The first source of philosophical wisdom in ancient India. Philosophy of Ancient India: Basic Philosophical Ideas and Schools

Philosophy of ancient India: karma, Vedas, basic ideas and features of the philosophy of ancient India.

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The main idea of ​​the philosophy of ancient India is that the living is one, closely connected with each other, can flow, change forms and transform.

Souls can move into different shells in accordance with the accumulated karma. Karma is a kind of heavenly bookkeeping: all thoughts and actions of a person for the many lives that he lives on earth are debit or credit. At the end of life, a balance is drawn: if karma comes out with a minus sign, a person can lose his high social status, or even be reborn as an animal or plant; if karma is obtained with a plus sign, a person has the opportunity to be born in the next life, for example, in a family belonging to a higher caste.

Remember how Vysotsky sang:

“Let you live as a janitor - you will be born again as a foreman.

And after that you will grow from a foreman to a minister.
But if dumb as a tree, you will be born a baobab

And you will be a baobab for a thousand years until you die. "

The better karma a person has, the more chances he has at one fine moment to jump off the everyday carousel of constant deaths and births - samsara and receive moksha (in the Buddhist tradition it is called nirvana), that is, enlightenment and bliss. To increase one's chances of enlightenment, one must follow the dharma - or the path of piety.

The main philosophical texts of the ancient Hindus of the Vedas are written in Sanskrit - a mystical language in which the universe speaks to a person. The Vedas were created in the 15th century BC (the word Veda itself, translated from Sanskrit, means to know, to know). One part of the Sruti Vedas is the transcripts of revelations, a shorthand for cosmic truths, which is available only to initiates. Another part of the Vedas - smritis - adapted texts for less gifted people - women, workers and representatives of the lower castes (the Indian sagas Ramayana and Mahabharata belong to smritis).

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Philosophy Ancient India- briefly, the most important thing. This is another topic from a series of publications. on the basics of philosophy... In the previous article, we covered. As already mentioned, the science of philosophy arose simultaneously in different parts of the world - in Ancient Greece and in Ancient India and China in about 7-6 centuries. BC. Often the philosophy of Ancient India and Ancient China is considered together, since they are very connected and had a great influence on each other. But still, I propose to consider the history of the philosophy of Ancient China in the next article.

The philosophy of ancient India was based on the texts contained in the Vedas, which were written on the very ancient language- Sanskrit. They consist of several collections written in the form of hymns. The Vedas are believed to have been compiled for thousands of years. The Vedas were used for worship.

The first philosophical texts of India are the Upanishads (end of the 2nd millennium BC). The Upanishads are the interpretation of the Vedas.

Upanishads

In the Upanishads, the main Indian philosophical themes were formed: the idea of ​​an infinite and one God, the doctrine of rebirth and karma. The one God is the incorporeal Brahman. Its manifestation - Atman - is the immortal, inner "I" of the world. The Atman is identical to the human soul. The goal of the human soul (the goal of the individual Atman) is merging with the world Atman (world soul). One who lives in recklessness and impurity will not be able to achieve such a state and will enter the cycle of rebirth according to the cumulative result of his words, thoughts and actions, according to the laws of karma.

The Upanishads are in philosophy ancient Indian treatises of a philosophical and religious nature. The most ancient of them date back to the 8th century BC. The Upanishads reveal main essence Vedas, therefore they are also called "Vedanta".

In them, the Vedas received the greatest development. The idea of ​​connecting everything with everything, the theme of space and man, the search for connections, all this was reflected in them. The basis of all that exists in them is the ineffable Brahman, as the cosmic, impersonal principle and the basis of the whole world. Another central point is the idea of ​​a person's identity with Brahman, about karma as the law of action and about samsara as a circle of suffering that a person needs to overcome.

Philosophical schools (systems) of Ancient India

WITH 6th century BC the time of the classic schools of thought(systems). Distinguish orthodox schools(considered the Vedas to be the only source of Revelation) and unorthodox schools(did not recognize the Vedas as the only authoritative source of knowledge).

Jainism and Buddhism belong to unorthodox schools. Yoga and Samkhya, Vaisesika and Nyaya, Vedanta and Mimamsa Are six orthodox schools. I listed them in pairs because they are pairwise friendly.

Unorthodox schools

Jainism

Jainism is based on the hermitage tradition (6th century BC). The basis of this system is personality and it consists of two principles - material and spiritual. Karma binds them together.

The idea of ​​rebirth of souls and karma led the Jains to the idea that all life on Earth has a soul - plants, animals and insects. Jainism preaches such a life so as not to harm all life on Earth.

Buddhism

Buddhism emerged in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. Its creator is Gautama, a prince from India, who later received the name Buddha, which means the awakened one. He developed the concept of a way to get rid of suffering. This should be the main goal of a person's life who wants to get liberation and go beyond samsara, the cycle of suffering and pain.

To break out of the circle of suffering (to enter nirvana), one must observe 5 commandments (Wikipedia) and practice meditation that calms the mind and makes the mind of a person clearer and more desireless. The extinction of desires leads to liberation and deliverance from the cycle of suffering.

Orthodox schools

Vedanta

Vedanta was one of the most influential schools of Indian philosophy. The exact time of its appearance is not known, approximately - 2 century. BC NS. The completion of the teachings is attributed to the end of the 8th century AD. NS. Vedanta is based on the interpretation of the Upanishads.

In it is the basis of all Brahman, which is one and infinite. The Atman of a person can cognize Brahman and then a person can become free.

Atman is the higher “I”, the absolute, which is aware of its existence. Brahman is the cosmic, impersonal principle of all that exists.

Mimansa

Mimamsa is adjacent to Vedanta and is a system that was involved in explaining the rituals of the Vedas. The core was the idea of ​​duty, which was the offering of sacrifices. The school reached its culmination in the 7th-8th centuries. It had an impact on strengthening the influence of Hinduism in India and reducing the importance of Buddhism.

Sankhya

This is the philosophy of dualism founded by Kapila. There are two principles in the world: prakriti (matter) and purusha (spirit). According to her, the main basis of everything is matter. The goal of Sankhya philosophy is to distract spirit from matter. It was based on human experience and reflection.

Sankhya and Yoga are related. Sankhya is theoretical basis for yoga. Yoga is a practical technique for achieving liberation.

Yoga

Yoga. Practice is at the heart of this system. Only through practical exercises can a person achieve reunification with the divine principle. A lot of such yoga systems have been created, and they are still very famous all over the world. It is she who has become the most popular now in many countries, thanks to the complexes physical exercise, which make it possible to be healthy and not get sick.

Yoga differs from Sankhya in the belief that each person has a supreme personal Deity. With the help of asceticism, meditation, one can free oneself from prakriti (material).

Nyaya

Nyaya was a teaching about different forms thinking about the rules of the discussion. Therefore, its study was obligatory for everyone who was engaged in philosophizing. The problems of being in it were explored through logical comprehension. The main goal of a person in this life is liberation.

Vaisesika

Vaisesika is a cognate school of the nyaya school. According to this system, every thing is constantly changing, although there are elements in nature that are not subject to change - these are atoms. An important topic of the school is to classify the objects under consideration.

Vaisesika is based on the objective cognition of the world. Adequate cognition is the main goal of systematic thinking.

Books on the philosophy of ancient India

From Samkhya to Vedanta. Indian philosophy: darshans, categories, history. Chattopadhyaya D (2003). A professor at the University of Calcutta wrote this book especially for Europeans who are just starting to get acquainted with the philosophy of Ancient India.

Six systems of Indian philosophy. Müller Max (1995). Professor at Oxford University is an outstanding expert on Indian texts, he is the author of the translations of the Upanishads and Buddhist texts. This book is referred to as a fundamental work on the philosophy and religion of India.

An Introduction to Indian Philosophy. Chatterjee S. & Dutta D (1954). The authors present the views of Indian schools of thought in a concise and simple language.

Philosophy of Ancient India - briefly, the most important thing. VIDEO.

Summary

I think the article “ Philosophy of Ancient India - Briefly, Most Important " has become useful to you. You learned:

• about the main sources of the philosophy of Ancient India - the ancient texts of the Vedas and Upanishads;
• about the main classical schools of Indian philosophy - orthodox (yoga, Samkhya, Vaisesika, Nyaya, Vedanta, Mimamsa) and unorthodox (Jainism and Buddhism);
• about the main feature of the philosophy of the Ancient East - about understanding the true purpose of a person and his place in the world (it was considered more important for a person to focus on the inner world than on the external circumstances of life).

I wish everyone always a positive attitude for all your projects and plans!

Since the topic of our article is the philosophy of Ancient India in short, we will only consider the main points of this topic. However, you can fold general idea about the philosophy that was formed in the East and in particular - in India.

The thinkers of ancient India treated the truth as a multifaceted knowledge that cannot be expressed in full, focusing only on certain aspects. That is why they believed that there are many ways to improve, choosing one of which, you can develop your personality and grow spiritually.

Any philosophical system of the East recognized the ultimate goal of man as his development and self-improvement. It is through one's own self-development that the world itself could be improved.

Indian philosophy is conventionally divided into 3 main periods:

1. Vedic (XV-V centuries BC);
2. Classic (V century BC - X century AD);
3. Hindu (from the 10th century AD).

The peculiarity of Indian philosophy is in its continuous and smooth development, without sharp leaps in the views of thinkers and without sharp changes in ideas.

The most ancient texts related to the philosophy of Ancient India are contained in the Vedas, which were written before the 15th century. BC NS. The Vedas are "knowledge", "knowledge".

It was this knowledge that served as the beginning of ancient Indian philosophy, while further literature in its essence was a commentary or a kind of interpretation of Vedic texts.

Vedic literature differs in 4 groups in historical sequence:

1. Samhitas.
2. Brahmanas.
3. Aranyaki.
4. Upanishads.

Considering that the Samhitas are the most ancient texts, it is they that are usually called the Vedas, and the Upanishads are free additions to the original source, but in a broad sense, all 4 groups are called Vedas.

Samhitas are 4 collections of hymns:

• Rig Veda (the oldest of the Vedas, all subsequent ones are based on it);
• Samave-da (Veda of chants);
• Yajurveda (Veda of sacrifices);
• At-harvaveda (Veda of spells).

The Vedas were presented as a revelation that was given to a person by deities. The gods had the gift of all-seeing and they passed on their knowledge (Vedas) to the Rishis poets. Rishis are not specific people, but the authors of hymns, peculiar characters.

In ancient Indian philosophy, there were two traditions (methods of knowledge):

• Shruti (what is described above is the transfer of knowledge from gods to rishis);
• Smriti ("memorization" literally).

Thus, the Vedas included two separate types of knowledge - sacred and the second - profane.

According to most scholars, the Vedas were formed during the formation of a class society. Ancient India was not characterized by a slave system, but class inequality was present.

It was this that led to the formation of four groups (varna):

• brahmanas (priests);
• kshatriyas (warriors representing the highest social stratum);
• vaisyas (artisans, merchants, farmers);
• sudras (the lowest social class).

All varnas differed both in rights, and in their social status, and in duties. It is this social organization that is reflected in the Vedas.

The earliest Veda is called the Rig Veda. It was divided into 10 mandalas (books). The hymns of the Rig Veda are verses of praise to the gods, who were the forces of nature; and ritual verses, which included the prayers and requests of people to the gods.

The hymns of the Rig Veda are not just poetry, but a sacred attempt by the ancient Indians to cognize the truth of being. Space is everything and everyone. Space and time are the unity of diachrony and synchrony. The law of the rotation of the universe is Rita. The Universe develops synchronously, and then a period of diachrony sets in, when Chaos replaces the Cosmos.

From the Rig Veda, we learn about such gods as Surya (the sun god), Savitr (the motivating god), Mitra (the god of friendship), Pushan (the god of solar energy), Ushas (the goddess of the morning dawn), Agni (the fire god). It is far incomplete list gods and divine beings described in the Rig Veda. It is worth noting that none of them are dominant; all of them, to one degree or another, moved forward when there was a need for it. Thus, each divine being was presented as part of the universal spirit.

We have considered what the philosophy of Ancient India is briefly. It is the Vedas, and especially the first verses, that can make it clear history, religion (in particular), psychology and aesthetics. public life India.

In the development of Indian philosophy, the following periods can be distinguished:

Vedic (ХУ1-У1 centuries BC);

Classical, or Brahman-Buddhist (VI century BC - X century AD);

Postclassical.

A feature of Indian philosophy is its intellectual tolerance. Further religious and philosophical teachings of Brahmanism and Hinduism do not refute the teachings of the Vedas, but supplement, claiming that the truth is one, but it is multifaceted.

From the time of early middle ages a tradition has developed to divide all the philosophical teachings of Ancient India - darshans - into two large groups:

In the first sacred books of India - Vedah(from Skt. - knowledge) along with religious ideas, philosophical views about a single world order. The Vedas were created by the Aryan tribes who came to India in the 16th century. BC NS. from Central Asia, Iran and the Volga region. Only four Vedas have survived to this day: the Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, Atharva Veda. They contained scripture, descriptions of rituals, philosophical commentaries (Upanishads). Religious and philosophical commentaries on the Vedas - Upanishads - contain ideas that largely determined the entire subsequent development of Indian philosophy. These are ideas about the relationship between the universe and man, about the highest objective reality, inaccessible to description (Brahma), the unity of the integral spiritual substance (Brahman), the individual soul (Atman), about the immortality of the soul and its rebirth according to the law of retribution (karma).

Many philosophical problems of the era were touched upon in the poems of Ancient India - the epics of Mahabharata and Ramayana. The Vedas, Mahabharata and Ramayana have become veritable encyclopedias of Indian folk wisdom... For the first time, the saying from the Mahabharata: "Do not do to another that would be unpleasant to you" - then it is found in the works of Confucius, Aristotle, Kant, Tolstoy. Vedic literature contains knowledge related to many areas: agriculture, medicine, astronomy, crafts, military technology.

TO Orthodox schools Vedic Indian philosophy include the following.

Nyaya and vaisesika, which arose as independent, and later merged into one school. Their proponents believed that atoms, while not differing in terms of size and shape, at the same time, possess distinguishing qualities: temperature, taste, color, etc. However, their teaching was markedly different from the atomistic teachings created in Ancient Greece. The fact is that the Vaisesikas believed that atoms do not form the material world, but dharma, that is, the moral law that governs the world.

The Nyaya school is also known for creating complex logical system... It was based on the allocation of 7 categories: substances, qualities, activity, relation of community, relation of particularity, relation of inherentness and non-being. Although the number of categories does not coincide with Aristotle's system, there are interesting correspondences between them. The main goal of logical teaching was the formulation of recommendations on the rules of inference.

Sankhya and yoga are also two similar currents of Indian thought. The differences between them boiled down mainly to the fact that the supporters of the Samkhya school were mainly engaged in ontological issues and created a special picture of the world, while the supporters of the yoga school were more engaged in practical life. The only significant difference is that yoga recognized the existence of a supreme personified being, while in the Samkhya school its existence was denied.

Sankhya is a dualistic teaching based on the opposition of the spirit ( purushas) and matter ( prakriti). Purusha can be identified with consciousness, and prakriti with the body.

The yoga school, based on the concepts formed in the Samkhya school, sought to develop practical principles of human behavior. Human salvation consists in realizing the fact that the purusha is completely independent of prakriti. And in order to achieve salvation, the adherents of the yoga school developed special practices based on austerity and meditation.

Mimamsa is a teaching that dealt with the problems of hermeneutics or the interpretation of Vedic texts. This teaching has developed a system of understanding aimed at the most accurate and deep understanding of the sacred texts. The Vedas are not considered by the adherents of this school as a creation. specific people as well as divine revelation. For this reason, the possibility of any errors in them is excluded. Mimamsa is a dualistic teaching. Representatives of this school believe that both the soul and the body are real. Supporters of the Mimamsa school have developed a special theory of knowledge. In their opinion, any knowledge is based on such sources: perception, inference, comparison, verbal description and non-perception. By non-perception, school supporters mean the absence of what is expected.

Vedanta (Skt. - completion of the Vedas) is a doctrine that has become the philosophical basis of Hinduism. The cosmology of Vedanta corresponds to the ideas of the Vedas (Atman, Brahman ...). An interesting component is the analysis of the individual soul, "I", in particular the relationship between the real and the illusory world in the doctrine of 4 states of the human psyche (wakefulness; sleep with dreams; sleep without dreams; "transcendental state" - maximum detachment from the material world).

TO unorthodox schools Indian philosophies include Buddhism, Jainism and Lokayata. Unlike the six darshans described above, charvaka lokayata rejects the Vedas, does not believe in life after death, refutes the existence of God in all senses and builds his teaching on the recognition of the primacy of matter and the secondary nature of consciousness. This is ancient Indian materialism. The origin of the term "charvaka" is not entirely clear. The term "lokayata" or "lokayatika" comes from "lokayatana" - "point of view ordinary people". This term speaks of the proximity of the teachings of the Charvaks to the everyday consciousness.

The Charvaka school at a certain period in the history of ancient Indian thought was very influential and opposed Buddhism. According to its representatives, the meaning of life and the world was not in suffering, as it was in Buddhism, but in happiness and pleasure. This school did not deny that any pleasure is associated with suffering, but this did not mean that a person is not able to minimize suffering and enjoy life. Philosophy of the Charvaks - the system of ancient materialism, in which ontology, epistemology, ethics are connected.

The most striking point in the teachings of the carvaka lokayata is their theory of the origin of consciousness. The Charvaks came close to understanding that consciousness is a property of highly organized matter. By themselves, vayu - air, agni - fire, ap - water and kshiti - earth do not possess consciousness. However, properties that were originally absent in the divided parts of the whole can appear as something new when these parts are connected. The combined earth, water, air and fire bring about the appearance of a living body endowed with consciousness. When the body disintegrates into elements, consciousness also disappears.

Lokayatniki opposed the basic provisions of religious and philosophical schools, against religious "liberation" and the omnipotence of the gods. Sensory perception was considered the main source of knowledge. In the teachings of this school, one can find clear parallels to the teachings about the beginning, created in ancient Greek philosophy. The school flourished and enjoyed great popularity among people, but later philosophical works this direction were destroyed by the brahmanas, and she lost her influence.

The next movement that questioned Vedic values ​​was Jainism (VI century BC) - Ind. a religion related to Buddhism, named after its 24 holy preachers - "Jains" (victors), the last of whom - Parshva (750 BC) and Mahavira (500 BC) - are historical figures... According to the teachings of Jains (supporters of Jainism), an eternal world process not controlled by any God takes place according to the law of karma through the joint action of eternal spiritual monads and eternal atoms. As long as the soul is permeated with subtle matter, it must wander, assuming the form of all new existences, but if it is freed through correct knowledge and asceticism from everything material, it, saved, ascends to the higher sphere, where it dwells, inactive, into pure spirituality... Jainism is currently practiced in India approx. 3 million people.

Buddhism arose in the northwest of India in the 6th-5th centuries. BC. and today is one of the world's religions. But Buddhism is also a religious and philosophical school that preached deliverance from suffering by giving up desires and achieving "supreme enlightenment" - nirvana, founded by the Indian prince Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha, 560-483 BC).

According to his teachings, everything in the world is transient, has no self (permanent substance), and therefore is full of suffering (dissatisfaction). Since no evil or good deed passes without a trace, then, according to karma, each individual life after death finds its continuation in the otherworldly existence, depending on the actions and deeds committed. Moral actions lead to purification and passage through separate steps. The main idea of ​​Buddhism was liberation from suffering and an attempt to overcome the caste system.

Buddhist philosophy offers every believer a plan for personal improvement, the goal of which is nirvana - great liberation. The basic commandments of the philosophy of Buddhism include: do not kill, do not steal, do not lie, be chaste, do not drink alcohol - that is, those values ​​that are contained in a person himself and do not depend on wealth and nobility. Thus, Buddhism called for activity aimed at one's life.

The main ideas of Buddha's philosophy:

- "Four Noble Truths".

The theory of causality.

The impermanence of the elements.

- "Middle Way".

- "The Eightfold Path".

How are these basic tenets of Buddhism to be understood?

"Four Noble Truths":

Life is suffering;

The cause of suffering is endless desires and yearnings for pleasure;

You can get rid of suffering by suppressing desires and aspirations in yourself, which are most often vain and end in nothing;

To suppress desires and get rid of suffering, a person must follow the path of moral perfection indicated by the Buddha.

Causality theory. There are no actions and deeds in life that would not have consequences, since everything in the world is interconnected and has its own reason.

Inconsistency of elements... Nothing is permanent in the world and everything changes. This means that nothing in the world can serve as a guarantee of well-being, the deliverance of a person from suffering. Man himself is the cause of this suffering.

"Middle Way". Buddha called for moderation and avoidance of extremes.

The Eightfold Path. This path represents a gradual transformation of the consciousness and psyche of a person, his rebirth or birth in a state of nirvana, since it is assumed the formation of:

correct views; correct striving; correct speech; correct behavior; correct image life; correct aspirations; correct thoughts; correct contemplation and getting rid of desires.

It is this path, according to Buddha, that leads to the goal. Fulfilling these commandments, according to the teachings of the Buddha, a person is able to achieve the state of nirvana. Nirvana is another dimension of being; it is the extinction of false desires and passions. It is not non-being, on the contrary, nirvana is the fullness of being, its existence is full of perfection. The Indian poet Kalidasa tried to characterize this path: "When you entered the world, you cried bitterly, and everyone around you was laughing happily. Make life so that, leaving the world, you laugh happily, and everyone around you cries."

It is believed that the Buddha himself, having achieved nirvana, preached his teachings for many years. His teaching was not a preaching of passivity and pessimism. On the contrary, he called for activity, directing it to his life. This activity is not for a place in the sun, but a struggle with the alien in oneself. The main provisions are reflected in one of the books of Buddhism - "Dhammapada". In India, Buddhism spread gradually. In the III century. BC NS. King Ashoka adopted Buddhism as the state religion. In the 1st century. n. NS. Buddhism split into Hinayana (small chariot) and Mahayana (large chariot). The Hinayana was intended for an enlightened minority, the Mahayana was a vulgarized teaching of the Buddha, addressed to those to whom the impersonal god was inaccessible. In the Middle Ages, Buddhism became one of the world religions, but mostly outside India (in Tibet, China, Japan, etc.).

Buddhism differs from other world religions in its special understanding of the status of man in relation to the gods. Of all beings, only man is credited with the ability to “get on the path,” in other words, consistently eradicate passions, unrighteous thoughts, etc., and achieve nirvana. Only among people can there appear higher spiritual beings - Buddhas, people who have attained enlightenment and nirvana and preach the Dharma, as well as bodhisattvas - those who postpone their final departure in order to help other creatures. Without denying the existence of gods and other supernatural beings (demons, ancestral spirits, creatures of hell, gods in the form of animals, birds, etc.), Buddhism does not assign them any important role in religious life... While not forbidding worship, he nevertheless considers it a waste of time.

The most influential Buddhist organization is the worldwide Buddhist Brotherhood, founded in 1950. According to various estimates, there are up to 500 million Buddhists in the world.

The Vedic religion and Brahmanism received their further development in Hinduism, which was formed in the 1st millennium AD. NS. The central place in the pantheon is occupied by the "trinity", or triune image ("trimurti": Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva), symbolizing the creation of the world, its existence and death. Hinduism became a synthesis of modified Brahmanism and indigenous cults of the ethnic groups of India. Hinduism took the form of the religion of the everyday. J. Nehru believed that its meaning can be expressed as follows: live and let others live.

In Hinduism, there is no obligatory system of doctrine, a church organization, a single governing center. There is a certain tolerance for deviations from religious dogmas, but the requirements for social, family and personal life numerous castes and a podcast into which Hinduism divides the population, and these traditions are still considered unshakable. Attempts to reform Hinduism were undertaken by a writer and public figure R. Tagore, the leader of the national liberation movement in India, Gandhi, and others. Modern Indian philosophers preach the combination of Western science and technology with the spiritual values ​​of the East.

Typical concepts of Indian philosophy:

Samsara - philosophical doctrine about the reincarnation of the soul into different bodies endless, endless chain of rebirths;

Karma is the predetermination of human life and fate and retribution for human actions, the law of causality;

Moksha is the highest level of moral perfection of the soul, the final salvation of the soul, the only way of liberation from endless rebirth;

Ahimsa is the unity of all forms of life on earth, non-violence and non-harm to everything around.

Philosophical schools of ancient China.

Philosophical knowledge in ancient China, as in all cultures of the world, arose in the depths of mythological ideas and on initial stage actively relied on them. Despite the fact that man in China is identified with nature and space, his problems are central to Chinese philosophy.

Ancient Chinese thinkers in the US-U centuries. BC NS. already identified five elements, or the primary elements of nature: water, fire, metal, wood and earth. In ancient Chinese mythology, attempts are made to explain the world from himself. In explaining the origin of the Universe, the beginnings of natural philosophy are observed. In part, the myths were preserved in later views and organically entered the ancient Chinese cosmological concepts.

This primarily applies to the spirits (or deities) Yang (active masculine power) and Yin (passive feminine power). They were symbols of light and darkness, positive and negative, gaining character space forces, who are in constant mutual striving for each other and interaction, due to which everything in the world is formed, including the universe, human society, ideas, culture, morality. It was believed that there was once neither heaven nor earth, and the Universe was a dark formless chaos - from it were born two spirits Yin and Yang, who took up the ordering of the world. Subsequently, these spirits were divided: Yang began to rule the sky, Yin - the earth.

Ancient Chinese thinkers used the concepts of "Yin" and "Yang" to express many opposite and replacing phenomena. An important point in the first philosophical constructions of ancient China was the recognition of the feedback between these concepts and human life, social phenomena. It was believed that if people act in accordance with the natural laws reflected by these concepts, then peace and order reign both in society and in individuals, but if there is no such agreement, then the country and everyone in it will be in turmoil. And vice versa - troubles in society create obstacles for the natural manifestations of Yin and Yang, for normal self-realization. These cosmogonic ideas were the basis of the religious and philosophical worldview of the ancient Chinese and were set forth in the ancient Chinese text "I-Ching" ("Book of Changes").

In the period VI - III centuries. BC NS. there is a further development of Chinese philosophy. This is the period of the emergence of "one hundred philosophical schools", among which a special place was occupied by: Taoism (Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu), Confucianism (Confucius), the school of Moists (Mo-tzu), Legism - the school of legalists (Shang Yan).

The central idea of ​​Taoism was the theory of Tao. Lao Tzu (604 BC) is considered the founder of Taoism. Chinese word"Tao" has many meanings: the path of the stars and the path of virtues, the law of the universe and human behavior. It is usually translated as "the way." The main product of Lao Tzu was the work "Tao Te Ching" ("Teaching about Tao and Te"), that is, about the eternal path (Tao) of all things and its objective manifestations (de). In the philosophy of Lao Tzu, attention is drawn to the unity of man and heaven. According to Lao Tzu, there is a single and common path for all things (Tao) in the world, which no one can change. The highest duty and destiny of man, as the founder of Taoism argued, is to follow Tao. Man is not able to influence the world order, his destiny is peace and humility. The goal of Lao Tzu's teaching was self-penetration, the achievement of spiritual purification, the mastery of corporeality. According to the theory of Taoism, a person should not interfere with the natural course of events. The basic principle of Taoism is the theory of non-action.

Another important topic Chinese philosophical thought was the idea of ​​moral improvement on the path of observing rules and rituals, set forth v Confucianism. The founder of this philosophical concept was Confucius (551-479 BC). "Confucius's Analogues", a posthumous collection of his sayings, gives an idea of ​​the philosopher's teachings.

The main problems of the philosophy of Confucius:

1. The system of ethical standards.

2. Political issues.

3. Personality behavior.

4. Public administration.

The ideas of Confucius had a significant impact on the development of not only philosophical, but also ethical and political thought in China, as well as Japan, Korea and other Far Eastern countries. Reflecting on the fate of his society, on the imperfection of human nature, Confucius came to the conclusion that nothing positive can be achieved if one is not guided by the right principles. In comprehending their visions, it is the meaning of their own activities, of life itself: "If in the race you learn the correct path (Tao), then at sunset you can die." And in the center of his teaching was a man - the crown of nature, endowed with consciousness and will, capable of making perfect government.

The main principles of Confucianism:

The principle of "Ren", that is, humanity and philanthropy. “What you don’t bark yourself, don’t do it to others.”

The principle of "li", that is, reverence and ritual. "A well-mannered person makes demands on himself, a low person makes demands on others."

The principle of "cheng-min", that is, the correction of names. In society, there will be order and mutual understanding between people, if everyone behaves in accordance with their rank and position. "The sovereign is the sovereign, the father is the father, the son is the son."

The principle of "tszyun-tzu", that is, the image of a noble man. All people are capable of being highly moral, but this is primarily the lot of the wise, engaged in mental activity. The purpose of the commoners is to serve the aristocratic elite, headed by the emperor.

The principle of "wen", that is, education, enlightenment, spirituality, combined with a love of learning and non-shyness in seeking advice from subordinates.

The principle of "di", i.e. e. obedience to elders in position and age. “If a person is respectful, then he is not despised. If a person is truthful, then they trust him. If a person is quick-witted, he achieves success. If a person is kind, he can use others. "

The zhong principle, that is, loyalty to the sovereign, the moral authority of the government. Rulers must enforce order through rules of conduct. "If the government is not greedy, then people will not steal either."

The combination of ideas about a harmoniously ordered society and an ideal (noble) person made up the whole doctrine of Confucianism. In its content, the ethical and political side prevailed over the philosophical side itself. The great Chinese thinker solved the "eternal" questions of contemporary life, and in them prevailed mental pain for social disorder and moral decline. Against this background, general theoretical (cosmological, epistemological) and worldview problems receded into the background.

Confucius' formula "To manage is to do the right thing" entered the daily vocabulary of the Chinese, denoting the norm of behavior in the family, among friends and acquaintances, the relationship between leaders of subordinates. It became one of the defining principles of social life, entered the popular culture and mass consciousness up to our century.

The teachings of Confucius were expounded by his students, since he himself did not write anything. In one of the books of his students "Lun-Yu" ("Judgments and Conversations", or "Analects"), wise thoughts and instructions of a philosopher are written in the form of questions and answers.

Philosophy is a force that significantly influences the progress of humanity. She is always a participant in the formation of certain social ideals and ideas about the integrity of the world. The very concept of philosophy and the first philosophical systems arose about five hundred years BC. In different places, philosophical concepts were formed, connecting both philosophy of India and religion.

Philosophy of ancient India

It has three periods. The first period is from the fifteenth to the fifth century BC. The second is from the fifth century BC to the tenth century AD and the third period is from the tenth century AD. The first period is called "Vedic", the second - "classical", the third - "industrial". The continuous development of Indian philosophy began with the oldest texts called the Vedas. They were written fifteen centuries before our era. The name itself comes from the word "to know" - to know. The Vedas are composed of four parts: Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka and Upanishad. The most ancient Samhitas are a collection of four books of old "hymns". Of these: Rig Veda is the most ancient and revered Veda for comprehending the secrets of life, Samaveda is Vedic chants, Yajur Veda is a Veda for sacrifices, Atharva Veda is Vedic spells. The other three texts are an interpretation of the Samhita. Following the Vedic beliefs, God sees and knows everything and placed in the Vedas. Knowledge is of two types: sacred and profane. Each book of Samhita has corresponding brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads complement either Samhitas or Brahmanas. This philosophy seems complicated. And in order to understand her, one must remember the time at which she was born. The formation of a class society at that time, the existence of slavery, the growth of inequality in society led to the formation of castes. The caste of brahmanas (priests) - higher order, lived at the expense of other people. The kshatriyas were warriors and constantly fought with the brahmanas for power. Vaisyas and sudras are hard working people and pay tribute. And finally, slaves who were not part of any of the castes. All this diverse society had to coexist. And religion, as a social philosophy, had to create the rules of coexistence in a single state of India.

The oldest of the Vedas, the Rig Veda, helped the ancient Indians to comprehend the secrets of life. The main way of comprehending is the created myth. Cosmic phenomena underlie the comprehension of the world. The planets play the role of a deity in myths. The cyclical nature of nature is reflected in ritual cyclicality. There is no main god in the Veda. A person turns to the one of the gods who can help in this particular situation. The Upanishads were composed in different years, and are a secret teaching that is not available to everyone. The concept of "brahman" and "atman" in the Veda is the basis of being, the beginning of all that exists. Another interesting aspect of the Veda is the law of karma. He coordinates the process of reincarnation according to the good and evil deeds of a person. The Vedas assert that the future incarnation is not the result of God's desire, but the result of the life of the person himself (reward or punishment). Another key concept of the Vedas is moksha. This is the highest goal of man, which is to escape from the wheel of reincarnation.

India is a very colorful country, largely due to its rich flora, in more detail:.

Schools of Ancient Philosophy of India

The task of the philosophical schools of India is the process of cognition, that is, entering the world of ritual magic. For cognition of the divine principle, "turii" was used. These are mystical initiations carried out in schools. Among the philosophical schools in India there were those who took the teachings of Vedism as a basis, and those who rejected Vedism. Let's get acquainted with some of them.

Sankhya

Translated as "number". Founded seven centuries BC. It is based on a student of the Vedas. Considers the world as a living being. Being represents Purusha, the endless cosmic "I" that does not change and testifies to everything. Purusha is not a body, not a soul, not a consciousness. Object of multiple cognition. In addition to the unknown, there is a material principle in teaching. This is Prakriti - primary matter, it is in eternity and constant activity. This is the cause of earthly phenomena, a consequence of the way of life. The actions of the Prakriti of those gunas: appearance, activity and inertia. These are not physical actions, but their consequences. In practice, the Huns are the strength of man.

India's main school. It is based on the Upanishads. Was the origin of the religion of Hinduism. Created in the Middle Ages. The main idea of ​​the school is the concept of Brahman as a multiple spiritual component. back side Brahman is space in conjunction with time. Through them he comes into the world. Brahman is at the beginning of the universe and at its end. The universe is just an illusion through ignorance of Brahman. Brahman is considered the highest spirit; it manifests itself in a person through atman. When a person transforms his inner essence into the state of Brahman-atman, he will receive pure consciousness - this is the main idea. Refusal of things, control over sensuality and mind, with strong desire freeing will lead to a state of nirvana. Will the learning process continue until you fully realize yourself as Brahman? which will lead to the liberation of the soul.

Read more about the beliefs of the Indians in the article:.

The teaching was founded by Prince Siddhartha half a century BC. Then they began to call him Buddha, which means enlightenment. This is one of the religions widespread all over the world, there is no concept of "God" and an immortal soul in it. According to the Buddha's teachings, the world is a stream of vibrating particles from existence. They are called dharmas. They are the energetic life stream of any manifestation of human feelings. The world is just an infinite number of dharmas. Our being is only moments. But every moment generates the next. The world is based on such a law. Buddha discarded questions about the processes of beginning and end and spoke only about dharma. The Teaching indicates the cause of suffering in not seeing the moment called "now". The teaching does not recognize an immortal soul. The basis of the teaching is the four truths. The Teaching defines eight steps on the path to nirvana. The state of nirvana unites absolute wisdom, virtue and equanimity.

Lokayata

The doctrine was founded by Brihanspati. The name translates as "to go from the world." Founded five hundred years BC. Does not accept Vedism and Brahmanism. Life on Earth was considered valuable. They did not recognize the supernatural. The teaching accepts only the material world. Things have their own nature and arise from it. The world is based on four elements: fire, air, water and earth, of which everything is composed. Think of the world as a random collection of elements. They do not recognize consciousness and personality outside the body. The soul is considered material. After death, there is no man, therefore there is nothing to suffer. In the doctrine, the complete denial of immortality. A person should be guided by two senses - kama (enjoy) and artha (have benefit). The meaning of life is seen in receiving pleasure and avoiding suffering.

Vaisesika-nyaya

The school originated five centuries BC. Her teaching combined the concepts of features and logic. It recognizes the four earthly elements, the space-time component and the ether, as the subtle matter of the soul and mind. The teaching believes that the whole world is a combination of these elements. For the first time, small internal elements "annu" (atoms) emerged as material carriers of everything. Since the particles of annu are not able to control themselves, there is a higher spirit Brahman for this. The teaching recognizes the law of karma. Over the centuries, this teaching was reborn into ancient philosophy.

Philosophy of India, video: