Any science has a certain range of problems, the most complex theoretical and practical questions to which it must seek answers. The main ethical issues include:
- - the problem of criteria of good and evil;
- - the problem of the meaning of life and human purpose;
- - the problem of justice;
- - the problem of what should be.
Basic moral categories
It is possible to identify a number of moral categories that most fully reflect the essence and content of ethics. Among them: moral principles, moral standards, moral behavior, human moral consciousness, moral ideal, good and evil.
Moral principles
Moral principles are basic moral laws, which are a system of values that reinforces a person’s moral responsibilities through moral experience. They are also called virtues. Moral principles are formed in the process of education and together become the basis for the development of a number of moral qualities of an individual (humanity, sense of justice, rationality, etc.).
The ways and means of implementing each moral principle are varied and depend on individual characteristics the person himself, the moral traditions that have developed in society, and from the specific life situation. The most comprehensive and widespread principles include the principles of humanity, respect, rationality, courage and honor.
Humanity - this is a complex positive qualities, which represent a conscious, kind and selfless attitude towards people around us, all living beings and nature in general. A person differs from an animal in that he has such qualities as reason, conscience, and spirituality. Being an intellectual and spiritual being, in any, even the most difficult, situations, he must remain a person in accordance with the high moral stage of his development.
Humanity consists of everyday actions that reflect a person’s kind attitude towards other people and are manifested in such positive acts as mutual assistance, revenue, service, concession, favor. Humanity is a volitional action of a person based on a deep understanding and acceptance of his inherent moral qualities.
Reverence - This is a respectful attitude not only towards family and friends, but also towards the entire world around us, the ability to treat familiar and unfamiliar people, things and natural objects and phenomena with gratitude and attention. Deference is associated with such qualities as politeness, tact, courtesy, benevolence, and sympathy.
Reasonableness - it is an action based on moral experience. It includes concepts such as wisdom and logic. On the one hand, rationality is a quality of a person’s personality, depending on the intelligence given to him from birth, and on the other, ego actions that are consistent with experience and a system of moral values.
Courage And honor - categories that signify a person’s ability to overcome difficult life circumstances and a state of fear without losing self-esteem and respect from other people. They are closely interrelated and are based on personality traits such as a sense of duty, responsibility and resilience.
Moral principles must be constantly implemented in human behavior to consolidate moral experience.
Moral standards
Living together of individuals in society requires a certain restriction of their freedom, since some human actions can be harmful and even dangerous for society. Moral standards reflect the principles and rules of relationships between people established by society that arise in the process of living together. Relationships are built on the basis of moral standards joint activities and mutual assistance between people.
Moral norms are a social phenomenon, since they affect the problem of individual behavior in society, representing the requirements that society places on everyone to a specific person. It is society that determines how relationships between its members should be built. Society also evaluates a person's behavior. Quite often, these assessments do not coincide with individual ones: what seems positive for an individual can cause a negative assessment by society, and vice versa, society often forces a person to do something that is contrary to his aspirations and desires.
The fact that moral norms are social in nature has developed historically. After all, a person’s moral consciousness is formed under the influence of his environment, on the basis of moral ideals and moral authorities developed by society. The moral standards of an individual are a symbiosis of social attitudes and personal consciousness.
Moral standards are the basis for society's assessment of human behavior. There are no uniform criteria for such an assessment; they depend on the era, the type of society, on the traditional moral attitudes that have developed in a particular territory, in a particular country, etc. The same actions of people in different time, in different societies can be considered moral and immoral. For example, the barbaric traditions of scalping among the northern Indians or eating the heart of a defeated enemy among the natives of Oceania at one time did not seem immoral, but were considered a manifestation of special valor deserving public respect.
Moral norms in society exist in the form of prohibitions and unspoken instructions. Prohibitions represent those norms of individual behavior that are undesirable for society as a whole. Unspoken, informal instructions give a person freedom to choose the type of behavior within the framework of generally accepted norms. Historically, prohibitions always preceded regulations.
Universal Moral Principles exist in addition to specific moral norms, such as “don’t steal” or “be merciful.” Their peculiarity is that they set most general formulas, from which all other specific norms can be derived.
Talion principle
Talion rule considered the first universal principle. In the Old Testament the talion formula is expressed as follows: "an eye for an eye a tooth for a tooth". In primitive society, talion was carried out in the form of blood feud, and the punishment had to strictly correspond to the harm caused. Before the emergence of the state, the talion played a positive role by limiting violence: a person could refuse violence out of fear of retribution; Talion also limited retaliatory violence, leaving it within the limits of the harm caused. The emergence of the state, which took over the functions of justice, turned the talion into a relic of uncivilized times, crossing it out of the list of basic principles of moral regulation
Principle of morality
Golden Rule of Morality formulated by the first civilizations independently of each other. This principle can be found among the sayings of the ancient sages: Buddha, Confucius, Thales, Christ. In the most general view this rule looks like this: "( Do not act towards others as you would (not) want them to act towards you" Unlike talion Golden Rule relies not on fear of revenge, but on its own ideas about good and evil, and also abolishes the division into “us” and “strangers,” presenting society as a collection of equal people.
Commandment of love becomes the basic universal principle in.
In the New Testament, Jesus Christ expressed this principle this way: Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy strength, and with all thy mind. This is the first and greatest commandment. The second is similar to it: Love your neighbor as yourself.
New Testament ethics is an ethics of love. The main thing is not formal obedience to laws and rules, but mutual love. The commandment of love does not cancel the ten commandments of the Old Testament: if a person acts according to the principle of “love your neighbor,” then he cannot kill or steal.
The principle of the golden mean
The principle of the golden mean presented in works. It reads: Avoid extremes and observe moderation. All moral virtues are a mean between two vices (for example, courage is located between cowardice and recklessness) and go back to the virtue of moderation, which allows a person to curb his passions with the help of reason.
Categorical Imperative - a universal formula of morality proposed by Immanuel Kant. It reads: act in such a way that the reasons for your action can become a universal law,; in other words, do so that your actions can become a model for others. Or: always treat a person as an end, and not just as a means, i.e. never use a person only as a means to your ends.
The Greatest Happiness Principle
The Greatest Happiness Principle Utilitarian philosophers Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) proposed it as a universal. It states that everyone should behave in such a way that to ensure the greatest happiness for our more of people. Actions are assessed by their consequences: the more benefit the action brought different people, the higher he is rated on the moral scale (even if the act itself was selfish). The consequences of each possible action can be calculated, all the pros and cons can be weighed, and the action that will bring more benefit to the greatest number of people can be chosen. An action is moral if the benefit from it outweighs the harm.
Principle of justice
Principles of justice American philosopher John Rawls (1921-2002) proposed:
First principle: Every person should have equal rights to fundamental freedoms. Second principle: Social and economic inequalities should be so arranged that (a) they can reasonably be expected to benefit everyone, and (b) access to positions and positions is open to everyone.
In other words, everyone should have equal rights in relation to freedoms (freedom of speech, freedom of conscience, etc.) and equal access to schools and universities, to official positions, jobs, etc. Where equality is impossible (for example, in where there are not enough goods for everyone), this inequality should be arranged to the benefit of the poor. One possible example of such a redistribution of benefits would be a progressive income tax, where the rich pay more taxes, and the proceeds go to the social needs of the poor.
Each universal principle expresses a certain moral ideal, which is mainly understood as philanthropy. However, not all principles are compatible: they are based on different values and different understandings of the good. Based general principles One must first determine the degree of applicability of a particular principle to a situation and identify possible conflicts between different principles. A decision will be clearly moral only if all applicable principles are consistent the decision taken. If there is a serious conflict of principles, it is worth considering other factors, for example, the requirements of professional codes, expert opinions, legal and religious norms accepted in society, understand the degree of your responsibility for the decision, and only then make an informed moral choice.
adminThe social system of the 21st century presupposes the presence of a set of certain legal and moral laws that create an inviolable hierarchical system of moral and state standards. From childhood, caring parents explain to their child the difference between good and bad deeds, instilling in their offspring the concepts of “Good” and “Evil.” It is not surprising that in the life of every person, murder or gluttony is associated with negative phenomena, while nobility and mercy belong to the category of positive personal qualities. Some moral principles are already present at the subconscious level, other postulates are acquired over time, forming the image of the individual. However, few people think about the importance of instilling such values in themselves, neglecting their significance. It is impossible to coexist harmoniously with the outside world, guided solely by biological instincts - this is a “dangerous” path, invariably leading to the destruction of personal appearance.
Maximum happiness.
This facet of human morality was examined and proven by the utilitarians John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham, who dealt with ethics in state institute USA. This statement is based on the following formulation: an individual’s behavior should lead to an improvement in the lives of those around him. In other words, if you adhere to social standards, then a favorable environment for the coexistence of each individual is created in society.
Justice.
A similar principle was proposed by the American scientist John Rawls, who argued for the need for equalization social laws with internal moral factors. A person occupying the bottom rung in a hierarchical structure should have equal spiritual rights with a person at the top of the ladder - this is the fundamental aspect of the statement of the US philosopher.
It is important to think about your own personal qualities to engage in self-improvement in advance. If you neglect such a phenomenon, then over time it will develop into betrayal. A variety of changes that cannot be avoided will form an immoral image that is rejected by others. The main thing is to take a responsible approach to identifying life principles and determining the vector of one’s worldview by objectively assessing one’s behavioral characteristics.
Commandments of the Old Testament and modern society
When “understanding” the question of the meaning of moral principles and ethics in human life, in the process of research you will definitely turn to the Bible to familiarize yourself with the Ten Commandments from the Old Testament. Cultivating morality in oneself invariably echoes statements from the church book:
the events taking place are marked by fate, suggesting the development of moral and moral principles in a person (everything is the will of God);
do not elevate the people around you by idealizing idols;
do not mention the name of the Lord in everyday situations, complaining about unfavorable circumstances;
respect the relatives who gave you life;
Dedicate six days to work, and the seventh day to spiritual rest;
do not kill living organisms;
do not commit adultery by cheating on your spouse;
You shouldn’t take other people’s things and become a thief;
avoid lies in order to remain honest with yourself and the people around you;
Don't envy strangers about whom you only know public facts.
Some of the above commandments do not meet the social standards of the 21st century, but most of the statements have remained relevant for many centuries. Today, it is advisable to add the following statements to such axioms, reflecting the features of living in developed megacities:
don’t be lazy and be energetic to keep up with the fast pace of industrial centers;
achieve personal success and improve yourself without stopping at achieved goals;
When creating a family, think in advance about the feasibility of the union in order to avoid divorce;
limit yourself to sexual intercourse, remembering to use protection - eliminate the risk unwanted pregnancy, the consequence of which is abortion.
do not neglect the interests of strangers, going over your head for personal gain.
CATEGORIES OF AESTHETICS- fundamental, most general concepts of aesthetics, which reflect the essential definitions of cognizable objects and are the key stages of cognition. Aesthetic theory, like any scientific theory, has a certain system of categories. This system may not be ordered, but the set of categories used by this or that theory appears in a certain relationship, which gives it systematicity. As a rule, at the center of the system of aesthetic categories is the main universal category, around which all the others are concentrated. Thus, in the aesthetic theories of Plato, Aristotle, Augustine the Blessed, Thomas Aquinas, Hegel, Chernyshevsky, the category of beauty is in the center, in Kant - aesthetic judgment, in the aesthetic theories of the Renaissance - the aesthetic ideal.
In the history of aesthetics, the essence of the categories of aesthetics was interpreted from idealistic and materialistic positions. For Plato and medieval aestheticians, beauty is the bearer of an ideal, spiritual and mystical essence, for Hegel it is an idea in sensual form, and for Aristotle and Chernyshevsky, beauty is a category reflecting the properties of the objective material world. By the middle of the 18th century. The category of the aesthetic becomes central (see Aesthetic). It can be defined as a kind of perfection in material reality (nature, man) and social-spiritual life. The category of aesthetic reflects the most general properties of all aesthetic objects and phenomena, which, in turn, are specifically reflected in other categories of aesthetics. In aesthetic, as a real phenomenon, in the process of spiritual and practical human activity, both objective-material states of the world and properties subject of social life.
There is a certain subordination between the categories. So, for example, the beautiful and the sublime are categories that reflect the aesthetic properties of nature and man, while the tragic and comic are categories that reflect the objective processes of social life only. Thus, the most general categories (beautiful, sublime) subordinate the less general ones (tragic, comic). At the same time, there is also interaction and coordination between these categories: the sublimely beautiful, the sublimely tragic, the tragicomic. The beautiful is embodied in the aesthetic ideal and art, and through it affects aesthetic taste and feeling. That is, the categories of aesthetics are dialectically interconnected and interpenetrate each other.
But each category has a certain content stability. And although every concept coarsens reality, not containing all its richness, it, however, reflects the most essential features of an aesthetic phenomenon. It should be noted that the categories of aesthetics reveal not only harmonious, i.e. positive, aesthetic properties, but also negative, disharmonious ones, reflected in the categories of the ugly and base, thereby showing the contradictions of reality.
At the same time, in the categories of aesthetics (along with reflecting the essence of aesthetic phenomena) there is a moment of evaluation, that is, a person’s attitude to the aesthetic is expressed, its value in the spiritual and practical life of society and the individual is determined.
Marxist-Leninist aesthetic theory was also based on broader categories of dialectical and historical materialism (matter and consciousness, materialism and idealism, content and form, class and party affiliation, international and national), as well as categories of specific sciences: information theory, semantics, semiotics, psychology and a number of other private and natural scientific theories. However, the specificity of the subject of aesthetics can only be discovered through the system of the category of aesthetics itself, which takes shape in aesthetic theory.
Moral principles.
Moral principles- these are the basic moral laws that are recognized by all ethical teachings. They represent a value system that reinforces a person’s moral responsibilities through moral experience. They are also called virtues. Moral principles are formed in the process of education and together lead to the awareness and acceptance of such qualities as humanity, justice, and rationality.
The ways and means of implementing each moral principle are very diverse and depend on the individual characteristics of the person himself, the moral traditions that have developed in society and the specific life situation. The most comprehensive and widespread are 5 principles: humanity, respect, rationality, courage and honor.
Humanity is a system of positive qualities that represent a conscious, kind and selfless attitude towards people around us, all living beings and nature in general. A person is a spiritual and intellectual being, and in any, even the most difficult situations, he must remain a person, in accordance with the high moral stage of his development.
Humanity consists of everyday altruism, of such qualities as mutual assistance, revenue, service, concession, favor. Humanity is an act of will of a person based on a deep understanding and acceptance of his inherent qualities.
Reverence is a respectful and reverent attitude towards the world around us, as a miracle, a priceless gift. This principle prescribes to treat people, things and natural phenomena of this world with gratitude. Deference is associated with qualities such as politeness, courtesy, and benevolence.
Rationality is action based on moral experience. It includes concepts such as wisdom and logic. Thus, rationality, on the one hand, is the actions of the mind given to a person from birth, and on the other, actions that are consistent with experience and a system of moral values.
Courage and honor are categories that mean a person’s ability to overcome difficult life circumstances and states of fear without losing self-esteem and respect from those around him. They are closely interrelated and are based on qualities such as duty, responsibility and resilience.
Moral principles must be constantly implemented in human behavior to consolidate moral experience.
Code of Conduct.
“A person’s behavior, which (1) does not fall outside the generally accepted system of behavior in a given team and (2) does not cause an emotional reaction (negative / positive) in other members of the team, is the norm of behavior in a given society. ...
The norm of behavior has a multi-stage nature (hierarchical) and in this regard the question arises about the individual’s self-assessment of his dominance: he must determine on the basis of what aspect or fact of his personality (or, more broadly, biography) he regulates his behavior in a given situation. ... The degree of obligatory norm and, accordingly, the system of prohibitions in his behavior will depend on what he considers decisive in a given situation. ... Often the subjective choice of rules of behavior determines the subjective nature of the norm.
A norm creates the possibility of its violation (because if behavior were not standardized, there would be nothing to violate). The concept of a norm organically includes the very possibility of deviation from it. Deviation from the norm, however, is associated with the principle “you can, but you shouldn’t.” ...
The norm of behavior is supported by a system of PROHIBITIONS imposed both on the entire team and on its individual members by traditions, considerations of “common sense” and special contracts, agreements, codes, rules, etc. Most of them are set on a negative principle, i.e. they give a list of prohibitions; this is explained by the fact that the norm of behavior as a whole is difficult and uneconomical to describe positively, i.e. in the form of regulations: this would require an extremely cumbersome list of rules."
Morality- one of the types of social regulators, a set of special, spiritual rules governing human behavior, his attitude towards other people, towards himself, as well as towards environment. The content of morality is a set of principles and norms that can have a special, spiritual impact on people’s actions and serve as a model and ideal of humane behavior. These include, for example, the principle of humanism (humanity, justice, mercy) or such norms as “thou shalt not kill,” “thou shalt not steal,” “thou shalt not bear false witness,” “keep the promise,” “thou shalt not lie,” etc. .
Moral principles- the main element in the moral system is the basic fundamental ideas about proper human behavior, through which the essence of morality is revealed, on which other elements of the system are based. The most important of them: humanism, collectivism, individualism, altruism, selfishness, tolerance.
Moral standards- specific rules of behavior that determine how a person should behave in relation to society, other people, and himself. They clearly show the imperative-evaluative nature of morality.
Moral norms as types of social norms, depending on the method of assessment, are divided into two types:
1) requirements - prohibitions (don’t lie, don’t be lazy; don’t be afraid, etc.);
2) requirements - models (be brave, strong, responsible, etc.).
7. Functions of morality
1. Regulatory function. Regulates people's behavior in accordance with moral requirements. It exercises its regulatory capabilities with the help of norms-guidelines, norms-requirements, norms-prohibitions, norms-frameworks, restrictions, as well as norms-models (etiquette).
2. Value-orienting function. Orients a person in the world of cultural values surrounding him. Develops a system of preference for some moral values over others, allows you to identify the most moral assessments and lines of behavior.
3. Cognitive (epistemological) function. It assumes the knowledge not of objective characteristics, but of the meaning of phenomena as a result of practical mastery.
4. Educational function. Brings moral norms, habits, customs, mores, and generally accepted patterns of behavior into a certain educational system.
5. Evaluation function. Evaluates a person’s mastery of reality from the standpoint of good and evil. The subject of assessment is actions, attitudes, intentions, motives, moral views and personal qualities.
6. Motivational function. Allows a person to evaluate and, if possible, justify his behavior using moral motivation.
7. Communication function. Acts as a form of communication, transmission of information about the values of life, moral contacts of people. Provides mutual understanding and communication between people based on the development of common moral values.
Properties of morality
Morality contains antinomic properties, which mean the following:
1. Antinomy of objective and subjective.
o a) Moral requirements have objective meaning regardless of subjective tastes.
o b) Moral requirements reflect a subjective position, necessarily someone’s position.
o c) Impersonality of the moral requirement. The demand does not come from anyone. The moral law appears in the form of an abstract requirement.
2. Antinomy of the universal and the particular.
o a) On the one hand, morality appears in the form of a specific moral system.
o b) On the other hand, the moral position is formulated in a universal form. The moral law is characterized by universality and uniqueness.
3. Antinomy of practical expediency and moral value.
o a) Morality has practical significance (benefit).
o b) Morality does not always contain benefits. Virtue is often punished.
o c) Unselfishness of moral motive. Utility in morality is not pragmatic. Morality speaks about what should be done.
4. Antinomy of public and personal.
o a) Submission to average social norms.
o b) An individual with highly developed moral ideals is at odds with society. From a moral standpoint, she does not act as a representative of the social environment, but as a bearer of universal human values.
5. Antinomy of causality and freedom.
o a) Moral behavior has its reasons.
o b) A moral person is ready to go against logic, habit (autonomously, freely). The real reason for individual actions is freedom.
The structure of morality
1. Moral consciousness- one of the forms public consciousness, which, like its other forms, is a reflection of the social existence of people. Moral consciousness includes values, norms, and ideals. Here morality manifests itself as the pursuit of perfection. Moral consciousness functions at two levels of regulation in relationships between people: emotional-sensual(ordinary consciousness) and rational-theoretical(ethics). Emotional level - a person’s mental reaction to an event, attitude, phenomenon. It includes emotions, feelings, mood. Emotional-sensual moral consciousness determines a person’s relationships:
a) towards other people (feelings of sympathy or antipathy, trust or distrust, jealousy, hatred, etc.);
b) to oneself (modesty, dignity, vanity, pride, demandingness, etc.);
c) to society as a whole (sense of public duty, patriotism).
2. Moral behavior, based on the moral consciousness of the individual, realizing his moral relations, are the result of the formation of the individual and his free choice. Moral practice- includes real morals, actions, moral attitudes. Actions and actions reflect the moral side of human activity. They have a positive or negative orientation and imply moral responsibility.
3. Moral relations- the central element of the structure of morality, which records the properties of any human activity from the point of view of its moral assessment.
