feature of finance statistics in countries with market economies is that there are no company finance statistics.

So, for example, based on the financial account of the Federal German Bank, one can get an idea of ​​the financing of investments by providing loans, issuing shares, etc. However, the financial account aims to monitor the market for short-term credit and long-term capital, and not the processes of financing enterprises.

Statistical standards

World finance statistics gathers information from completely different sources. There are many standards for this:

• accounting standards,
• international trade standards,
• balance of payments statistics,
• government finance statistics,
• credit statistics

Of course, each country has its own standards. But in recent years, all countries have been striving for uniform international standards in the field of accounting and statistical data. This approach allows:

• analyze the finance statistics of other countries and, on the basis of this, compare the results,
• analyze the state of the sectors of the economy and compare the ratios and various changes in the field of finance,
• publish information,

IFS standards

A number of organizations are involved in the development of international standards. These include:

• IMF - International Monetary Fund,
• UN-United Nations,
• OECD - Commission of the European Community,
• WB - World Bank

Countries in meetings based on statistics are constantly discussing pressing issues related to international finance statistics. The economic component of many countries depends on the results of the negotiations. So, for example, without the application of international standards, it is impossible to reach a general agreement.

The main pinnacle of finance statistics is capital flow accounts, they are used to research the financial sector. The data set allows for analysis of investment problems, and provides an analysis of the development of the financial sector. This question is quite relevant in today's economic conditions.

The development of international finance statistics contributes to business improvement. In many countries, it has contributed to the strengthening of international integration. Accordingly, there was a need for transparency and unity of statistical reporting in order to create an investment opportunity. Integration in Russia is rather difficult. This is due to the fact that there are still different reporting forms from others. For Russian business at the moment, this is one of the most serious problems in establishing business contacts.

The problem of incompatibility of standards for assessing finance statistics is global and manifests itself in the process of preparing financial statements. The main goal of the development of international finance statistics is the harmonization of national systems. The main essence of such harmonization is the absence of contradictions in the standards. It would be best for business if international finance statistics provided a single basis for all global partners. However, at the present stage, the main problematic faced in the development of standards for analysis has become a lot of contradictions in the standards of different countries.

Any beneficiary wishing to invest their funds in the country, the company must be sure of the further return of their finances, and in the long term - of making a profit.

In this regard, before carrying out any interaction, the owner needs to familiarize himself with the activities of the organization and the economic component of the country as a whole.

Remark 2

The main task of international finance statistics is to provide the user with the necessary information about the object of interest. Therefore, countries need to adhere to standard methodological forms and standards for collecting statistics.

For the development of the economy in Russia, it is necessary to expand the possibilities of the economy of the Russian state. That in the conditions of the current crisis only favorably affects the maintenance of a stable state of the economy. Recent economic trends have shown advantages in the created unified system of finance statistics, the use of which has a positive effect on the development of the country's economic component. This simplifies the development of companies and allows them to enter the international market. Companies in Russia need to develop and enter the international market, which will entail investment and paperwork. And for everything to be transparent, both for investors and partners, it is necessary to collect information in accordance with the standards of international finance statistics