main idea IN AND. Vernadsky is that the highest phase of the development of matter on Earth - life - determines and subordinates other planetary processes. On this occasion, he wrote that it can be said without exaggeration that the chemical state of the outer crust of our planet, the biosphere, is entirely under the influence of life and is determined by living organisms.
If all living organisms are evenly distributed on the surface of the Earth, they form a film 5 mm thick. Despite this, the role of living matter in the history of the Earth is no less than the role of geological processes. The entire mass of living matter that was on Earth, for example, for 1 billion years, already exceeds the mass earth's crust.
A quantitative characteristic of living matter is the total amount of biomass. IN AND. Vernadsky, having carried out analyzes and calculations, came to the conclusion that the amount of biomass ranges from 1000 to 10,000 trillion tons. It also turned out that the surface of the Earth is slightly less than 0.0001% of the surface of the Sun, but the green area of its transformation apparatus, i.e. the surface of tree leaves, grass stems and green algae gives numbers of a completely different order - in different periods of the year it ranges from 0.86 to 4.20% of the surface of the Sun, which explains the large total energy of the biosphere. IN last years similar calculations using the latest equipment were carried out by Krasnoyarsk biophysicist I. Gitelzon and confirmed the order of numbers determined more than half a century ago by V.I. Vernadsky.
A significant place in the works of V.I. According to Vernadsky, the biosphere is assigned to the green living matter of plants, since only it is autotrophic and capable of accumulating the radiant energy of the Sun, forming primary organic compounds with its help.
A significant part of the energy of living matter goes to the formation of new vadose (unknown outside it) minerals in the biosphere, and part is buried in the form of organic matter, ultimately forming deposits of brown and hard coal, oil shale, oil and gas. “We are dealing here,” wrote V.I. Vernadsky, - with a new process, with the slow penetration into the planet of the radiant energy of the Sun, which reached the surface of the Earth. In this way, living matter changes the biosphere and the earth's crust. It continuously leaves in it a part of those who passed through it. chemical elements, creating huge thicknesses of vadose minerals unknown besides it or permeating the inert matter of the biosphere with the finest dust of its remains.”
According to the scientist, the earth's crust is mainly the remains of former biospheres. Even its granite-gneiss layer was formed as a result of metamorphism and melting of rocks that once arose under the influence of living matter. He considered only basalts and other basic igneous rocks to be deep and not related to the biosphere in their genesis.
In the doctrine of the biosphere, the concept of “living matter” is fundamental. Living organisms convert cosmic radiant energy into earthly, chemical energy and create the endless diversity of our world. With their breathing, nutrition, metabolism, death and decomposition, which lasts hundreds of millions of years, with a continuous change of generations, they give rise to a grandiose planetary process that exists only in the biosphere - the migration of chemical elements.
Living matter, according to the theory of V. I. Vernadsky, is a biogeochemical factor on a planetary scale, under the influence of which it is transformed as the surrounding abiotic environment, and living organisms themselves. Throughout the entire space of the biosphere, there is a constant movement of molecules generated by life. Life decisively influences the distribution, migration and dispersion of chemical elements, determining the fate of nitrogen, potassium, calcium, oxygen, magnesium, strontium, carbon, phosphorus, sulfur and other elements.
The eras of the development of life: Proterozoic, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic reflect not only the forms of life on Earth, but also its geological record, its planetary fate. biosphere vernadsky biogenic living
In the doctrine of the biosphere organic matter Along with the energy of radioactive decay, it is considered as a carrier of free energy. Life is viewed not as a mechanical sum of individuals or species, but as essentially a single process that embraces all the matter in the upper layer of the planet.
Living matter has changed throughout all geological eras and periods. Consequently, as noted by V.I. Vernadsky, modern living matter is genetically related to the living matter of all past geological eras. At the same time, over significant geological periods of time, the amount of living matter is not subject to noticeable changes. This pattern was formulated by scientists as a constant amount of living matter in the biosphere (for a given geological period).
Living matter performs the following biogeochemical functions in the biosphere: gas - absorbs and releases gases; redox - oxidizes, for example, carbohydrates to carbon dioxide and reduces it to carbohydrates; concentration - concentrating organisms accumulate nitrogen, phosphorus, silicon, calcium, and magnesium in their bodies and skeletons. As a result of performing these functions, the living matter of the biosphere from the mineral base creates natural waters and soils; it created in the past and maintains the atmosphere in a state of equilibrium.
With the participation of living matter, the process of weathering occurs, and rocks are included in geochemical processes.
The gas and redox functions of living matter are closely related to the processes of photosynthesis and respiration. As a result of the biosynthesis of organic substances by autotrophic organisms, a huge amount of carbon dioxide was extracted from the ancient atmosphere. As the biomass of green plants increased, the gas composition of the atmosphere changed - the carbon dioxide content decreased and the oxygen concentration increased. All oxygen in the atmosphere is formed as a result of the vital processes of autotrophic organisms. Living matter has qualitatively changed the gas composition of the atmosphere - the geological shell of the Earth. In turn, oxygen is used by organisms for the respiration process, as a result of which oxygen again enters the atmosphere. carbon dioxide.
Thus, living organisms created in the past and maintain the atmosphere of our planet for millions of years. An increase in oxygen concentration in the planet's atmosphere affected the speed and intensity of redox reactions in the lithosphere.
Many microorganisms are directly involved in the oxidation of iron, which leads to the formation of sedimentary iron ores, or in the reduction of sulfates with the formation of biogenic sulfur deposits. Despite the fact that living organisms contain the same chemical elements, the compounds of which form the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere, organisms do not completely repeat the chemical composition of the environment.
Living matter, actively performing a concentration function, selects from its environment those chemical elements and in such quantities that it needs. Thanks to the concentration function, living organisms created many sedimentary rocks, for example, deposits of chalk and limestone.
The earth's surface does not contain a more powerful, constantly operating, dynamic force than living organisms. According to the doctrine of living matter, a cosmic function is assigned to this shell, acting as a connecting link between the Earth and outer space. Participating in the process of photosynthesis, metabolism and transformation of natural substances, living matter carries out unimaginable chemical work.
The concept of living matter by V. I. Vernadsky
The concept of living matter was developed by the famous scientist V.I. Vernadsky, who separately considered the biological mass among the totality of other types of organic substances that form the biosphere of the globe. According to the researcher, living organisms make up a tiny fraction of the biosphere. However, it is their vital activity that most significantly affects the formation of the surrounding world.
According to the scientist’s concept, the living matter of the biosphere consists of both organic and inorganic substances. The main specific feature of living matter is the presence of a huge energy potential. In terms of the release of free energy in the inorganic environment of the planet, only volcanic lava flows can be compared with living matter. The main difference between nonliving and living matter is the speed of flow chemical reactions, which in the latter case occur millions of times faster.
Based on the teachings of Professor Vernadsky, the presence of living matter in the earth’s biosphere can manifest itself in several forms:
- biochemical (participation in the metabolism of chemicals, formation of geological shells);
- mechanical (the direct impact of biomass on the transformation of the material world).
The biochemical form of “activity” of the planet’s biomass is manifested in the continuous exchange of substances between the environment and organisms during the digestion of food and the construction of the body. The mechanical impact of living matter on the surrounding world consists in the cyclic movement of substances during the life of organisms.
Biochemical principles
To obtain a complete understanding of the “amount of work” performed by living matter in the process of life activity, several scientific principles known as biochemical principles allow:
- the movement of atoms of chemical substances during biogenic migration always tends to achieve the maximum possible manifestations;
- the evolutionary transformation of species is moving in a direction that promotes increased migration of atoms of elements;
- the existence of biomass is due to the presence of solar energy;
- the living matter of the planet is enclosed in a continuous cycle of exchange chemicals with the space environment.
Reflection of the vital activity of living matter on the functioning of the biosphere
Life arose in the form of the biosphere due to the ability of organic matter to reproduce, grow and evolve forms. Initially, the living shell of the planet was a complex of organic substances that formed the cycle of elements. During the development and transformation of living organisms, living matter acquired the ability to function not only as a continuous flow of energy, but also to evolve as a complex system.
New types of the organic shell of the Earth do not simply find their roots in previous forms. Their occurrence is due to the course of specific biogenic processes in the natural environment, which, in turn, affects all living matter, the cells of living organisms. Each stage of the evolution of the biosphere is characterized by noticeable changes in its material and energy structure. Thus, new systems of inert and living matter of the planet arise.
The increasing impact of biomass on changes in the inert systems of the planet is noticeable in the study of all eras without exception. This is due, first of all, to an increase in the accumulation of solar energy, as well as an increase in the intensity and capacity of the biological cycle of elements. Changes in the environment always predetermine the emergence of new, complex forms of life.
Functions of living matter in the biosphere
For the first time, the functions of biomass were considered by the same Vernadsky when writing the famous work called “Biosphere”. Here the scientist identifies nine functions of living matter: oxygen, calcium, gas, oxidation, reduction, destruction, concentration, reduction, metabolic, respiratory.
The development of modern concepts about living matter in the biosphere has led to a significant reduction in the number of functions of living matter and their combination into new groups. These are the ones that will be discussed further.
Energy functions of living matter
Energy flows emanating from the Sun are a real gift of electromagnetic nature for plants. More than 90% of the energy entering the planet’s biosphere is absorbed by the lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere, and is also directly involved in the flow of chemical processes.
The functions of living matter aimed at converting energy by green plants are the main mechanism of living matter. Without the presence of processes for the transfer and accumulation of solar energy, the development of life on the planet would be in question.
Destructive functions of living organisms
Mineralization ability organic compounds, chemical decomposition rocks, dead organic matter, the involvement of minerals in the circulation of biomass - all these are destructive functions of living matter in the biosphere. Home driving force The destructive functions of the biosphere are bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms.
Dead organic compounds decompose to the state of inorganic substances (water, ammonia, carbon dioxide, methane, hydrogen sulfide), returning to the original cycle of matter.
The destructive effects of organisms on rocks deserve special attention. Thanks to the cycle of substances, the earth's crust is replenished with mineral components released from the lithosphere. By participating in the decomposition of minerals, living organisms thereby include a whole complex of essential chemical elements in the biosphere cycle.
Concentration functions
The selective accumulation of substances in nature, their distribution, the circulation of living matter - all this forms the concentration functions of the biosphere. Among the most active concentrators of chemical elements, microorganisms play a special role.
The construction of the skeletons of individual representatives of the animal world is due to the use of dispersed minerals. Vivid examples The use of concentrated natural elements includes mollusks, diatoms and calcareous algae, corals, radiolarians, and flint sponges.
Gas functions
Basis gas properties living matter is the distribution of gaseous substances by living organisms. Based on the type of gases being converted, a number of individual gas functions are distinguished:
- Oxygen-forming - restoration of the planet's oxygen supply in free form.
- Dioxide - the formation of biogenic carbonic acids as a result of the respiration of representatives of the animal world.
- Ozone - the formation of ozone, which helps protect biomass from the destructive effects of solar radiation.
- Nitrogen - the creation of free nitrogen during the decomposition of substances of organic origin.
Environment-forming functions
Biomass has the ability to transform physical and chemical parameters environment to create conditions that meet the needs of living organisms. As an example, we can highlight the plant environment, the vital activity of which helps to increase air humidity, regulate surface runoff, and enrich the atmosphere with oxygen. To a certain extent, environment-forming functions are the result of all the above-mentioned properties of living matter.
The role of man in the formation of the biosphere
The emergence of man as a separate type was reflected in the emergence of a revolutionary factor in the evolution of biological mass - the conscious transformation of the surrounding world. Technical and scientific progress is not just a phenomenon of the social life of a human being, but in some way relates to the natural processes of the evolution of all living things.
From time immemorial, humanity has been transforming the living matter of the biosphere, which was reflected in an increase in the rate of migration of atoms of the chemical environment, the transformation of individual geospheres, the accumulation of energy flows in the biosphere, and changes in the appearance of the Earth. Currently, man is considered not just as a species, but also as a force capable of changing the shells of the planet, which in turn is a specific factor in evolution.
The natural desire to increase the number of species has led the human species to the active use of renewable and non-renewable resources of the biosphere, energy sources, substances buried in the shells of the planet. Displacement of individual representatives of the animal world from natural habitats, destruction of species for consumer purposes, technogenic transformation of environmental parameters - all this entails extinction essential elements biosphere.
The concept of the biosphere is based on the idea of living matter. More than 90% of all living matter is terrestrial vegetation (98% of land biomass). Living matter- the most powerful geochemical and energy factor, the leading force of planetary development. The main source of biochemical activity of organisms is solar energy, used in the process of photosynthesis by green plants and some microorganisms to create organic matter. Organic matter provides food and energy to other organisms. Photosynthesis led to the accumulation of free oxygen in the atmosphere, the formation of the ozone layer, which protects from ultraviolet and hard cosmic radiation; it maintains the modern gas composition of the atmosphere. Life on Earth has always existed in the form of complexly organized complexes of various organisms (biocenoses). At the same time, living organisms and their habitat form integral systems - biogeocenoses. Nutrition, respiration and reproduction of organisms and the associated processes of creation, accumulation and decay of organic matter ensure a constant circulation of matter and energy. Associated with this cycle is the migration of atoms of chemical elements through living matter. Thus, all atmospheric oxygen circulates through living matter in 2000 years, carbon dioxide in 300 years. Large variety of organic and chemical compounds characterizes the composition of the organisms themselves. Thanks to living matter, soils and organic mineral fuels (peat, coal, possibly even oil) were formed on the planet.
Investigating the processes of migration of atoms in the biosphere, V.I. Vernadsky approached the question of the genesis (origin) of chemical elements in the earth's crust, and then the need to explain the stability of the compounds that make up organisms. Analyzing the problem of atomic migration, he came to the conclusion that organic compounds independent of living matter do not exist anywhere. “Under the name of living matter,” wrote V.I. Vernadsky in 1919, “I will mean the totality of all organisms, vegetation and animals, including humans.”
Thus, living matter is the totality of living organisms of the biosphere, numerically expressed in elementary chemical composition, mass and energy. In the 1930s. IN AND. Vernadsky distinguishes humanity from the total mass of living matter as its special part. This separation of man from all living things became possible for three reasons.
Firstly, humanity is not a producer, but a consumer of biogeochemical energy. This thesis required a revision of the geochemical functions of living matter in the biosphere. Secondly, the mass of humanity, based on demographic data, is not a constant amount of living matter. And thirdly, its geochemical functions are characterized not by mass, but by production activity.
If man had not separated from the natural animal world, his number would have been about 100 thousand. Such protohumans would have lived in a limited range, and their evolution would have been determined by the slow processes resulting from population genetic changes characteristic of speciation. However, with the advent of man there was a qualitative leap in the development of nature on Earth. There is every reason to believe that this new quality is associated with the mind and consciousness of homo sapiens. Thus, the main species difference of a person is his mind, and it is thanks to consciousness that humanity has developed in its own way. This was also reflected in the process of human reproduction, since the formation of socially mature forms of consciousness requires long time- at least 20 years.
What characteristics inherent in living matter? First of all this huge free energy. During the evolution of species, biogenic migration of atoms, i.e. the energy of living matter in the biosphere has increased many times and continues to grow, because living matter processes the energy of solar radiation, atomic energy radioactive decay and cosmic energy of scattered elements coming from our Galaxy. Living matter is also characterized high speed of chemical reactions compared to inanimate matter, where similar processes occur thousands and millions of times slower. For example, some caterpillars can process 200 times more food per day than they weigh themselves, and one tit eats as many caterpillars per day as it weighs.
It is characteristic of living matter that its constituent chemical compounds. the most important of which are proteins, stable only in living organisms. After the completion of the life process, the original living organic substances decompose into chemical components.
Living matter exists on the planet in the form of a continuous alternation of generations, due to which the newly formed generation is genetically connected with the living matter of past eras. This is the main structural unit of the biosphere, which determines all other processes on the surface of the earth's crust. It is characteristic of living matter presence of an evolutionary process. The genetic information of any organism is encrypted in each of its cells. These cells are originally destined to be themselves, with the exception of the egg, from which the whole organism develops. Thus, living matter is essentially immortal.
IN AND. Vernadsky noted that living matter is inseparable from the biosphere, is its function and at the same time “one of the most powerful geochemical forces on our planet.” Cycle of substances V.I. Vernadsky called biogeochemical cycles. These cycles and circulation provide essential functions living matter as a whole. The scientist identified five such functions:
Gas function - carried out by green plants that release oxygen during photosynthesis, as well as by all plants and animals that release carbon dioxide as a result of respiration;
Concentration function - manifests itself in the ability of living organisms to accumulate many chemical elements in their bodies (in the first place is carbon, among metals is calcium);
Redox function - expressed in the chemical transformations of substances in the process of life. As a result, salts, oxides, and new substances are formed. This function is associated with the formation of iron and manganese ores, limestones, etc.;
Biochemical function - is defined as the reproduction, growth and movement in space of living matter. All this leads to the circulation of chemical elements in nature, their biogenic migration;
The function of human biogeochemical activity is associated with biogenic migration of atoms, which increases many times under the influence of human economic activity. A person develops and uses for his needs a large number of substances of the earth's crust, including coal, gas, oil, peat, shale, and many ores. At the same time, there is an anthropogenic entry of foreign substances into the biosphere, in quantities exceeding permissible value. This led to a crisis confrontation between man and nature. The main reason The approaching ecological crisis is considered a technocratic concept that views the biosphere, on the one hand, as a source of physical resources, and on the other, as a sewer for waste disposal.
All ecological processes occur in systems that include living matter, so it is important to be able to distinguish living matter from other types of substances (inorganic, inert, bioinert, etc.).
Living matter is what forms the totality of all bodies, regardless of their belonging to one or another systematic group. The total mass (in dry form) of living matter on planet Earth is (2.4-3.6) * 10 12 tons.
Living matter is inseparable from and is its function, as well as one of the most powerful geological forces on. It represents an inextricable molecular biological unity, a systemic whole with characteristic features, common to the entire era of its existence, as well as to each individual geological era. The destruction of individual components of living matter can lead to disruption of the system as a whole, that is, to an environmental disaster and the death of the system of living matter as a whole.
Let's look at some of the most general substances regardless of the geological epoch of its existence.
1. A system consisting of living matter (an organism) is capable of growth, that is, it increases in size.
2. An organism (living) during its existence retains its most typical signs and is capable of transmitting these characteristics by inheritance, i.e. it is a carrier and transmitter.
3. A living organism during its life is capable of development, which is divided into two periods - embryonic and postembryonic.
4. Living matter, as a separate organism, is capable of reproduction, which ensures the existence of this species for a long time (from a historical point of view).
5. Living matter is characterized by directed metabolism.
Levels of organization of living matter
Living matter, as the totality of all organisms living on Earth, consists of several kingdoms (Prokaryotes, Animals, Plants, Fungi), which are in complex relationships. Living matter has a complex structure and different levels of organization. Let's look at some of them in order of complexity.
1. Molecular-gene (suborganismic) - a special form of organization of living things, inherent in all organisms without exception, which is a set of various organic and inorganic substances interconnected by a certain structure and a system of biochemical processes that make it possible to preserve this set of compounds as an integral system capable of growth, development, self-preservation and reproduction throughout the entire existence of this organism, i.e. until death.
2. Cellular - all living things (except for non-cellular life forms) are formed by special structures - cells, which have a strictly defined structure, inherent in both organisms from the Plant kingdom and organisms from the Animal and Fungi kingdoms; some organisms consist of one cell, therefore such organisms at the cellular level correspond to a new level of organization - organismic (see the fifth level of organization).
3. Tissue - characteristic of complex multicellular organisms in which specialization of cells has occurred according to the functions they perform, which led to the formation of tissues - a collection of cells that have the same origin, similar structure and perform the same or similar functions; Plants and animals are distinguished as follows: in plants, integumentary, basal, mechanical, conductive tissues and meristems (growth tissues) are distinguished; in animals - integumentary, nervous, muscle and connective tissues.
4. Organic - in highly organized organisms, tissues form structures designed to perform certain functions, which are called organs, and organs are combined into organ systems (for example, the stomach is part of the digestive system).
5. Organismal - organ systems are combined into a system, during the functioning of which the vital activity of a specific living being is realized; is known to exist in nature big number unicellular organisms.
6. Population-species - individuals of one species form special groups living in a given specific territory and occupying a certain ecological niche, which are called populations, and populations of identical organisms form subspecies and species.
7. Biogeocenotic - this level of organization of living matter is associated with the fact that a certain number of populations live in a given territory various types(both animals and plants, fungi, prokaryotes and non-cellular life forms), which are interconnected with each other through various connections, including food ones.
8. Biosphere is highest level organizations of living things on planet Earth, which is the entire collection of living beings living on it, which are interconnected with each other by the planetary cycle of chemical elements and chemical compounds; disruption of this cycle can lead to global catastrophe and even to the death of all living things.
Consequently, levels 1-5 of organization are characteristic of an individual organism, and levels 6-8 are characteristic of a collection of organisms. It must be remembered that man is an integral part of living matter on planet Earth, but his activities, due to the presence of intelligence, differ significantly from the activities of other organisms, and, nevertheless, he is an integral part of nature, and not its “king.”
Brief description of the chemical composition of living matter
Living matter is a complex system of bioorganic, organic and inorganic compounds. Almost all stable chemical elements have been found in living matter, known to man, but in different quantities. These are divided into biogenic and non-biogenic, based on their role in living organisms.
The basis of living matter is bioorganic and organic compounds. Bioorganic substances include nucleic acids, vitamins, etc. These substances are called bioorganic because these compounds are produced in organisms and without these substances life is fundamentally impossible (this especially applies to proteins and nucleic acids). An example of organic substances that make up living matter are organic acids (malic, acetic, lactic, etc.), urea and other chemical compounds.
General characteristics of cellular organisms, their classification according to the presence of a nucleus in the cell
Cellular organisms predominate over noncellular ones and have a complex classification. When studying the structure of the cell, it was discovered that most cellular forms of organisms necessarily contain a special organelle - the nucleus. However, in the cells of some organisms there is no nucleus. That's why cellular organisms divided into two large groups- nuclear (or eukaryotes) and non-nuclear (or prokaryotes). In this subsection we will consider prokaryotes.
Prokaryotes (nuclear-free) are organisms whose cells do not have a separately formed nucleus.
Non-nuclear organisms include bacteria and blue-green algae, which form the kingdom Drobyanka, which is part of the superkingdom Prenuclear, or Prokaryotes. In practical terms, bacteria are of greatest importance.
The body of bacteria consists of one cell of different shapes, which has a membrane and cytoplasm. There are no clearly defined organelles; a cell contains one DNA molecule; it is closed in a ring, its location in the cytoplasm is called a nucleoid.
Based on the shape of the cell, bacteria are divided into cocci (spherical), bacilli (rod-shaped), vibrios (arc-shaped), spirilla (curved in the shape of a spiral).
Bacteria multiply ordinary division(in favorable conditions, each division is carried out in 20-30 minutes). When advancing unfavorable conditions The bacterial cell turns into a spore, which is highly resistant to various factors - temperature, humidity, radiation. When exposed to favorable conditions, the spores swell, their membranes rupture and the bacterial cells become vitally active.
In relation to oxygen, they distinguish between anaerobic (they live in environments where there is no molecular oxygen) and aerobic (they require O2 for their life); there are also bacteria that can live in both aerobic and anaerobic environments.
Species, its criteria and ecological characteristics
Living matter in nature exists in the form of separate discrete taxonomic units - species (biological species).
Biological species (species) - a set of individuals that have common morphophysiological characteristics, biochemical, genetic (hereditary) similarity, freely interbreed with each other and produce fertile offspring, adapted to similar living conditions, occupying a certain habitat (area of distribution) in nature, i.e. e. occupying the same ecological niche.
Species are formed by populations and subspecies (the latter is not typical for all species). The biological species is characterized by the following criteria:
1) genetic, i.e. all individuals of a given species have the same set of chromosomes;
2) biochemical, i.e., all individuals of this species are characterized by the same chemical compounds (, nucleic acids, etc.), which differ from similar compounds of other species;
3) morphophysiological, i.e. organisms of the same species have general signs external and internal structure and are characterized by the same processes that ensure their life activity;
4) ecological, i.e. individuals of a given species enter into the same (different from other species) relationships with the natural environment;
5) historical - individuals of a given species have the same origin and in the process intrauterine development undergo the same cycle of this development according to the biogenetic law;
6) geographical - individuals of a given species live in a certain territory and are adapted to exist in this territory.
In the science of “ecology” the following varieties of the term “species” are widely used.
1. A harmful species - causing economic damage to humans or disease-causing; the concept is relative, since any species living on the planet occupies a certain ecological niche and performs a certain ecological role; for example, a wolf can cause great damage to human economic activity, but it is nature’s “orderly” and plays a large role in “culling” non-viable individuals of the species on which it feeds.
2. An extinct species is a species that has disappeared as a result of evolutionary processes, for example, pterodactyl.
3. An endangered species is a species whose properties do not correspond modern conditions existence and genetic capabilities for adapting to life in new conditions are practically exhausted; such species can only be preserved as a result of its complete cultivation (listed in the Red Book).
4. Endangered species - a species of organisms that is under threat of extinction due to the fact that the number of surviving individuals is insufficient for the reproduction of the species, but genetically the species has favorable opportunities for adaptation to conditions external environment(listed in the Red Book as a threatened species).
5. Protected species - a species whose intentional harm to individuals and violation of its habitat is prohibited by certain legislative acts of various ranks (international, state, local), for example, sable, etc.
The structure of a species is that it is formed by individual individuals united in populations and subspecies. The presence of subspecies is characteristic only of those species that have large areas, characterized by a variety of conditions.
Population is a group of individuals of a given species, capable of crossing and producing full-fledged offspring, living in a given territory that has natural boundaries with other territories, which makes it difficult to cross individuals of a given population with individuals of another. It should be remembered that the ecological unit of a species is the population.
Populations different types living in a given territory form a biocenosis in which these populations are connected to each other by various connections, including food ones.
Inorganic substances and their role in living matter
Living matter, like any other substance, is formed by atoms of chemical elements that are part of inorganic and organic compounds, the totality of which forms living matter, which is qualitatively different from both inorganic and organic individual chemical compounds.
Inorganic substances are substances that do not contain carbon atoms (except for carbon itself, its oxides, carbonic acid, its salts, rhodane, hydrogen thiocyanate, thiocyanides, cyanogen, hydrogen cyanide, cyanides).
The composition of organisms includes water, some salts of sodium, potassium, calcium and other chemical elements.
Brief description of the role of some oxides, hydroxides and salts in living matter
From oxides in organisms great importance has carbon dioxide (carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide (IV), carbon dioxide). This substance is one of the products of respiration (for all organisms!). When dissolved in water (for example, in the cytoplasm, blood plasma, etc.), carbon dioxide forms carbonic acid, which, upon dissociation, breaks down into bicarbonate ions (HCO 3) and carbonate ions (CO 2-3), forming (together ) carbonate buffer system, stabilizing the reaction of the environment. Excess CO 2 is removed from the body as a result of processes occurring during (in all organisms: both plants and animals).
The most important hydroxides contained in living matter are carbonic (H 2 CO 3), phosphoric (H 3 PO 4) and some other acids. As indicated above (using the example of carbonic acid), these hydroxides contribute to the creation of buffer systems in aqueous solutions, which leads to stabilization of the reaction environment in protoplasm or other liquid media contained in the body. Phosphoric acid plays a huge role in the formation of various phosphorus-containing compounds (for example, in the formation of ADP from AMP or ATP from ADP; ATP - adenosine triphosphate, ADP - adenosine diphosphate, AMP - adenosine monophosphate; these substances play an important role in the processes of dissimilation and assimilation).
Hydrochloric (hydrochloric) acid (HCI) is also important for organisms. It is contained in gastric juice or in solutions that facilitate the digestion of food (for example, in the human stomach).
In organisms they are found in a dissociated state, i.e. in the form of ions. Let's consider the biological role of some anions (negatively charged ions) and cations (positively charged ions) in living matter.
Brief description of the biological role of cations
In living matter, the following cations are of greatest importance: K +, Ca 2+, Na +, Mg 2+, Fe 2+, Mn 2+ and some others.
1. Sodium cations (Na +). These ions create a certain osmotic pressure(Osmotic pressure occurs in aqueous solutions and is the force under the influence of which osmosis occurs, i.e. one-way diffusion of substances through a semi-permeable membrane). In addition, together with potassium cations (K+) due to different permeability cell membrane, they create membrane equilibrium, in which a difference in biochemical potentials arises, which ensures the conductivity of cells and tissues of the body; participate in water and ion metabolism of the body as a whole. Enter the body (cell) in the form aqueous solution sodium chloride. Animals and humans can lose large amounts of sodium chloride as a result of sweating, which sharply reduces their performance. These ions, together with some organic and inorganic anions, regulate acid-base balance(for example, with HCO - 3, CH 3 COO - ions, etc.).
2. K + cations. These ions, together with Na + ions, create membrane equilibrium. They activate protein synthesis, and in higher animals and humans they affect the biorhythms of the heart. K+ ions are part of macrofertilizers - potash and significantly affect the productivity of agricultural plants.
3. Ca 2+ cations. These ions are antagonists of K + ions (i.e., they exhibit the opposite effect compared to the latter). They are part of membrane structures, form pectin substances, which form intercellular substance in plant organisms. These ions in the composition of calcium salts participate in the formation of the most important connective tissue- bone, which forms the skeleton of vertebrates and humans and some other organisms (for example, coelenterates, etc.). They regulate the processes of cell formation and participate in the implementation muscle contractions, play an important role in blood clotting and other processes.
4. Mg 2+ cations. The role of these ions is similar (in some cases) to the role of Ca 2+ ions and they are contained in organisms in certain proportions. In addition, Mg 2+ ions are part of the most important photosynthetic pigment of plants - chlorophyll, activate DNA synthesis and participate in energy metabolism.
5. Fe 2+ ions. They play an important role in the lives of many animals, as they are part of the most important respiratory pigment - hemoglobin, which is involved in the respiration process. They are part of the muscle protein - myoglobin, and take part in the synthesis of chlorophyll, i.e. Fe 2+ ions are the basis of compounds through which many redox processes are realized.
6. Ions Cu 2+, Mn 2+, Cr 3+ and a number of other ions also take part in redox processes occurring in various organisms (these ions are part of complex organometallic compounds).
Brief description of the biological role of some anions
The most important anions are H 2 PO - 4, HPO 2-4, Cl -, I -, PO 3-4, Br -, F -, HCO - 3, NO - 3, SO 2-4 and a number of others. Let us briefly consider the role of some of these ions in various organisms.
1. Nitrate and nitrite ions (NO - 3, NO - 2, respectively).
Ions containing nitrogen play an important role in plant organisms, since they contain bound nitrogen and are used (along with ammonium cations - NH + 4) for the synthesis of nitrogen-containing “substances of life” - proteins and nucleic acids. When an excess of these ions enters the plant body, they accumulate in them and, entering (as part of food) into the body of humans and animals, can cause disturbances in the metabolism of these organisms (“nitrate and nitrite poisoning”). This makes it necessary to optimally use nitrogen fertilizers when applying them to the soil.
2. Hydro- and dihydrogen phosphate ions (HPO 2-4, H 2 PO 4 - respectively).
These ions are involved in metabolism and are necessary in the synthesis of nucleic acids, mono-, di- and triadenosine phosphates, which play an important role in energy metabolism and the synthesis of organic substances in various organisms (plants, animals, etc.). These ions participate in maintaining acid-base balance, maintaining the constancy of the reaction of the environment within certain limits.
3. Sulfate ions (SO 2 4) are a source of sulfur necessary for the synthesis of sulfur-containing natural alpha-amino acids used in the production of proteins. Necessary for the synthesis of certain vitamins and enzymes (in plant organisms). In animal organisms, sulfate ions are a product of reactions of neutralization of chemical compounds formed in the liver.
4. Halide ions (Cl - chloride ions, Br - bromide ions, I - iodide ions, F - fluoride ions). They are counterions for cations (especially Cl -), that is, they create a neutral system with cations. The system of ions (cations and anions) creates osmotic pressure and turgor together with water; Chloride ions are macroelements for animals, and the remaining halide ions are microelements, i.e. necessary for any organism in small (micro-) quantities. The importance of iodide ions is that they are part of the most important hormone - thyroxine, and excess and deficiency of these ions leads to the appearance of various diseases in humans (myxidema and Graves' disease). Fluoride ions affect metabolism in bone tissue teeth, bromide ions are part of the chemical compounds contained in the pituitary gland.
General characteristics and classification of organic compounds that make up living matter and their ecological role
Substances containing carbon atoms (excluding carbon, its oxides, carbonic acid, its salts, rhodane, rhodane-hydrogen, thiocyanides, cyanogen, hydrogen cyanide, cyanides, carbonyls and carbides) are called organic.
Organic substances have a very complex classification. Some of these substances are not found in organisms (either living or dead). They were obtained artificially and do not occur in nature. A number of organic compounds are not “assimilated” by organisms, i.e. does not decompose in nature under the influence of decomposers and detritivores. Such compounds include polyethylene, SMS (synthetic detergents), some pesticides, etc. Therefore, when using organic substances obtained by humans chemically, it is necessary to take into account their ability to undergo various transformations under natural conditions, i.e., the “assimilation” of these substances by the biosphere.
Organic substances contained in the body are of great ecological importance; a deficiency, excess or absence of a particular substance leads to either various diseases, or to the death of this organism. The most important are nucleic acids, carbohydrates, fats and vitamins.
The concept of organic or inorganic substance becomes too small and the concept is introduced to replace it living matter of the biosphere.
At the beginning of the 20th century V.I. Vernadsky gave a definition to this concept.
Living matter - the entire set of bodies of living organisms in, regardless of their systematic affiliation.
The definition did not appear because of scale.
The mass of living matter is relatively small and is estimated at 2.4-3.6 10 12 tons (dry weight) and is less than 10 −6 the mass of other shells of the Earth. But it is “one of the most powerful geochemical forces on our planet.”
Basic properties of living matter in the biosphere
- The ability to quickly explore free space. This connected both with ability to reproduce especially in the simplest organisms, and with the fact that many organisms significantly increase their body surface as they grow (plants, for example, or the range of a community).
- Active and passive movement.Active movement of living matter of the biosphere- independent movement of organisms that requires energy expenditure: fish can swim against the current, birds fly against gravity, etc. Passive movement of living matter in the biosphere- movement that does not require energy expenditure - under the influence of natural forces - gravity, gravity, etc.
- Stability of living matter(organisms) during life and rapid decomposition(due to the action of decomposers) after death.
If we talk about chemical elements, then precisely due to this property of living matter they participate in various -, etc. - High degree of adaptation of living matter of the biosphere to environmental conditions. The fact that living organisms have mastered all 3 environments - land, water and air - no longer surprises anyone. In addition, there are microorganisms that can withstand both high and very low temperatures.
- High speed of biochemical reactions of living matter. Indeed, the speed of reactions in living organisms is no more than a few minutes, the speed of the carbon cycle is several years (no more than 10).
Vernadsky believed that sedimentary rocks are formed mainly by the waste products of living organisms. And this is a layer about 3 km thick!
High rate of renewal of living matter. It is calculated that on average for the biosphere it is 8 years, while for land it is 14 years, and for the ocean, where organisms with a short life span (for example, plankton) predominate, it is 33 days. As a result of the high rate of renewal over the entire history of life, the total mass of living matter that passed through the biosphere is approximately 12 times the mass of the Earth. Only a small part of it (a fraction of a percent) is preserved in the form of organic residues (in the words of V.I. Vernadsky, “went into geology”), the rest was included in the processes of circulation.
Functions of living matter in the biosphere
- Energy function
Producers absorb solar energy, converting inorganic substances into organic ones, while decomposers decompose organic substances into inorganic ones. Part of the energy in the process is converted into heat. - Concentration of living matter
As a result of the vital activity of organisms, certain substances accumulate. - Destructive
This is a consequence of the energy function - organic matter decomposes as a result of the cycle of substances and turns into a mineral (inorganic) form. - Environment-forming function of living matter
Living matter changes and transforms the environment. Transport
Nutritional interactions of living matter lead to the movement of huge masses of chemical elements and substances against gravity and in the horizontal direction.
