Theory, practice and art of management. The evolution of managerial thought. Universality of principles of management in nature and society

Management is an art, like medicine or engineering, which must rely on the underlying science - concepts, theories, principles and methods.

Harold Kunz
President of the International
management academy

I did not invent or invent any laws: I discovered them and therefore I can place myself (with all due modesty) on the same level as Archimedes, Pythagoras and Newton.

Cyril Northcote Parkinson.
"Parkinson's Laws"
Vladimir Igorevich Knorring.
"The Art of Management"

8.1. Objectivity and universality of management principles

The science of management is based on a system of basic provisions, principles that are unique to it, and at the same time relies on the laws studied by other sciences related to management. Obviously, before proceeding to the study of the socio-psychological aspects of management and the art of influencing the individual and the team, it is necessary to consider the fundamental foundations of management - its principles. The house begins to be built not from the roof, but from its foundation.

The main tasks of management science are the study and practical application of the principles of development of the entire set of managerial relations and various forms of their manifestation in setting goals, developing plans, creating economic and organizational conditions for the effective operation of labor collectives. The study and mastery of these patterns are necessary condition improving the management of public and private production, improving the economic infrastructure and raising the national economy of the country.

The behavior of one of the main and most complex subjects of management - a person is also based on certain principles, internal beliefs that determine his attitude to reality, on the norms of morality and morality. Management principles are objective, i.e. do not depend on the will and desires of individuals, although any truth is known through the most complex system of subject-object relations, and this is the main difficulty in managing society and an individual. These principles cannot be considered absolute truth, but only a tool that allows you to at least slightly lift the veil over the super-complex world of the individual and the team and only suggest to the leader how it is more reasonable to influence the controlled system and what kind of reaction should probably be expected on the control action. Even the most experienced leader, who is fluent in management theory, is not immune from an unreasonable, emotional reaction to a situation. "Feelings are good as servants, but terrible as masters," but how strong is the tendency of servants to rebel... Understanding and defending principles is always easier than living by them.

The principles of managing production, society and the individual are based on the dialectical law of development, which generalizes the experience of human civilization. With the change of socio-political formations, with the continuous development of all phenomena in the world, methods, forms, techniques and the very principles of management are changing and improving. Changes in the political and economic situation in the country, the transition to a new level of knowledge fill theory and practice with new content, it is impossible to use the accepted system of categories forever. Time also changes the language of science, terminology, and it is not surprising if any principle of management, with the invariance of its essence, is called in different countries, in various national management schools in their own way. The Russian School of Management also has the right to do so. One of the founders of the scientific organization of labor, the creator of the "theory of administration" Henri Fayol said: "The number of management principles is unlimited. Every rule, every administrative means that strengthens social education or that facilitates its administration, takes its place among the principles, at least for as long as experience confirms it in this high rank. A change in the state of things may entail a change in the rules brought about by this situation.

Fayol's authority is very high, his works in the theory and practice of management, which appeared along with the works of Taylor at the beginning of the 20th century, laid the foundations of scientific management and are deeply studied by specialists. However, the 14 principles of management proposed by him in their conceptual framework are not indisputable. These principles can rather be considered recommendations for the organization of management, while the principles are the basis of the system, generalize the phenomena in the field of knowledge from which they are abstracted. It is true that Kunz and Donnell remark that "principles cannot always be formulated as a legitimate proposition. They can always be interpreted in such a way that if one does such and such, the result will be a more efficient and effective achievement of the goal."

For example, Fayol's principle of unity of command (employees should receive orders from only one boss) is adjacent to the principle of unity of leadership (activity should have one leader and one plan) and the principle of centralization. These principles differ only in minor and unprincipled nuances and may well be combined. The principles of discipline and order, justice and remuneration ("the remuneration must be fair"), the subordination of individual interests to the common ones, and the spirit of corporatism are also autonomously determined. It seems that the principles of management should determine not the obvious, but deeper, fundamental patterns and at the same time serve as a guide to practical actions.

The principles of management are universal, i.e. are applicable for influencing a person and for optimal management of any society - official (industrial, service, civil, public) or informal (family, friendly, domestic). It is difficult to say where the role of these principles is particularly relevant and important, but there is no doubt that the social objects of management are the most complex and responsible. Although the natural basis of the personality is its genetic, biological characteristics (a person is formed by about 15% depending on the factors of heredity and 85% - from his environment [140]), nevertheless, the determining factors are its social properties: views, needs, abilities, interests, moral and ethical beliefs, etc. The social structure of the individual is formed in the sphere of industrial, social activities, as well as in the sphere of family and life.

A particularly complex object of management is the team, i.e. a group of people united on the basis of common tasks, joint actions, constant contacts. The intellectual, cultural and moral potential of the members of the team is so different that it is difficult to predict the reaction of each individual to the control action. How to maintain friendly, cordial relations in the family, how to establish and maintain mutual understanding with your colleague, how to influence the team in order to achieve the fulfillment of tasks without conflicts and stress? The principles of management as the foundation of the most complex of the arts - the art of management do not claim to be a panacea for all occasions, but in all cases they will not leave a person without reasonable, well-thought-out recommendations by professional experts.

So, the principles of management determine the patterns of formation of a controlled system: its structures, methods of influencing the team, form the motivation of the behavior of its members, take into account the features of the technology and technical equipment of managerial work. The art of management cannot be based only on intuition, the talent of a leader. This art is based on a solid theoretical base accumulated over thousands of years by human civilization - on the principles and laws of control. Let's take a look at the most important of these principles.

8.2. Purpose Principle

The laws of the external world, of nature, are the basis of an expedienthuman activities.

V. I. Lenin

It is difficult, perhaps, to find a person who would find it difficult to answer the question: what is a goal? It is clear that this is what we want to achieve, the goal is a mental, thoughtful and balanced definition of the result to which our thoughts and actions are directed. Happiness, well-being of relatives and friends, achievement of fame, honors and wealth - goals can be distant and close, general and private, intermediate and final. But it is even more difficult to find a person who could, in his everyday life, in the daily bustle and routine, remember these goals and give himself an account - why did he say this, why did he do this, what goal did he want to achieve? It is no coincidence that the question of the purpose of life has not received an answer.

The problem of purpose and expediency is not at all simple and multifaceted, these issues were studied by Aristotle, the Stoics, and teleology (from the Greek telos - purpose and logos - the word, the religious and philosophical doctrine of the presence of goal-setting principles in the world), various aspects of this problem were considered as great scientists and philosophers like Leibniz, Schelling and Hegel.

In management, the problem of the goal is central, it determines and regulates actions and is the basic law, a complex algorithm of behavior that subjugates all aspects of the control action. In cybernetics, the goal is understood as the action of feedbacks, in which information about the difference between the required and the fact stimulates the system to approach the optimal state. The functioning of any system, including human activity, will be effective if the cause-and-effect relationship between the elements of its structure is included as the most important link in a well-founded, appropriate to the conditions and opportunities, clearly formulated goal.

Production, and even more so public administration, along with strategic goals, must solve a significant set of interrelated organizational, scientific, social and technical problems. Simultaneously with traditional, predetermined tasks, emergency situations constantly arise that require urgent operational solutions, often the success of the team's activities depends on the skillful solution of numerous and unexpectedly emerging acute problems. The art of determining the most important tactical goals, determining the sequence and methods for their solution is the basis of the art of management and is often based on foresight and intuition. However, the list of key, central tasks and, consequently, the expected effect from their solution can and must be determined in advance for each of the main management subsystems. An example of defining such main tasks (goals) is given in the table.

Table 3
The main objectives of the most important production control subsystems

Subsystem name	The main purpose of the tasks placed in the subsystem
Technical and economic planning	Development of a system of comparable, demonstrative technical and economic indicators, main planned and production tasks
operational management	Ensuring the operational schedule for the implementation of the main production tasks with high labor productivity and product quality
Logistics	Compliance with the schedule for the supply of material and technical resources and components
Marketing	Ensuring stable sales of manufactured products

The variety of goals and production tasks is so great that there is a need to apply network modeling methods and some concepts of graph theory. The methods of constructing a target model in the form of a tree-like graph (a tree of goals) have gained great popularity, the top of which is the general goal, and the branches are sets of tasks, the solution of which will ensure the achievement of the goal. Such a hierarchical structure clearly demonstrates the need for an organizational and informational connection between the tasks of subsystems and the stages of achieving the goal. The goal tree does not show how to achieve the goal, but only determines the final results of each stage of the planned work. The number of levels of such a structure depends on the complexity of the goal and the number of intermediate stages of work.

The method of building a tree of goals served as the basis for the development of a new concept of production and public administration, called "goal management". In this case, the monitoring and evaluation of the activities of each element of the management system are carried out according to the results achieved (for example, the quantity and quality of products, economic efficiency, labor productivity, labor discipline, etc.). To determine new priorities and adjust local goals, the so-called "management audit". A constant focus on the general goal of the enterprise and control over the achievement of local goals are characteristic of Japanese management and many firms in America and Europe. However, the method of management by objectives will not be effective if management is highly centralized and labor motivation is weak.

Fig 26. Tree of enterprise goals

So, one of the most important principles of management can be formulated briefly and clearly: every action must have a clear and definite purpose. This principle applies to all types of human activity, from state and industrial management to the tactics of individual behavior in everyday life. interpersonal levels. Without knowing the goal and the results that can be expected when it is achieved, any action, any act is doomed to failure or can cause a serious conflict. The art of determining the most important goals by the leader will be devoted to the section of Chapter 11 "The workforce as an object of management."

8.3. The principle of legal protection of a management decision

Dura lex, sed lex
(The law is strong, but it's law.)

Latin proverb

Entrepreneurial activity is always associated with a certain risk, and in Russia after its entry into competitive market relations and with still unsettled legal norms - especially. The interaction between the producer and the consumer, between the seller and the buyer, depends on many legal restrictions. More and more new laws are constantly being born, codes are changing. The State Duma of Russia amazes the world not only with high-profile scandals, but also with amazing legislative fertility, the so-called subjects of the Federation are not inferior to it, countless decrees of the President and decisions of the Government are born. Each department of Russia, "meeting the wishes of the workers", is constantly "improving" the system of accounting, reporting and supervision: the requirements for food quality and consumer protection, labor protection and standards of working conditions, environmental protection and etc. It is more difficult to predict the direction and result of the operation of these laws, decrees and regulations than to predict the path of an old woman, a "guest of Moscow", in the subway crossing, but it is necessary to reckon with this formidable element of lawmaking, to the great joy of officials of all ranks. No matter how the heads of enterprises and firms feel about these legal acts, it is necessary to comply with or at least reckon with them - otherwise large fines or decisions to completely stop the operation of the enterprise are inevitable.

The principle "everything that is not prohibited is allowed" raises serious doubts. Try, for example, to ride along Tverskaya on a cart, although the road sign "Admission of horse-drawn vehicles is prohibited" has been removed a long time ago! Many business areas that promise undoubted and quick profits are either in conflict with existing laws (trafficking in weapons, drugs), or on the verge of violating them (gambling establishments, numerous "massage" establishments, etc.). Decisions to invest in such areas, for all their commercial temptation, will practically inevitably lead to failure, as they have no legal protection, not to mention the moral and ethical side of such a business. Relying on the well-known proverb that has been in force in Russia at all times, "The law that draws where it turns, it went there," on "telephone law" is burdensome for the entrepreneur's pocket and becomes simply dangerous.

One should not confuse business risk with the risk of breaking the law, especially since, despite the difficulties, contradictions, endless discussions, the legal space of the country is constantly expanding, more and more new legislative acts are being put into effect. Such federal laws such as consumer protection, antimonopoly policy and competition, standardization (which formed the basis of a social movement called consumerism abroad, and the activities of the Russian Consumers Union), certification of products and services, advertising, etc., are already yielding tangible results.

With the transition of Russia to an open economy, with the increasing role of international relations (by 1996 in Russia, several tens of thousands of enterprises and organizations participated in foreign economic activity) it became necessary to know and constantly study the legislative acts of the countries - business partners. And first of all, take into account the current trade restrictions of these countries: the value of the customs tariff, i.e. tax on imported goods; quota sizes - the quantitative limit of goods allowed for import into the country; embargo system, i.e. list of prohibited types of imports; the existing system of currency control; non-tariff barriers (some countries impose a strict ban on the import of goods that do not meet the standards adopted in the country). The principle of legal security requires the heads of enterprises to be aware of the current legislation and make managerial decisions only taking into account the compliance of these decisions with the current legal acts. And finally, does the skillfully defended and eventually adopted managerial decision correspond to the norms of morality and ethics?

8.4. Principle of control optimization

The issue of centralization and decentralization is a simple matter of measure. It is necessary to find its degree, the most favorable for the enterprise.

A. Fayol

Any controlled system develops in evolution, improves, orderliness increases in it, structural organization is optimized. The source, the cause of development are the internal contradictions of the system, and the evolution of the system depends on the timely identification of these contradictions, their reduction or elimination. negative impact. Contradictions as a dialectical category are a necessary and essential factor in the development of any progressive movement. But the accumulation of contradictions can lead to chaos, loss of control, regression.

Timely processing of information about the internal processes in the system and its comprehension allow making reasonable management decisions, improving intra-system communications, and increasing the efficiency of interaction with the external environment. Control optimization allows improving the structure of the managed object and increasing its functionality, which ultimately leads to the weakening or complete elimination of internal negative processes. This important control principle can be formulated as follows: control optimization increases the efficiency of the controlled system. The validity of the principle is confirmed by countless examples, since the principles of management are universal and can be attributed to any operating open system - technological processes, production teams or intra-family relations. Optimization of management, including self-regulation processes, for any complex systems (whether it be a person, a company, a manufacturing enterprise or the economy as a whole) is the main condition for development and a guarantor of effective operation. For example, aircraft of any system provide an indisputable gain in speed, but it is important to ensure their high reliability. Progress in aviation, improved control increased the speed and constantly improved the reliability and safety of flights. Improving management processes in labor collectives has the main goal of increasing labor productivity while reducing contradictions between the manager and performers. The ecological needs of society and technological progress are in constant conflict, and the main task of production workers is to reduce the negative impact of technological processes on the state of the environment.

The effectiveness of a controlled system also depends on the degree of its openness, susceptibility to external information (the well-known parachute principle: it operates only when it is open). During the years of stagnation, many branches of our industry and enterprises found themselves in the position of closed systems, and their development slowed down significantly. Optimization does not necessarily lead to an increase in complexity, but is always characterized by the search for qualitatively new ways and structural rationalization. "Everything ingenious is simple", although the element base of this "simple" in the process of evolution, optimization is always more perfect than its prototype. This is the element base of a modern computer, which has come a long way from relay circuits and vacuum tubes to integrated circuits, complex in structure, but simple in their functions. Such is the path of the evolution of living nature. So, in the course of evolution of vertebrates, a simplification of the structure of many organs is observed. For example, the number of skull bones was significantly reduced: lobe-finned fish had 143 bones in the skull, stegocephals - 90, cotylosaurs - 84, primitive mammals - 42, and humans - only 27.

Optimization and simplification of complex production systems is a necessary condition for the more efficient use of ever-growing volumes of information, which determines the progress of these systems. In the national economy, the principle of management optimization dictates the need to reduce sectoral hierarchical levels of management, reduce the regulatory role of the state apparatus, which fetters independence and initiative, improve the management structure of enterprises and work motivation. All this will ultimately increase the efficiency of work collectives and the national economy as a whole.

This fundamental principle of management provides answers to the most important, fundamental, and of great practical importance questions - what decision should the leader make: concentrate all the power in his hands or distribute most of it to his colleagues? Centralization or decentralization? When and in what cases is centralization necessary? What is the optimal management structure for this production situation? And finally, how many employees should report directly to the manager? Three, five, maybe ten? Agree that every leader should know the answers to these burning questions.

The centralization of management, says theory and confirms practice, has undoubted advantages in solving global, strategic tasks. It allows for a wide, large-scale distribution of all types of reserves and resources, but at the same time, the creative initiative of the performers is inevitably suppressed, and tactical tasks are not always optimally solved. This conclusion is confirmed by the sad experience of socialist construction in our country, the tragic episodes of the Great Patriotic War, the mutilated fate of millions of Soviet people, especially those of creative professions. A striking example- the defeat of Napoleon's invincible army at the Battle of Waterloo as a result of strict centralization of control. Napoleon also owns the famous phrase: "Better one bad commander-in-chief than two good ones." But in some, most often extreme, situations, the principle of unity of command is absolutely indispensable: war, fire, natural disasters. It is difficult to imagine the management of the army without the implementation of this principle, or a family without a head - a father or mother. An important consequence is the principle of unity of command - the employee should receive orders from only one immediate superior. This clear and understandable rule is constantly violated, it is difficult for the boss to overcome the temptation to intervene in the production process himself, and his instructions seem to him, undoubtedly, the wisest. Example: A director walks through a shop and sees a group of workers moving a machine. "Why are you putting it here? It won't be comfortable there, put it in this place!" And soon there will be a stormy explanation with the head of the workshop: there is an approved plan, the place for the machine has been thought out in advance, the necessary communications have already been brought there. The director is wrong twice: he made an unreasonable engineering decision and gave it to the performers over the head of their immediate superior. "Body with two heads in social world, as in an animal, a monster. It is hard for him to live,” wrote Henri Fayol.

Decentralization of management frees the members of the team from constant annoying guardianship, effectively stimulates the initiative, and more fully reveals the potential of individuals. An ordinary worker performs a task with redoubled energy if he is given at least a minimal degree of actual control of the situation.

An interesting experiment was conducted: two groups of subjects solve complex puzzles and do the tedious work of proofreading in a room with a high level of production noise. One of the groups has a button to turn off the source of this noise, i.e. has the ability to improve its working conditions, although it is undesirable for production to turn off this source. As a result, the group with the switch solved five times as many puzzles and made an insignificant number of mistakes in proofreading, but did not use the switch - it was enough for them to realize that they could control the situation and take the initiative at the right time.

Decentralization is effective if lower levels management hierarchy make reasonable and important decisions and these decisions do not require approval and approval by management (for example, when providing operational management, deciding personnel issues etc.). Decentralization of many managerial functions is inevitable with the territorial disunity of the structural divisions of the enterprise (branches, departments of structural divisions) or if specialization is necessary (research institutes, design bureaus, a central warehouse with a large volume of loading and unloading operations, etc.). But the decentralization of control has a dangerous tendency to drag the controlled process into anarchy and chaos. Often, even experienced leaders are justifiably afraid of losing control over the managed system, and weak ones are afraid that a competent informal leader will appear who can replace his boss and undermine his authority. Delegating their powers to executors during decentralization, the manager often cannot answer specific questions from his immediate superiors or when speaking at a general meeting. For example, what is the turnover of personnel in specialties for the reporting period, how is the production process provided by machine operators of various profiles, what kind of spare parts are needed, what additional electrical equipment and instrumentation are needed. Competent deputy heads know the answers to these questions very well, but the head himself in this situation feels, to put it mildly, uncomfortable. Should he know the answers to these and hundreds of other small production questions?

So, how should the leader, the first person of the enterprise, use his power more wisely, especially if this enterprise is a private company? Management theory gives clear, unambiguous recommendations: the leader must take all organizational and administrative power into his own hands and delegate a significant part of his powers to experienced deputies, experts in their field. And at the same time, do not interfere with their work with petty guardianship, constant monitoring, if they are basically successfully fulfilling their official duties. "It's not broken - don't fix it!", and if you remember the Hippocratic oath, then "Do no harm!" And only in case of a clear threat of disruption of the planned work or an obvious inconsistency of the performer with the position held, the manager is obliged to actively intervene in the work of the lagging structural unit, using full power up to replacing the performer.

Such an extremely rare situation is possible when all structural divisions work without failures, plans are fulfilled, a clear system of logistics is established, the work of the team is reasonably motivated and the leader remains, as it were, without work (as a well-played orchestra can play without a conductor after many rehearsals). In this case, the leader is a real talent, an excellent organizer! And all the same, it will not remain idle, it is necessary to solve long-term, strategic tasks, establish new production relations, work on further improvement of the production organism, issues of enterprise development. "Good management is based on the reconciliation of centralization and decentralization," says General Motors CEO Alfred Sloan.

Rule of control. There remains one more, very significant question: how many subordinates can and should be had, what is the standard of controllability of a leader? In a painful, difficult way, humanity has come to understand that an overestimated norm of controllability can lead to a loss of control and disorganization of the enterprise. The first literary source in which this important problem is raised is the Bible. The book "Exodus" says that when Moses began to lead the Jews out of Egypt, he took over all the management functions. But soon I realized that one cannot solve thousands of big and small problems alone. "And Moses chose capable people from all Israel, and appointed them leaders of the people. And they judged the people at all times; important matters were reported to Moses, and all small matters were judged by themselves." Scientific research and hundreds of experiments have identified criteria and indicators that characterize the numerical number of job ties between the leader and subordinates in the process of interaction. The French researcher V. A. Greikūnas substantiated this dependence by the formula, where the number of all types of connections between the leader and his subordinates is described by the following expression:

K \u003d n,

where n is the number of subordinates; TO - the number of relationships.

The Greikūnas formula inexorably shows that if four executors are directly subordinate to the manager, then the number of controversial issues, disagreements, and, consequently, requests for their solution to the boss will be about 44 times per working day:

Many scientists (J. Hamilton, L. Urvik, G. Simon, and others) dealt with the problem of control range, and although Greikūnas' concept was criticized, it did not cause fundamental objections. However, with all the undeniable value of Greikūnas' conclusions, it is necessary to doubt their infallibility. This formula shows only a general trend, since all official relations cannot be carried out in a unit of time, and it is unlikely that an increase in the number of subordinates by only one person will cause a doubling of the number of calls to the manager. For example, if a new position of deputy for capital construction is introduced into the staff of a developing enterprise, then one can expect a reduction in the volume of work for the first person rather than an increase in contacts by more than two times. But the fact is indisputable that with a large number of direct executors, the manager is actually not able to fully manage the enterprise and can only amuse his pride with the illusion of power. According to most experts, the manageability rate varies considerably depending on many factors, but on average it is 3-5 people. Reducing the range of management is dangerous by the emergence of complicated organizational structures, consisting of small units with an excessive number of vertical levels.

The experience of modern manufacturing firms in Russia confirms the particular relevance of studying and developing a controllability standard for various conditions enterprise labor. Alexander Vulfov (S . I . Realty): "One of the truths that I learned from the construction site is that in order to pay back one engineering and technical worker, you need to hire at least 10 workers. That is, if the number of all workers is divided by the number of all engineers, the ratio should be at least 8 to 1, and even better 10 to 1". This point of view is valid for the conditions of construction, where the labor of workers is strictly unified and regulated according to professions, and the efficiency of the work of the team can be taken into account quite clearly. Sergey Likharev (a branch of the well-known company Cannon in Russia) believes that the need for structural changes within the division can be established by comparing the growth in information or material flows(number of banking transactions, man-hours worked, volume of movement of material assets, etc.) and control over subordinates will not be lost if no more than 10 people work in the department.

The managerial standard depends on several factors:

• type of production (serial, small-scale, individual), its complexity and responsibility;
• the equipment of the work of the manager with technical means of control (a personal computer and an information database created on its basis, the effectiveness of existing communication links, etc.);
• the leader's place in the hierarchical structure, which determines the complexity of the problems being solved, the measure of his responsibility and, of course, the strength of the emotional load;
• knowledge and experience of the leader (the art of management!).

The usual rate of manageability ranges from three to seven directly subordinate to the head of the performers. Curious confirmation of these conclusions: the army ancient rome, homogeneous in composition, was built on the principle of six (6 maniples - centuria, 6 centuries - cohort, 6 cohorts - legion). Napoleon Bonaparte, commanding an army more complex in its structure (infantry, light and heavy cavalry, miners, artillerymen, etc.), laid the foundation for the principle of the troika, i.e. reduced the controllability rate (3 platoons - a company, 3 companies - a battalion, 3 battalions - a regiment). Soviet army for a long time was built according to the same structural formula, and only in recent years, when especially complex and mobile means armaments (rocket troops, space weapons), these structural units became autonomous with subordination to only one commander each (principle of unity). Any managed system must develop, improve, orderliness increases in it, structural organization is optimized. The source, the cause of development are the internal contradictions of the system, and the evolution of the system depends on the timely identification of these contradictions, the reduction or elimination of their negative impact. Optimization of management, including self-regulation processes for any complex systems, whether it be a person, a production team or the economy as a whole, is a condition for development and a guarantor of effective operation.

The weak link in the management of the national economy of the USSR was the excessive rigidity of organizational structures that react slowly to changes in the external environment or the emergence of new production goals for the enterprise. This shortcoming is also typical for modern Russia, especially for public sector organizations, although it is obvious that economic independence without freedom of action within the boundaries of the powers and responsibilities of managers will be ineffective. Any organization must have a certain freedom (within its regulations, without existing laws there is no real freedom), which will stimulate the flowering of the potential abilities and creative capabilities of its team.

This applies primarily to the possibility, if necessary, to improve the organizational structure of the enterprise, since a suboptimal management structure is the most common flaw in the production activities of many teams. The organizational structure should reflect the long-term program and the set of the main goals of the organization, since the achievement of goals is the basis of joint activities. And finally, the structure must respond to changes in the external and internal environment. The organizational structure is effective only when it contributes to the achievement of the goals set by the team at the minimum cost of labor and resources. It is important to note that the achievement of goals is not only an effective solution of production problems and, as a result, fair remuneration, but also other ways of motivation: involvement in solving problems, prestige of work and confidence in career growth. The search for the optimal structure for a given time is often accompanied by serious mistakes: exceeding the norm of controllability of executives, an incorrectly chosen management style, attempts to achieve savings by combining structural units with similar profiles (a single office or a joint office of copying equipment, etc.).

The principle of optimization underlies any organizational structure, regardless of the applied optimality criteria and the current system of constraints. By the way, if we recall the thesis about the universality of management principles, then the principle of optimization should be extended to family relations. Indeed, the structure of family ties depends on changes in the external and internal environment; the role of a young wife who has become a mother is changing, which, in turn, also changes the status: mother-in-law (or mother-in-law), who, thanks to her experience, tact and authority, becomes an indispensable grandmother, and sometimes an informal family leader. The role of the young father is also changing, who now has to be especially active in ensuring communication with the outside world and the financial well-being of the family. With the advent of another goal - caring for the health and normal development of the child - the structure of family relations changes, sometimes significantly. And if the family is not able to rebuild the structure of family ties in the changed conditions of life, if the recommendations and methods of the art of management are not taken into account, then the most sad consequences are possible, as evidenced by the court chronicle.

8.5. The principle of delegation of authority

The most important ability that a leader should have is the ability to get results through others ... To the extent he skillfully transfers power, to the extent he skillfully leads.

The very name of the principle contains a decoding of its main meaning - the transfer by the head of part of his official functions to subordinates without active interference in their actions. This optimization technique is usually called the method of delegation of authority and was discussed when considering the problems of decentralization of control. The role of the method of delegation of authority in management is so great that many researchers and practitioners tend to consider it as a separate management principle. The methodological foundations of this principle are clear, but some practical questions arising from the implementation of the principle should be answered in more detail: when is it appropriate to use this method, to what extent should management functions be transferred to subordinates, what methods of control should be used in this case?

So, the principle of delegation of authority consists in the transfer by the head of a part of the powers assigned to him, rights and responsibilities to his competent employees. The main practical value of the principle is that the manager frees his time from less complex everyday affairs, routine operations and can concentrate his efforts on solving problems of a more complex managerial level; at the same time, which is very important for the leader, compliance with the norm of manageability is ensured. At the same time, this method is a purposeful form of staff development, contributes to the motivation of their work, the manifestation of initiative and independence.

It should be recalled again that the main task of the leader is not to do the work himself, but to ensure the organization of the labor process by the forces of the team, take responsibility and use power to achieve the goal. To build relations between the boss and subordinates on cunning, deceit or flattery is immoral and hopelessly wrong. People, with all their individual differences, behave predictably in a normal, regular situation - if the team knows its tasks and understands the methods used by the leader to achieve the goal with minimal difficulties, then you can confidently count on the support of the majority and find performers who can trust independent solution of local and sometimes multifunctional tasks. Such an employee, singled out from the team for his undoubted organizational skills and professional knowledge, is well aware of the benefits of the trust placed in him, is proud of the awareness of his significance and will try to justify the trust placed in him. Delegation of authority is possible and expedient if the leader has prepared worthy performers, trusts them and can skillfully manage them. The performer must be professionally trained, have practical experience and get a working report - a complete analogy with the preparation for independent work of pilots, drivers, machinists, although, fortunately, the activities of a leader are not associated with the danger of a serious, irreparable disaster.

Rice. 22. Hierarchical pyramid

The hierarchical pyramid (Fig. 22) illustrates the subordination of performers to their leaders up to the highest. In the figure: P - head, 3 - deputies, BUT - heads of departments, WG - group leaders, 1I-4I - performers. The bureaucratic way of passing information from the top manager to the executors and vice versa is often very complicated and lengthy. However, there are often situations when performers need to make quick operational decisions at their hierarchical level. Strictly speaking, the 1I performer, in order to obtain authorization to interact with the 2I performer, must transmit information along the long path from 1I to P and wait for instructions along the same return path. A disastrous loss of time can be avoided if the management delegates part of its powers to direct executors and the necessary contacts between 1I and 2I will be carried out by them directly through the 1I-2I bridge.

Methods for solving production and organizational problems are always multivariate, and if a subordinate uses his own, independent, yet, perhaps, non-optimal decision tactics, then this manifests another positive trait the principle of delegation of authority - the performer goes through a good and absolutely necessary school of managerial development, learns to be independent. The performer asserts himself, his self-confidence and initiative grow. At the same time, it is important to remember that the performer has the right to make a mistake, and in this case, the leader is obliged to provide him with all possible assistance in the most tactful manner. After all, one of the main tasks of a leader is to develop the abilities and skills of a subordinate.

A particularly delicate aspect of this principle is the organization of control over the actions of subordinates. Petty guardianship will not give anything but harm (violation of the principle of least impact!), The lack of control can lead to disruption of work and anarchy. The solution to the problem of control lies in well-established feedback, in the free exchange of information between colleagues and, of course, in a sufficiently high authority and managerial skill of the leader. By the way, an experienced high-level official, wishing to form an objective opinion about the quality of the leader's work, is always interested in how his subordinates work (this characterizes the leader very well). The principle of delegation of authority is illustrated in Fig. 23.

Rice. 23. Scheme for implementing the principle of delegation of authority

So, the principle of delegation of authority will be effective if:

• subordinates really know and understand what new responsibilities have been transferred to them. The employee's affirmative answer to the question: "Do you understand everything?" - it is not always truthful: he may be mistaken, or he may be afraid to admit that he did not understand everything;
• the employee is prepared to perform new functions in advance, there is confidence in his ability to complete the task and the mechanism of stimulation and motivation is ensured;
• the subordinate will not receive "valuable instructions" from another boss through the head of his immediate supervisor;
• the performer knows his rights and obligations without any uncertainties. Without fulfilling this condition, the performer will resemble, in the words of Norbert Wiener, "a eunuch in the harem of ideas with which their sultan is married";
• the performer is free in his actions: the less noticeable the participation of the leader in the choice of ways to implement the tasks, the better;
• the performer is confident in his right to take calculated risks and in the right to make mistakes. This is also important as a way to combat routine and inertia in the activities of the administrative apparatus;
• specific goals and deadlines for completing the assignment will be set;
• the subordinate will correctly understand the need to monitor progress and provide objective information about the deviation from the planned indicators;
• the performer understands that he not only has the right to make operational decisions, but is also obliged to apply it if necessary. A person who has received authority not only can, but is also obliged to act if the situation requires it, he must know that he will have to account not only for his decisions, but also for inaction. This provision is especially important in the event of extreme situations, in a crisis, when the human factor is of particular importance.

Leading experts in the field of management G. Kunz and S. O "Donnell in their well-known book on management emphasize the importance of selecting performers taking into account the nature of the task (the principle of compliance), the need to use a reward system for the effective delegation of authority and constantly open lines of communication: between the head and subordinates there should be a free exchange of information, with the help of which the performer receives the information necessary to make a decision and correctly understand the essence of delegated powers.The delegator and "authorized" should have a single information base, a common set of organizational and methodological ideas.

Often a peculiar task of psychological choice arises: what task should be entrusted to the performer, familiar or fundamentally new? Most often, the implementation of a new task is delegated, especially if it seems unattractive, routine to the manager. Perhaps this decision is not always correct. The problem is that, having transferred the solution of the task to someone, the manager is still responsible for its implementation and control, and even more so, it is much easier to simply observe (what is now fashionable to call monitoring) the implementation of a familiar problem. There is a danger that soon the commissioner will advance so much in solving the task entrusted to him that the leader will not be able to recognize even its initial contours and he will have to "catch up" with the performer, i.e. still study the problem and the proposed methods for solving it. Experienced administrators often assign capable performers slightly more complex tasks than the subordinate is accustomed to doing. In this case, it is desirable to prepare the task in the form of a written order. Having received difficult task, the performer reveals himself more fully and receives sincere satisfaction from the completion of the task and the trust placed in him.

It should be noted that this management principle is timidly applied by people who have recently received a promotion, as it is difficult for them to abandon the habitual stereotype of past activities. The head, who sorts the correspondence himself and types on a typewriter in front of a bored secretary, causes regret, but not sympathy. Sometimes the principle of delegation of authority does not give the expected effect - the performer does not fully perform the management functions assigned to him. Most often this happens in cases where it is necessary to make unpopular decisions in the team: imposing penalties for violations of labor discipline, deprivation of bonuses, investigation of immoral acts of employees, etc. Under various pretexts, the performer tries to transfer the solution of these problems to his leader in order to look in the eyes of the team from the best, as it seems to him, side. Among other reasons, most often there is uncertainty about the correctness of the responsible decision being made, insufficient experience, and sometimes a fundamental disagreement with the opinion of the leader.

However, there is a set of managerial tasks, the solution of which should be left to the head. This is primarily the definition of goals, policies of the organization and the adoption of fundamental decisions. The duty of the first person to assume the performance of tasks with a high degree of risk, of a particularly confidential nature and all unusual ones that go beyond the established regulations and traditions of the operation. Considering situations where a managerial decision can cause irreversible consequences, it is appropriate to draw a comparison between the responsibility of a general practitioner and a surgeon. The therapist can more easily entrust the treatment of the patient to his junior colleague, since at any moment he can join the treatment process, but the surgeon, with great discretion and caution, decides to entrust the operation to his student.

There is another delicate issue - the right to sign. Many leaders believe that it is reasonable to centralize this right: the executor, the trustee, has thought through the decision, prepared the appropriate document and submits it for signature to the leader, who thus exercises his natural right of control. But this method of interaction indicates that only a part of the rights is delegated to the performer and there are many objections to this method:

• a performer deprived of the right to sign has every reason to believe that he is far from being fully trusted and such uncertainty does not contribute to mutual understanding;
• decentralization of the right to sign accelerates the process of making managerial decisions and reduces the workload of the manager;
• with the centralization of this right, it is difficult to establish the true culprit of an erroneous decision, often the head signs the document, either without reading it, or without delving into its essence; the direct executor develops a tendency to transfer all responsible decisions to a higher level of management;
• with the centralization of the right to sign, the head gains confidence in his significant superiority in knowledge over the specialists-executors, the head often begins to identify his personality with the organization he leads.

The effectiveness of delegation of authority is obvious, but not all managers are in a hurry to apply it for the following main reasons:

• fear of losing power and position. Giving some of my powers to others, they argue, I naturally reduce my rights, and this will not lead to good. If the performer does not fulfill his new tasks, then he will have to urgently intervene and correct other people's mistakes. If the subordinate performs the tasks too well, then the authorities may quite reasonably think about my suitability for the position;
• ambition and distrust of subordinates. A low assessment of the abilities of their employees and an overestimated self-esteem give rise to distrust of the staff - it's better to do everything yourself;
• fear of receiving a negative assessment of their actions from colleagues and superiors: he, they say, is a loafer, does not want to work, evades work and therefore likes to delegate his work to employees.

The practical value of this management principle is obvious, and it is no coincidence that it is the basis of the European concept of leadership with delegation of responsibility in a market economy (better known as the "Harzburg management model"). Moreover, the delegation of responsibility as a principle of leadership and organization of management has been practically implemented at a number of Russian enterprises: the GAZ automobile plant, the Shchekino chemical plant, a number of construction and food enterprises. The ideas of the Harzburg model have been used in companies for more than 30 years Western Europe(including on Volkswagen, OTTO, Karlstadt, Berlitz, and in the early 90s they were actually used in the Japanese management model "Line production".

American practice widely uses the team unity method, in which management decentralization is combined with formally assigned rights and responsibilities of performers at each hierarchical level. The contractor has sufficient freedom in exercising his rights, is personally responsible for the functions assigned to him and periodically reports on the progress of the work.

The method of team unity does not contain elements of novelty, but with this method of managing a production team, one of the main management concepts is especially strictly implemented - the manager does not have the right to give a task to the performer, bypassing his immediate supervisor. This rule is necessarily observed in all forms of management, but it is especially strictly observed when organizing work using this method.

A significant disadvantage of the method is the possibility of a barrier between the manager and the object of management, because his subordinates do not always benefit from the manager's contacts with the lower levels of the management structure.

The importance of the principle of delegation of authority is especially growing in the context of the dominance of economic methods of management, the implementation of which is practically impossible without the independence and creative initiative of the performers. This principle once again confirms the validity of the well-known formula: "Never do yourself what your subordinates can do, except in those cases when a person's life is at stake."

8.6. Conformity principle

In industry, as in medicine,
one who is looking for a simple remedy
from all diseases, doomed to failure.

Elton Mayo

The foundations of another important management principle - the principle of compliance - were laid about a hundred years ago. The American engineer Frederick Winslow Taylor, the founder of the scientific organization of labor and management, the "father of scientific management", observing the work of loading iron ingots into railway cars and the work of diggers, drew attention to the fact that workers treat their work differently, requiring only physical strength and simple skills. Some, physically strong and having average intellectual abilities, worked with pleasure, while for others this work was a burden. Taylor proposed to select workers on the basis of scientifically developed criteria and introduce a system of training and education for them.

Determining the suitability of an employee for a position is not an easy task. Experience and the ability to separate professional business qualities from verbal tinsel and external pomposity of an employee are necessary. Most often, people try to bite off a larger piece than they can swallow, because usually a person has a very high opinion of his abilities and intelligence. Cases of underestimation of one's capabilities, timidity, and shyness are much less common. If a person with a good education is entrusted with performing routine clerical work, then a significant part of his knowledge will be lost without use, and the employee himself will try to change his job for a more interesting position. It is important to support the timid in time, help him or moderate the exorbitant ambitions of the overly self-confident. One of America's most famous managers, Lee Iacocca, says this: "I have seen many cases where people have been in positions for years that did not correspond to their capabilities. Most often, the administration did not have the means to identify this until it was too late. Any company loses good workers, simply found themselves in the wrong place; they would perhaps have been more satisfied and more successful if they had not been fired, but transferred to a more suitable job for them. It is clear that the sooner a problem is identified, the better the chances of a solution."

There are many methods to help a person in search of his true place in the team, to find his calling. Japanese managers achieve this goal through rotation, i.e. moving an employee from one place of work to other structural units. Most often, these movements are made "horizontally", but sometimes with promotion - "vertically". Much is given by the mentoring system, when an experienced specialist is attached to a newcomer, and frequent contacts of the manager with his employees, sometimes in an informal setting. Lee Iacocca widely practiced a system of mandatory quarterly written reports on the activities of his key employees, some managers do this monthly. Unlike Peter the Great, who demanded to speak not according to the written word (“so that everyone’s nonsense was visible”), Iacocca believes that writing a report allows the performer to delve deeper into specific details, and the manager to objectively evaluate the results of the employee’s work and draw reasonable conclusions about his suitability for the position.

The work performed must correspond to the intellectual and physical capabilities of the performer - this is the basis of the principle of compliance. Readers themselves can recall many examples from their production and life experience, when, due to the accidents of the conjuncture, a person with average intellectual and organizational abilities was elevated to the top of the official hierarchical ladder and, despite all his efforts, to work without rest from morning until late at night, so and failed to achieve any notable results. Not only work suffers, his health, family well-being, friendly contacts with other people are also at risk. The principle of compliance must be applied to each manager in the selection and placement of managerial personnel and, first of all, in assessing their own capabilities, their compliance with the work performed. The great ancient Greek philosopher Socrates recommended to clearly apply the principle of correspondence. He taught that the main task and the main evidence of the art of any public figure, military leader, merchant, builder is the ability to give a person work according to his abilities and achieve the fulfillment of the assigned task.

The talented and witty book by Lawrence Peter is actually entirely devoted to the principle of correspondence. The perfect cocktail of satire, humor, and evidence-based fact called the Peter Principle is bittersweet, but the truth is that everyone rises to their level of incompetence and, alas, stays there. "The general trend is that, over time, every position will be replaced by a worker who is not competent enough to perform his duties. All useful work is done by those who have not yet reached their level of incompetence." Indeed, there are rare cases when a person is satisfied with a position corresponding to his abilities, and can resist the temptation to take a higher, but exceeding his capabilities, position.

A consequence of the compliance principle is a reasonable, but rarely implemented in practice, recommendation: each person should soberly and objectively assess their capabilities and be wary of falling into the “zone of their incompetence”.

Life experience suggests that quite often a leader who quite competently and adequately performs his duties in a situation where he is moved to a higher position loses his usual guidelines and begins to work beyond his capabilities. You have to constantly stay late at work, perform urgent tasks at home, reduce the time for rest, sleep and communication with family and friends. With such an overload, work suffers, family relationships worsen, and as a result, an environment of constant stress will inevitably affect health.

However, not everyone can honestly and courageously assess the situation, understand the disastrous nature of such a situation, and make a decision to voluntarily transfer to a job that is more in line with their physical and intellectual capabilities. More often, ambitions, self-confidence, hope for one's good health and good luck (“maybe I can handle it and everything will work out!”) still prevail over reason.

8.7. The principle of automatic replacement of the missing

No rights without responsibilities
and there are no duties without rights.

Axiom of control

The obvious importance of the principle of automatic replacement of the absent is clear to every experienced leader. Replacing the absent (illness, vacation, business trip) should be decided automatically on the basis of existing job descriptions and regulated formally. How often in production practice there were situations when, for example, the chief accountant was ill, the work of the entire enterprise was paralyzed (only the accountant keeps a seal or only his signature is recognized by the bank!). Each job description should be clear and unambiguous about the need to know the range of issues related to the competence of two or three closest colleagues in order to perform their functions in special cases. In some organizations, there are even special "books of services" that describe the relationship of similar functions of positions.

There is one, somewhat unexpected, consequence of this principle - the importance of official job descriptions, documents aimed at fulfilling one's duty within the law. There are few people with experience in government bodies who would be sympathetic to prescriptions, instructions, circulars, but their absence leads to legal nihilism, when everyone is responsible for everything, and in the end - no one for anything. There are many of these official documents, and not all of them are compiled correctly, clearly and concisely. Satirists and comedians feed well on this fat field of bureaucratic masterpieces: "Give me a certificate that you need a certificate," and so on. Always touching are beautifully drawn, under glass and well-framed plans for evacuation in case of natural disasters on the wall of a modest office or long instructions in case of fire or in the event of a nuclear threat.

But the instruction manual is different. Example: two specialists, lovely ladies, do not like each other. One of them went on leave, and the head of the department asked the remaining one to take control of the exposed area of ​​work. "No, I disagree". The chief persuaded, asked, finally ordered - after all, the business is suffering! “No, I won’t, let her do everything herself when she returns. My job description does not say anything about such a replacement and that I am obliged to carry out your separate, one-time assignments.” And technically, she's right. There was nothing left for the boss to do, how, cursing and cursing (whom?), To take on this additional work and, under the maliciously sympathetic glances of the employees, hasten to make adjustments to the "stupid piece of paper" - job description.

There is another very serious document - safety instructions (experienced production workers nod their heads in understanding). Each new employee is required to read this instruction, sign in a special journal, and only after checking his knowledge and instructing at the workplace, he can be allowed to work. And then suddenly - misfortune, this employee violated safety regulations and died. It's really scary, it's grief for the family, for the whole team. But if the procedure for admission to work is not documented, the briefing is not carried out, there is no signature in the safety knowledge check log, then others will also suffer: the immediate supervisor of the deceased, the safety engineer and the chief engineer of the enterprise. They will be held accountable and severely but justly punished.

Be careful, managers: job descriptions must be correctly drawn up, constantly adjusted taking into account the changes taking place in the system and require their strict implementation. It should be remembered that an ill-conceived, hastily developed document may soon require new additions, clarifications - remember the legislative leapfrog in the State Duma of Russia!

However, replacing the absent, especially if you have to replace the head of a structural unit, requires great tact, preparedness and experience from the performer. The main thing is that work should not suffer, and excuses like “I can’t solve this issue, I’ll have to wait for the boss” are completely unacceptable. The very fact of the transfer of the functions of the head, at least for a while, to a person replacing him testifies to their mutual trust, to the recognition of the competence and professionalism of the performer. Taking on additional responsibilities, the performer, having the right to make a mistake, is responsible not only for his decisions, but also behind inactivity, especially in difficult production situations. The replacement should know his new functions, but it is even better to understand what he should not do. Firstly, he should not cancel or at least question the fundamental decisions made by his leader, even if he does not approve of these decisions. Secondly, it is important to understand that the decisions made by the executor should leave room for subsequent adjustments, you cannot put the manager in front of a fact, force him to accept what he is not ready for or with which he fundamentally disagrees. Any form of coercion and violence is unpleasant, but driving your boss into a corner is completely unacceptable, and this will cost the replacement a huge loss in the end. And finally, you should not try to use the situation that has arisen to raise your authority at the expense of the absent boss: “I understand you and would support you, but here is my boss ...” Such attempts are naive, unethical and always give a negative result.

8.8. Principle first leaders

First of all, what characterizes mastery? The ability to do something quite complex. And mastery is the ability to do something difficult with someone else's hands. A musician needs only his skill, a conductor also needs skill.

S. N. Parkinson

For the conscious application of the next management principle - the principle of the first leader - consider the situation: you are entrusted with the implementation of a responsible event. The director of the enterprise is far from understanding the importance and peculiarities of the work entrusted to you, you did not have the necessary business contacts with him, but the chief engineer perfectly understands the seriousness of the task entrusted to you, knows the ways of its implementation and you have the most trusting, friendly relations with him. You have prepared a draft order necessary for the organization of work, in which there is a traditional clause: "Control over the implementation of this order is entrusted to ..." To whom? The answer is obvious - to the chief engineer, your potential colleague and assistant. Is this decision correct? Having started to carry out the assigned work, you have prepared, for example, a draft staffing table, but the chief engineer does not have the right to approve it - this is not within his competence. And you are forced to turn to the director, causing him, of course, displeasure. Or you need to perform a small amount of work on capital construction, but in this case, the chief engineer cannot solve your problem - this is the jurisdiction of the deputy director of capital construction. And you are again forced to contact the director.

The principle of the first head says: when organizing the implementation of an important production task, control over the progress of work should be left to the first head of the enterprise, since only the first person has the right and opportunity to decide or entrust the solution of any issue that arises during the implementation of this event. Since the main goal of introducing most of the most important measures is to increase the efficiency of the socio-economic functioning of the enterprise, such work should be managed not by a specialist in a particular area (for example, an automated control system developer), but only by a specialist who can cover the entire problem facing an enterprise as a whole, deeply aware of the goals and objectives, bottlenecks in its work, i.e. first leader.

Most often, this principle is applied in the development of an automated control system of an enterprise, and this is always associated with solving legal and organizational issues: changing the management structure, introducing new functional duties employees of the administrative apparatus and production personnel, etc. The solution of all these issues is the prerogative of only the first head of the enterprise. The development and implementation of automated control systems, as a rule, are carried out not on the initiative of the director of the enterprise, but on the basis of the decision of higher organizations. And today, after the transition of enterprises and firms to work in conditions market relations, one should not flatter oneself that the head of the branch of the company will initiate the introduction of means and methods of computer processing of information. In this case, automation efficiency decreases, since ACS specialists do not have sufficient rights to oblige the enterprise services to switch to a new control technology, and the development of an ACS project without the participation of the head of the enterprise is doomed to significant gaps and shortcomings.

The creation of new management technologies requires a set of preparatory work, the participation of the first manager in which is necessary: ​​to solve the issues of financing, redistribute the rights and obligations of performers, involve specialists from other related organizations in the work. Special mention should be made of the following preparations:

• conducting training and advanced training of employees of the enterprise;
• organizing the exchange of experience and business trips of specialists to those related enterprises where automation works are developing most successfully;
• conducting conversations and seminars between the developers of the new system and the leading specialists of the enterprise.

An analysis of the disruption in the implementation of many important programs and serious tasks shows that one of the reasons for such disruptions is the non-observance of this management principle.

8.9. The principle of one-time entry of information

In the activity of the manager, information, its efficiency and reliability, plays a decisive role, since it is the subject, means and product of managerial work. Once entered into the computer's memory, information can be repeatedly used to solve a whole range of information-related tasks - this is the essence of this important control principle. This method of accumulating production, economic, personnel and regulatory information is the basis for creating databases and data banks, an indispensable tool for obtaining objective and reliable data on the progress of the technological process for the manager and all structural divisions of the enterprise. Recall that a database is a collection of information stored in computer storage devices, and a data bank is a more powerful information storage system - a functionally organized information support for a group of users or a set of tasks solved in the system. The creation of an autonomous data bank makes it possible to separate information from application programs, facilitate access to it by various categories of users, and store information more reliably.

Another important consequence of the implementation of the principle of one-time input of information and the creation of banks and databases on its basis is the possibility of direct access by the end user to the stored information without any intermediary. The developed dialog procedures operate on the basis of ultra-high-level algorithmic languages, but (despite the frightening name) mastering these languages ​​is a matter of several hours or days. Working in an interactive mode with the data bank, specialists and employees of the management apparatus can independently solve problems and get away from the traditional dependence on programmers, who have long felt themselves to be the management elite. Databases and data banks are always created with a certain degree of redundancy, i.e., the dynamism and continuous development of the system as a whole are taken into account, which necessarily leads to an increase in the volume of processed information and the emergence of new types of management tasks.

In industrialized countries, already in the 80s, public data banks were created, which became possible due to the development of integrated communication systems and the mass introduction of computer technology. Any information, no matter how remote, has become available to an ordinary user, and access to a public data bank can also be made from a home computer. All this contributed to the development of small business, scientific and cultural services. At the same time, marketing has developed rapidly. information services and developed an economic space for high-yield investment in this area. The development of information support is visually illustrated by the following data:

As you can see, our lag behind the advanced countries in information support continues to grow rapidly and threatens to become irreversible. In this case, Russia may turn into an information colony and will never be able to provide your population with a modern standard of living, culture, education and well-being, even with the help and assistance of highly developed countries.

The actual application of the principle of one-time input of information enables managers at all levels to use large amounts of reliable and up-to-date information in their work. For example, a manager of a firm or a supermarket can easily receive daily, weekly, monthly and annual information with a cumulative total on the price of each of a large range of goods, on the quantity of goods sold and on stock balances, on operating expenses and profits, etc. Part of this information is entered into the database automatically, with the help of warehouse or shop production recorders, and in stores - with the help of a device that reads information about the product recorded on the packaging. "Individual managers can now make decisions based on information prepared within their companies without access to third-party databases. Internal databases allow a manager to get information about his business, markets, competition, prices and forecasts in a few hours, and when "It took him months of work. With this new automation, decision-making that used to be the prerogative of top management is now outsourced to on-site managers who are now better informed." data and implementation of the principle of one - time input of information . It is only important to maintain the exact targeting of the information provided, i.e. protect the user from redundant information and, when changing the structure of the enterprise, transfer information to the subscriber who needs them.

The principle of one-time input of information is the basis of one of the promising areas of modern management - information management. The most important function information management is the management of data banks, ensuring the creation of a clear organizational structure that allows timely issuance of reliable information in a form that would facilitate the decision-making process. The information entered into the memory of the data bank ensures the integration of information technology tools that determine the efficiency of the enterprise.

Information management is currently used by most of the world's leading scientific and industrial corporations, although in 1985 in Germany only 5% of enterprises used this method of managing data banks. The costs of innovative scientific research, the introduction of new tasks and technologies, modern software products are very high. According to the American magazine "Datamation", the costs for these purposes of leading computer firms are:

	Expenses for the introduction of new scientific developments
	% from income	million dollars
Computer Associates

8.10. The principle of new tasks

Application modern systems mathematical programming and technical means of information processing makes it possible to solve and accumulate fundamentally new production and scientific problems. It is unwise to create automated systems only based on traditional production management methods and existing technologies. The use of modern computer technology and a powerful set of software tools makes it possible to create new methods of planning and management, new information technologies that could not be applied in traditional systems due to the impossibility of processing a large amount of information in a strict time frame.

The industry and state funds of algorithms and programs contain almost the entire range of tasks for the technical preparation of production, technical and economic planning, operational management, accounting, financial management, marketing and sales of products, quality control, personnel accounting, performance control, etc. d. An experienced manager in every possible way contributes to the introduction into production practice of this large complex of tasks that have been debugged and tested on real arrays of information, which allows you to quickly process and receive any objective, reliable information and free performers from routine, humiliating manual labor. An example of the implementation of this management principle in production, construction and in the apparatus of various public services can be fundamentally new sets of tasks, the implementation of which became possible only when using high-speed computers with a large amount of RAM: an automated information system on the progress of the construction of critical facilities (AIS), concrete and mortar transportation management system (SUPER), an operational system for recording the daily implementation of the production plan, automated system control over the execution of the most important documents (ASKID, the modern version - organizer) and a number of other highly efficient systems cope with tasks that were completely impossible to solve with traditional methods of information processing.

Most fundamentally new tasks have a complex organizational and technological model and are difficult to formalize. The methods available to the theory of algorithms and programs cannot always describe multivariate situations that arise in the control process. Currently, searches are underway in the field of creating such models that would describe the analyzed situation as fully as possible and would reflect the experience of one or several highly qualified specialists in solving the problem that has arisen. Systems operating on the basis of such models are called expert systems and are increasingly used in solving new problems in various fields of science and technology, including management. The high interest in expert systems is explained by the fact that it is not necessary to involve large specialists to solve complex new situational problems; these tasks can be solved by ordinary employees who own computer technology.

However, the introduction of the principle of new tasks constantly encounters noticeable resistance during implementation. The leader must be prepared for this negative reaction to innovations and understand its causes: fear of a reduction in the working day, and consequently, earnings, and even loss of a job; danger of decline social status and the fact that new norms and requirements for the intensification of labor will arise. The most justified reason for resistance to any innovations is the fear of unemployment, which has become a real part of our everyday life in recent years. There are other, more personal reasons: criticism and rejection traditional methods work can be perceived as a personal insult, fears of narrow specialization and monotony of new working conditions, misunderstanding of the essence and consequences of innovations, and, finally, the main thing - fear of depreciation, devaluation of one's personality, its social significance. Again, it is appropriate to recall that management is not only a science, but also a great art. When the management of an enterprise is carried out only on the basis of rational, scientifically based, but traditional methods, this poses a threat to development and there is a possibility of losing the most talented, extraordinary thinking specialists who are able to put forward and solve fundamentally new tasks.

The propensity for unconventional methods, the search for new ways of solving problems and the risk of introducing the latest technologies can be shown not only by individual bright personalities, but also by entire enterprises led by courageous leaders. At the beginning of the 20th century, even a special name for such enterprising firms appeared - grunders. Today, the strategy of boldly investing in the latest high technologies and in the search for unconventional solutions to new problems is called venture capital. Usually venture enterprises are created by scientists, inventors, who put forward new ideas or original technologies ("know-how"). There are many examples of such “Gründerstvo” in world practice, it is enough to recall the Apple company, which created the first personal computers, the conveyor technology for the production of cars by G. Ford, the design bureau of S.P. Queen, who created the world's first satellite and spacecraft. In a competitive struggle, and in any life situations, the one who is able to make unpredictable, sometimes outwardly illogical decisions on emerging problems has a chance of success. Don't try to be too rational all the time!

It should be emphasized again that the successful implementation of the principle of new tasks largely depends on the results of scientific research and the effective use of the latest information processing tools. A few optimistic, encouraging notes can be added to the requiem for domestic developments of new computer technology: there have been reports of a sensational breakthrough by scientists from the Modul research center in the field of creating a high-performance microprocessor.

The ultra-fast microprocessor based on the "neuromatrix" NM 6403 created by this scientific and technical center allows performing massive parallel computing, has the ability to learn and generalize, adaptability and resistance to inaccurate training information. In terms of performance (and low cost!) the Russian microprocessor surpasses all known world analogues. And specialists from the Elbrus group under the leadership of Academician B. Babayan are ready to present to the public the E 2 k processor built on the Very Large Instruction Word technology, which, thanks to cross-platform compatibility and predicted performance, surpasses not only Intel Merced, but also McKinley in several times, it may well compete with these processors in a couple of years. There would be money for implementation, and Russia has always been rich in ideas ...

8.11. The principle of advanced training

Matsushita first produces qualified people, but then products.

The basic principle of the company "Matsushita"

A characteristic feature of any society striving for prosperity is increased attention to the education system - from primary to advanced training of graduates. Germany, for example, by decree of Frederick the Great, introduced compulsory primary education as early as the 16th century, by the end of the 19th century. 97.5% of German children received a school education. By 1925, 99.4% of Japanese children attended school, and in 1927, 93% of Japanese could read. Let's be objective - the successes of the public education system of the USSR were also very significant, although the centralized distribution of graduates of institutes, who could not be refused employment, created many difficulties and conflicts.

But the implementation of the principle of mandatory advanced training has traditionally met with resistance at all levels of management: employees of the lower hierarchical levels refuse any form of study and advanced training (“Why do I need this? have known for a long time. Once upon a time, even before perestroika, if managers were required to send an employee to study without fail, then they usually sent the weakest, unnecessary employee to the enterprise. There were even "full-time upgrade specialists" who took courses 7-10 times, but, alas, they remained ordinary engineers of the technical department or the equipment service ...

However, numerous studies show that after graduating from a university, on average, about 20% of knowledge is lost every year, scientific and technological progress dooms most specialists to lag behind in the main areas of their professional knowledge. It is recommended to improve the knowledge of specialists in the field of mechanical engineering every 5.2 years, in the chemical industry - every 4.8, in metallurgy - every 3.9, and in the business sector - every 2 years. From 1990 to 1994, the number of students in the system of advanced training and retraining of managers decreased by almost four times: in 1990, 4836.1 thousand people studied, in 1991 - 2169.4 thousand, in 1993 - 1380 thousand, in 1994 - 1773 thousand. The number of students increased slightly from 1995 to 1998, but still did not reach the 1990 level. The Institute of Economics of the Russian Academy of Sciences believes that it is urgent to provide support for the system of advanced training of specialists at the expense of budgetary funds, as well as by attracting extrabudgetary financial sources.

So, this management principle urgently requires the mandatory advanced training of all employees involved in manufacturing process, regardless of position. The market economy of modern Russia makes more serious demands on the advanced training of enterprise managers than under socialist planned economic management. First of all, this applies to those who make strategic management decisions, who are responsible for the development of the enterprise, for the constant updating of products and the implementation of new technological and organizational solutions. The process of human learning is not as simple as it seems to many uninitiated. Human learning begins at birth and continues throughout life, but the intensity of perception, so amazing in infancy, decreases with age, and during the period of intellectual and physical flowering of the individual, the ability to learn is significantly reduced. This seemingly strange fact is confirmed by many studies of educators, psychologists and sociologists (Fig. 24).

perception, skills

Age, years

Rice. 24. The speed of perception of knowledge and the relative assimilation of skills depending on age (perception, skills)

As can be seen, the ability to perceive new information, including in the system of advanced training, decreases with age. However, with the current pace of development of the leading branches of knowledge, and especially the theory and practice of management, each specialist needs to improve his professional training. After all, he did not consider it shameful for himself great commander A. V. Suvorov at the age of 60 to pass the exam for a midshipman!

The experience of the largest firms in Europe, America, and Japan shows how persistently they are pursuing a policy of total advanced training and retraining of personnel. Thousands of institutes, colleges, permanent seminars and courses conduct training for personnel of any level, and enterprises spend large amounts of money on these activities, because they see this as a guarantee for the development of their production. For example, in the United States, about 1,500 higher educational institutions are engaged in the training of professional managers, IBM spent 750 million dollars on education and training of its employees in 1986, and in total in 1985 in the United States 60 million were spent on all forms of management training. billion dollars. The annual budget of the University of Maryland in the USA is more than 1 billion dollars, and Moscow State University - about 10 billion rubles! Japanese firms spend 3-4 times more on training per employee than American firms. In general, the share of spending on education as a percentage of national income in Russia is approximately 2%, in the USA - 12.2%, in Germany - 12.1% (data from the magazine "Personnel Management" No. 1, 1997). Think about these numbers!

But there is a more rigorous view of the problems of staff training. The leaders of the consulting company "Deka" believe that "the qualities that cannot be developed in your staff by training, as a rule, can be acquired by hiring new employees with these qualities." Comparing advanced training programs in various foreign firms and. special institutes, one can see that the history of the enterprise, its principles, strategy are necessarily studied, and significant time is necessarily allocated to study the theory and methods of practical application of the art of management. This circumstance once again confirms the importance and relevance of the issues discussed in this book.

Another method of training is job rotation, when specialists of various profiles are moved for a period of three months to a year from department to department. Rotation makes it possible to acquaint employees of the company with many aspects of the enterprise's activities, to understand the need for coordination and interconnection of departments. The need for rotation and constant improvement of one's professional skills is explained by the peculiarities of the human psyche. Entering a job, a person is usually full of ambitious hopes, optimism, new work and a new team stimulate initiative. These hopes do not always come true, and after a period of disappointment, frustration, the employee settles into a new workplace and begins to competently understand the tasks facing him. The next stages are the acquisition of strong skills, mastery and - a new wave of dissatisfaction with oneself, one's place in the team, a person feels the need for further creative development and material stimulation of his work (these stages are clearly visible in Fig. 25).

An experienced manager who is interested in the professional development of employees should sensitively catch the period of a decline in a person’s business activity, help him overcome disappointment when the desired and the actual do not match, as well as when he loses professional interest in the already mastered area of ​​work. It is necessary to transfer, rotate an employee to a new job site or send him to advanced training. It is not necessary to improve the level of your knowledge in academies and special institutes. It is possible, and it is much cheaper, to do this within the walls of your own enterprise, because we used to practice days of technical study before. IN Everyday life such learning goes on incessantly: a new employee has started working, someone has been transferred to another department, someone has been promoted - all of them need to be prepared for new working conditions.

Rice. 25. Stages of business activity of an employee

The leader and specialist responsible for training will face many difficulties along the way, because not everyone has pedagogical abilities, they do not always have the necessary methods, and, as always, it is a pity to spend time on training - the old views on advanced training are very tenacious in us. Summarizing the experience of in-house training allows us to determine the most typical pedagogical errors:

• new technologies, production methods, economic or managerial rules and regulations being studied usually seem clear and simple to specialists. Listeners, shy before authority and afraid of appearing incompetent, are embarrassed to ask again, to ask additional, sometimes really naive questions. It is necessary to show patience and more often apply one simple pedagogical technique: it is better to state a complex topic twice, once - exciting, interesting, maybe even simplifying, vulgarizing the problem, and the second time - academically strictly, clearly and competently;
• abundance of new material. The teacher, to whom, of course, everything is clear, sometimes cannot appreciate the novelty and volume of the flow of information unexpected for the listeners and is sincerely surprised by the poor initial preparation of students. "How come you don't know that? What were you taught before?" The teacher is obliged to obtain information in advance about the level of knowledge of the students, be prepared for the heterogeneity of their preparation and more often give students the opportunity to take a break from mastering complex material with the help of a friendly joke, analysis of some production incident, and involve students in a casual discussion;
• boredom, despondency: "I do not understand anything and, of course, I will not understand anything." The teacher can, for example, read the job description aloud. Everything is written there correctly, clearly, and if the listeners do not understand anything - this is their problem, I'm smart, I know all this. No, such a mentor is not smart, and listeners will very quickly give him their impartial verdict. Not every specialist is also a good teacher, it is necessary to carefully select the candidates for teachers (the principle of compliance!).

A curious feature distinguishes modern students of large Russian advanced training institutes, academies and business schools: with undoubted abilities, energy, assertiveness, many students are not oriented in the very technology of education, they are not ready to work seriously and hard and hope to receive quickly and immediately ready-made recipes that will make their management professionals. The director of the School of International Business at the Institute of International Relations A. Manukovsky spoke well about this combination of ambition and intellectual infantilism of some listeners: "As for the people who come to us, as a rule, they are talented, with a great desire to do something, with energy, but also with an absolute lack of basic skills. These are people who do not know how to study. They have snobbery, they are already bosses. They are not ready to "throw off" their ambition and immerse themselves in studies. They believe that if they paid for their studies, then someone then he should put a pill in their mouth, from which they will immediately become entrepreneurs. And indeed, one has to constantly, tactfully, but persistently from the very first lectures teach to learn, only then can one be sure of the successful results of the joint work of teachers and students. It is necessary to teach not only the basics of the management profession, but also the methods of the art of influencing opponents, including oratory. With great benefit to the listeners and with their most active participation, it is reasonable to give the floor to one of them for an impromptu speech on a certain topic, followed by a reasoned analysis of this oratorical "masterpiece" (believe me, the field for criticism will be very wide!). It is important to demonstrate the effectiveness of such oratory techniques as the unexpectedness of information, dramatization and clarity, expression and, of course, humor. Recent advances in information technology open up new opportunities for solving problems of advanced training. Very interesting prospects open up when using the ideas of a television university for the system of individual education - with the help of television networks, industrial firms and individual listeners have the opportunity to access powerful educational centers at any distance and at a convenient time for them. The use of personal training programs, the possibility of interactive contacts with specialists and experts of the highest level will undoubtedly improve the quality of training in the advanced training system (in 1998, a television academy was created within the structure of the Academy of National Economy under the Government of the Russian Federation).

8.12. The principle of "fitter Mechnikov"

Money first, then chairs.

I. Ilf, E. Petrov
"The twelve Chairs"

The Russian entrepreneur has entered the harsh world of international business, and the most unexpected dangers lie in wait for him on this insidious "warpath". First of all, of course, he is characterized by a complete disregard for the laws and rules of market relations, an amateurish hope for the Russian "maybe". Further, ignorance of foreign languages, legal illiteracy, inability to conduct business negotiations, draw up agreements and contracts lie in wait for him.

Here are some characteristic negative points noted by Western businessmen in cooperation with Russians: the length of negotiations; the lack of the necessary powers of Russian representatives, especially government agencies; inability to name realistic prices (as a result of poor knowledge of market conditions); non-obligation during negotiations (non-attendance at meetings, slow response to letters and faxes); a tendency to keep excessively detailed protocols with details of each item (and after all, a protocol is not a contract yet!); poor knowledge of marketing principles and market laws. And amazing, sweet credulity - but how, yes, we drank martinis with him, we even kissed goodbye!

Here is a real-life example: a Moscow production and commercial company headed by an intelligent, educated, but, alas, very gullible physicist agreed with a charming American businessman from "former Russians" to supply America with a solid batch of optical instruments. We decided not to draw up a contract, since there are many common acquaintances, they drank, however, not martinis, but Russian vodka and "how can you not trust people ...". The embarrassing result is clear - the Russian company lost several thousand dollars. “Then the archivist asked very quietly: “And the money?” “Hush, fool,” Ostap said menacingly, “they tell you in Russian - tomorrow, then tomorrow.” Of course, not all foreign businessmen are as brazenly straightforward as Ostap Bender, but The world of business is indeed a harsh one, and it would be naive to count only on philanthropists.

Ostap Bender's partner in the deal with chairs fitter Mechnikov - "a man tormented by narzan", from the popular novel by I. Ilf and E. Petrov "The Twelve Chairs" - gave the name to another wise advice from the field of management art. This principle, formulated in the episode given in the epigraph, allowed the partners to reach an agreement as a "product of non-resistance of the parties."

The Mechnikov fitter principle states that any managerial decision must be documented (including, if necessary, financial documents) or financially. You cannot sign an order to pay a bonus if the manager is not convinced that there is a bonus fund; you cannot hire a new employee until a vacancy has been created; it is impossible to deliver goods without advance payment or open a joint business without a commodity credit. First - money, then - chairs!

The Mechnikov fitter principle, or rather its inversion, has another area of ​​application that puts this principle in one of the most important places in management problems in modern Russia - payment for work based on final results. Work requires remuneration, and only what is rewarded is done. The problem of wages is more complex than a simple comparison of the advantages and disadvantages of time or piecework wages.

In Soviet times, remuneration was usually carried out for the time worked, and not for the final result of the employee's work and the results of the enterprise as a whole. Everyone was sure that at the end of the month he would receive a precisely calculated amount of money, regardless of how a person worked and what overall result team activities. Here, the method of "carrot and stick" was no longer in effect, but only the "stick" (reprimand, demotion, dismissal), since there was no "carrot", except for commendable or honorary letters and awards at the end of the year, which usually were also guaranteed.

Recall a familiar scene: repair workers in bright orange jackets are sitting on the side of the road, waiting for the asphalt mix to be brought. They are not in a hurry, they are calm, because they will be paid for the working day, and not for the result of the work - road repair. And the driver of the car is not in a hurry: he will make the normative number of walkers - and he will get his own. And in the store there was the same picture: whether the seller served the buyer well or "barked" him, whether he sold a lot of goods, little - he does not care, his salary is precisely fixed and does not depend on the results and quality of work.

Today, the vast majority of business leaders live only for today, do not care about the future and the strategic development of their company, and are reluctant to spend resources on technical re-equipment and advanced training of specialists. Middle managers also have no material interest in order to obtain the required result with a smaller number of performers and in the shortest possible time. But the remuneration of employees of Japanese companies by more than 30% depends on the final profit of the company! A variant of the Mechnikov fitter principle in this case is formulated as follows: "If as a result of your work a profit is made, you will receive money." This principle is very categorically supported by the well-known American manager Jack Stack, protesting against the "pay me today, I'll work it out later" method. This is what causes the death of most companies, because so many people think so, from the head to the simple worker. You should take the opposite position - "make money first". We will deliberately not dwell on other "management principles (document flow unification, feedback, etc.), since their significance in the science and art of management is not so significant.

Questions for self-examination:

1. The concept of management principles, their objectivity and universality.
2. Particular relevance of the principle of legal protection of management decisions in the context of the transition of the Russian economy to market relations.
3. Centralization and decentralization; principle of control optimization.
4. On what factors does the rate of control depend?
5. Features and scope of the principle of delegation of authority.
6. What management principles do you consider to be especially relevant in the conditions of organizing production in modern Russia?

In the USSR, individual departments had data banks in their field of activity, but they were not publicly available.

1: At the microeconomic level, the question is solved:

- what to produce and how much

- how to get rid of inflation

- how to achieve full employment

- how to stimulate economic growth

2.: The market economy is determined

-: isolation, limited by the framework of the economy

-: universality and universality of commodity relations

-: economic orientation, regulated by the full will of the state

-: the presence of farms based on a collective form of ownership

3.: Public goods differ from private goods in that they are ###.

-: divisible;

-: are in individual use;

-: are divisible and are in individual use;

-: indivisible and not in individual use;

-: divisible and not in individual use.

4: Subsistence farming is...:

-: production of natural natural products for humans

- an economy where only manual labor is used

- a farm where everything is created for sale

-: an economy where everything is produced for personal consumption and there is no commodity exchange

5: Economic ### reflect the essence of economic phenomena, their causal relationships.

-: organizations

6: Economic laws that operate within the same socio-economic system are called ###.

- specific

-: universal

-: private

7: The method of cognition, which involves the division of the whole into separate constituent parts, is called ###.

- deduction

-: induction

- analysis

- synthesis

- analogy

8: First introduced the term political economy ###.

-: J.M. Keynes

-: A. Marshall

-: A. Montchretien

9: Problems of what, how and for whom to produce are relevant

-: only to societies with central planning

-: only to a market economy

-: only to third countries

- to any society.

10: The continuous process of social production is called ###.

- reproduction

- economic growth

- industrialization

-: nationalization

General and functional management

1. The main goal of management as an activity is ...

- : wealth creation

- : creation of a surplus product

- : creating conditions for the successful achievement of the goals of the organization

- : generating ideas that bring material benefits, profit

2. The fundamental rules of behavior for managers in the implementation of managerial actions are ...

- : managerial functions

- : methods of behavior

- : principles of management

- : management tools

3. The principle of unity of command assumes that ...

- : employees of the organization should report only to its leader

- : the employee must have only one immediate supervisor and only receive orders from him

- : a top-ranking manager cannot give orders to employees, bypassing their immediate superior

- : the organization should have as few leaders as possible

4. The principle of universality of control formulated ...

- : Alexander the Great

- : Socrates

- : Cato the Elder

- : Nicollo Machiavelli

- : Plato

5. First formulated the principles of rational management ...

- : G. Emerson

- : J. Babbage

- : K. Marx

6. Management principles formulated by A. Fayol…

- : simple

- : complex

- : flexible

- : universal

- : obsolete

7. The strategic advantage of any organization can provide ...

- : adherence to traditions, observance of established rules

- : management aimed at extracting profit from any situation

- : creating conditions for prompt response to all threats and opportunities

- : application of modern production technologies

8. Management practice emerged:

- : along with the creation of the "School of Scientific Management"

- : in the twentieth century

- : in connection with the industrial revolution in England in the XVIII century

- : together with the unification of the first people into stable groups, for example, into tribes

- : with the emergence of a systematic approach

10. The ruler of the ancient world, who developed and put into practice a set of laws governing the state for regulation, is ...

- : Socrates

- : Plato

- : Hammurabi

- : Nebuchadnezzar II

- : Diocletian

Annex 2

List of open questions

Objectivity and universality of management principles. The science of management is based on a system of basic provisions and principles that are unique to it. Its main tasks are the study and practical application of the principles of development of the entire set of managerial relations and various forms of their manifestation in setting goals, developing plans, creating economic and organizational conditions for the effective operation of labor collectives. The study and mastery of these regularities are a necessary condition for improving the management of public and private production, improving the economic infrastructure and raising the national economy of the country.

The behavior of one of the main and most complex subjects of management - a person - is also based on certain principles, internal beliefs that determine his attitude to reality, on the norms of morality and morality. Management principles are objective, i.e. do not depend on the will and desires of individuals, although any truth is known through the most complex system of subject-object relations, and this is the main difficulty in managing society and an individual. These principles cannot be considered an absolute truth, but only a tool that allows only to suggest to the manager how it is more reasonable to influence the controlled system, and what kind of reaction should probably be expected on the control action. Even the most experienced leader, who is fluent in management theory, is not immune from an unreasonable, emotional reaction to a situation. It is always easier to understand and uphold principles than to live by them.

Control principles are universal, i.e., they are applicable for influencing a person and for optimal management of any society: official (industrial, official, civil, public) or unofficial (family, friendly, domestic).

Social objects of management are the most complex and responsible. Although the natural basis of the personality is its genetic, biological characteristics (a person is formed by about 15% depending on the factors of heredity and 85% - from his environment), nevertheless, the determining factors are its social properties: views, needs, abilities, interests, morale. -ethical beliefs, etc. The social structure of the individual is formed in the sphere of production, social activity, as well as in the sphere of family and life. The social activity of the individual is largely determined by the family way of life, the moral climate of the family. The family is at the origin of the formation of personality, family harmony is one of the most important components of human happiness, and happy parents raise kind, mentally healthy children.

A particularly complex object of management is a team, that is, a group of people united on the basis of common tasks, joint actions, constant contacts. The intellectual, cultural and moral potential of the members of the team is so different that it is difficult to predict the reaction of each individual to the control action. How to maintain friendly, cordial relations in the family, how to establish and maintain mutual understanding with your colleague, how to influence the team in order to achieve the fulfillment of tasks without conflicts and stress? Management principles as the foundation of the most complex of the arts - the art of management do not claim to be a panacea for all occasions, but in all cases they will not leave a person without reasonable recommendations thought out by professional experts.

The principles of management determine the patterns of formation of a controlled system: its structures, methods of influencing the team, form the motivation of the behavior of its members, take into account the features of the technology and technical equipment of managerial work. The art of management cannot be based only on intuition, the talent of a leader. This art is based on a solid theoretical base accumulated over thousands of years by human civilization - on the principles and laws of control. Let's take a look at the most important of these principles.

1. Principle of Purpose: Every action must have a clear and definite purpose.. It extends to all types of human activity, from state and industrial management to the tactics of individual behavior at the household and interpersonal levels. Without knowing the goal and the results that can be expected when it is achieved, any action, any act is doomed to failure or can cause a serious conflict ( see question 24).

Management methods are implemented in accordance with certain principles.

Science combined with elements of art

Purposefulness

functional specialization

Versatility

Sequences

Continuity

The optimal combination of centralized regulation and self-government

Accounting individual characteristics and psychology of workers

Patterns of interpersonal relationships and group behavior

Ensuring the unity of law and responsibility in each link of the management process

Competitiveness of management participants

The widest possible involvement of performers in the process of preparing decisions

Consider these principles.

The main thing in management is the principle of science combined with elements of art . Management uses the information of many sciences, which is caused by the complexity and diversity of solving the problems of modern economic practice. At the same time, situations in the external environment and the internal environment of the organization change and can change so rapidly that there is no time to search for a scientifically based solution to the problem. Then success depends on the art, the skill of the leader. Mastery is determined by intelligence, knowledge, experience and talent.

The principle of purposefulness means that management as a process should be focused on solving specific problems of the organization.

essence principles of functional specialization and universality is that any management object requires an individual approach that corresponds to the direction and features of the functioning of the management object. At the same time, the actions of management are aimed at leading people. Therefore, in management there must be universal, something common for managing people.

Management is based on sequence principle . The leader's actions must follow one after the other and be logically justified. For example, it is unacceptable for management to first make a decision and then evaluate and comprehend the situation. The sequence in management can be cyclical, when actions in a certain sequence are repeated after a certain time.

Continuity principle management means the continuity of business management. This allows timely detection and resolution of emerging problems, ensuring the stable development and functioning of the organization.

In turn, the stable development and functioning of the organization requires the implementation the principle of optimal combination of centralized regulation and self-government individual elements of the organization.

Management is impossible without compliance the principle of taking into account individual characteristics and psychology of personnel , patterns of interpersonal relationships and group behavior, tk. management is done by people. This approach ensures a normal moral and psychological climate in the organization's team. Decisions in this case are developed by balanced and accepted by employees for execution.

The principle of ensuring the unity of rights and responsibilities in each link of the organization's management is necessary for the normal flow of the management process. An excess of rights in management, in comparison with responsibility, leads to the autocracy of leaders, their self-will, arbitrariness. The lack of rights paralyzes business activity and the initiative of managers.

The principle of competitiveness of management participants carried out on the basis of personal interest. Personal interest is supported with the help of material and moral rewards, acquisition of new knowledge and practical skills.

Modern management cannot be most effective without following the principle of the widest possible involvement of performers in the process of preparing decisions at all stages. The decisions made later, in the development of which the work and ideas of the performers are invested, are implemented with greater interest and activity than the teams of superiors.

The outlined general methodological principles of management show their significance in the matter of leadership.

On the basis of laws, a secular style of management was introduced, control and responsibility for the performance of work were strengthened. Therefore, the second managerial revolution is considered secular-administrative. The third management revolution is known as the production and construction revolution, because it was aimed at combining state management methods with control over activities in the field of production and construction. It happened during the time of Nebuchadnezzar II (605-562 BC).
From the ancient Indian treatise Arthamastra, published in the 4th-3rd centuries. BC e., it is clear that such sciences as philosophy, the doctrine of the economy and the doctrine of public administration were developed. In Sanskrit, the art of management is called "dan-daniti", literally translated "guidelines for owning a stick" (in Sanskrit, a stick is danda). For ancient organizations it was characteristic:
a relatively small number of managers, the virtual absence of middle managers;
managerial work was often not distinguished and separated from non-management activities;
positions in the leadership of the organization were most often occupied by birthright or by force;
few large organizations.
The ancient Romans also give numerous examples effective management. The most famous of these is the reorganization of his empire by Emperor Diocletian. Upon ascending the throne in 284 BC, Diocletian soon realized that his empire had become unruly. Too many people and important issues the emperor had to deal with personally. Rejecting a structure in which all provincial governors reported directly to him, Diocletian established more empire levels. Governors have further complicated this structure. As a result, the emperor was able to manage the vast empire more effectively. Principles have also been developed administration. Emperor Diocletian divided the empire into 101 provinces, all of them were reduced to 12 dioceses, and those, in turn, into 4 geographical regions. Diocletian and his three assistants headed these regions. Assistants had certain powers and rights in solving civil cases, but military
power was strictly centralized. The change in the management structure made it possible to strengthen the power of the Roman Empire.
The Roman Catholic Church made extensive use of job descriptions for priests, bishops, presbyters, and other clergy. The duties of each of them were clearly defined, and a chain of orders was created from the pope to the laity.
Compulsory staff service was introduced - some members of the church hierarchy received advice from other members of the hierarchy before making certain decisions.
Staff independence was introduced, ie. attaching certain advisers to key church officials. They could not be dismissed by a judge of the church court, this gave them independence of judgment, without fear of punishment from the highest ranks of the hierarchy.
Cato the Elder (234-149 BC) wrote about the need to plan farm work for the whole year ahead. He spoke about the obligatory control over the work done, about the need to compare the program and results, about finding out the reasons for not fulfilling the plan, about the rational organization of work.
During the construction of the Chinese Wall (since 200 BC), calculating sticks were used, containing data on labor productivity, for example, for firing bricks and delivering grain.
The principle of universal control was formulated by Socrates 400 BC. Socrates gives an understanding of management as a special sphere of human activity. He said that the main thing in management is to put the right person in the right place and achieve the fulfillment of the tasks assigned to him. The current position has essentially not changed. His contemporary, the Persian king Cyrus, put forward the idea of ​​the need to find out the reasons that induce people to act, as we now say, motivation.
Philosophers of antiquity believed that the cause of the plight of society, as a rule, is the lack of proper management or violation of seniority between people.
Plato, for example, considered management as the science of the general nutrition of people and argued that management activities are an important element of the life support system of society. Wise government, he believed, should be based on universal and reasonable laws, but these laws themselves are too abstract and dogmatic to be based on them. correct solution in each specific situation. The king (politician) is a kind of shepherd who cares for and oversees the human flock. At the same time, Plato distinguished two types of care: 1) based on force (tyrannical view) and 2) soft (political view). Plato formulated the principle of specialization.
Another great thinker - Aristotle - laid the foundations of the doctrine of the household (a prototype of modern political economy), in which he pointed out the need to develop a "master's science" that teaches slave owners the skills of handling slaves, the art of managing them. However, Aristotle notes, this is a rather troublesome business, and therefore for those who have the opportunity to avoid such troubles, the manager takes on this responsibility, while they themselves are engaged in politics or philosophy.