Features of ancient philosophy
The development of ancient philosophy is the most important stage in the historical dynamics of the subject of philosophical knowledge. Within the framework of ancient philosophy, ontology and metaphysics, epistemology and logic, anthropology and psychology, philosophy of history and aesthetics, moral and political philosophy are singled out.
ancient philosophy(first Greek, and then Roman) cover more than a thousand-year period from the VI century. BC e. according to the 6th c. e. Antique philosophy was born in the ancient Greek (city-states) of democratic orientation and content, methods and purpose differed from the Eastern methods of philosophizing, the mythological explanation of the world, characteristic of the early ancient culture. The formation of a philosophical view of the world was prepared by ancient Greek literature, culture (the works of Homer, Hesiod, gnomic poets), where questions were raised about the place and role of man in the universe, skills were formed to establish motives (reasons) for actions, and artistic images structured according to feelings of harmony, proportion and measure.
Early Greek philosophy uses fantastic imagery and metaphorical language. But if for the myth the image of the world and the real world were no different, then philosophy formulates as its main goal the desire for truth, a pure and disinterested desire will approach it. Possession of complete truth, according to ancient tradition, was considered possible only by the gods. Man could not merge with "sophia", because he is mortal, finite and limited in knowledge. Therefore, only an unbridled striving for truth is available to a person, which has never been completely completed, active, active, passionate. desire for truth, love for wisdom, which expresses the concept "philosophy". Being was associated with the multitude of constantly changing elements, and consciousness with a limited number of concepts that restrained the chaotic manifestation of the elements.
The search for the fundamental principle of the world in the changing circulation of phenomena - the main cognitive goal of ancient Greek philosophy. Therefore, ancient philosophy can be understood as the doctrine of "first principles and causes". According to its method, this historical type of philosophy seeks to rationally explain being, reality as a whole. Reasonable evidence, logical reasoning, rhetorical-deductive rationality, and logos are significant for ancient philosophy. The transition "from myth to logos" created a well-known vector for the development of both spiritual culture and Europe.
The main stages in the development of ancient philosophy
In the development of ancient philosophy, there are four main steps(You can see a detailed division of philosophical schools in the table below).
First stage - 6-5 centuries. BC e. "pre-Socratic" . Philosophers who lived before Socrates are called pre-Socratics. These include the wise men from Miletus (Miletian school - Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes), Heraclitus from Ephesus, the Elean school (Parmenides, Zeno), Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans, atomists (Leucippus and Democritus). Natural philosophers deal with the problem of arche (Greek arhe - beginning) - the single foundation of the universe (senior physicists) and the problems of the integral unity of multiple worlds (junior physicists).
The central subject of knowledge in ancient Greek natural philosophy space, and the main form of philosophical doctrine - cosmological models. The central question of ontology - the question of the essence and structure of the world - is highlighted from the perspective of the question of its origin.
Second phase - approximately the middle of the 5th - the end of the 4th centuries BC. e. - classical. The formation of classical philosophy marks a radical turn towards logical-epistemological, socio-political, moral-ethical and anthropological issues. This turn is connected with the sophistical tradition and with the figure of Socrates. Within the framework of the mature classics, perfect examples of systemic abstract-theoretical and philosophical concepts are developed, which set the canon of the Western European philosophical tradition (Plato and Aristotle).
Third stage - the end of the 4th-2nd centuries. BC e. commonly referred to as Hellenistic. Unlike the previous one, associated with the emergence of significant, deep in content and universal in subject matter philosophical systems, various eclectic competing philosophical schools are being formed: peripatetics, academic philosophy (Platonic Academy, Stoic and Epicurean schools, skepticism). All schools are united by one feature: the transition from commenting on the teachings of Plato and Aristotle to the formation of ethical problems, moralizing frankness in the era of the decline of Hellenistic culture. Then the work of Theophrastus, Carneades, Epicurus, Pyrrho and others becomes popular.
Fourth stage - 1 in. BC e. - 5-6 centuries. on the. e. - the period when Rome began to play a decisive role in antiquity, under the influence of which Greece also falls. Roman philosophy is formed under the influence of Greek, especially Hellenistic. In Roman philosophy, three areas are distinguished: stoicism (Seneca, Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius), skepticism (Sext Empiricus), epicureanism (Titus Lucretius Car). In 3-5 centuries. n. e. In Roman philosophy, Neoplatonism arises and develops, a well-known representative of which is the philosopher Plotinus. Neoplatonism significantly influenced not only early Christian philosophy, but all of it.
References:
1. World Encyclopedia: Philosophy / Main. scientific ed. and comp. A. A. Gritsanov. - M.: AST, Mn.: Harvest, - Modern writer, 2001. - 1312 p.
2. History of Philosophy: Assistant for your school. - Kh. : Prapor, 2003. - 768 p.
Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine
Department of Philosophy
TEST
Course: "Philosophy"
1. Ancient philosophy
2. Cosmocentrism
3. Philosophy of Heraclitus
4. Philosophy of Zeno of Elea
5. Pythagorean Union
6. Atomistic philosophy
7. Sophists
9. The teachings of Plato
10. Philosophy of Aristotle
11. Skepticism of Pyrrho
12. Philosophy of Epicurus
13. Philosophy of Stoicism
14. Neoplatonism
Conclusion
5th century BC e. in the life of ancient Greece is full of many philosophical discoveries. In addition to the teachings of the wise men - the Milesians, Heraclitus and the Eleatics, Pythagoreanism is gaining sufficient fame. About Pythagoras himself - the founder of the Pythagorean Union - we know from later sources. Plato calls his name only once, Aristotle twice. Most Greek authors call the island of Samos the birthplace of Pythagoras (580-500 BC), which he was forced to leave due to the tyranny of Polycrates. On the advice of supposedly Thales, Pythagoras goes to Egypt, where he studies with the priests, then he was captured (in 525 BC Egypt was captured by the Persians) in Babylonia, where he also studied with the Indian sages. After 34 years of study, Pythagoras returned to Great Hellas, to the city of Croton, where he founded the Pythagorean Union - a scientific-philosophical and ethical-political community of like-minded people. The Pythagorean Union is a closed organization, and its teachings are secret. The way of life of the Pythagoreans fully corresponded to the hierarchy of values: in the first place - beautiful and decent (what science was referred to), in the second - profitable and useful, in the third - pleasant. The Pythagoreans got up before sunrise, did mnemonic (related to the development and strengthening of memory) exercises, then went to the seashore to meet the sunrise. We thought about the upcoming business, worked. At the end of the day, after the bath, they all dined together and made libations to the gods, followed by a general reading. Before going to bed, each Pythagorean gave a report on what had been done during the day.
The term " antique"(lat. - "ancient") is used to refer to history, culture, philosophy Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. Ancient philosophy arose in Ancient Greece in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. (VII - VI centuries BC).
There are several stages in the development of ancient philosophy:
1)the formation of ancient Greek philosophy (natural-philosophical, or pre-Socratic stage) The philosophy of this period focuses on the problems of nature, the cosmos as a whole;
2)classical Greek philosophy (the teachings of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle) - The main attention here is paid to the problem of man, his cognitive abilities;
3)Hellenistic philosophy – Ethical and socio-political problems are in the center of thinkers' attention.
Early ancient philosophy.
The first philosophical school in European civilization was the Miletus school (VI century BC, Miletus). In the center of their attention is the question of the fundamental principle of being, which they saw in various types substances.
The brightest representative of the Milesian school - Thales. He believed that the origin of life is water : everything that exists comes from water by solidification or evaporation and returns to water. According to the reasoning of Thales, all living things come from the seed, and the seed is wet; besides, the living without water perishes. Man, according to Thales, also consists of water. According to Thales, everything in the world, even inanimate objects, has a soul. The soul is the source of movement. Divine power sets the water in motion, i.e. brings soul into the world. God in his view is the “mind of the cosmos”, this is something that has neither beginning nor end.
Anaximander, a follower of Thales. He believed that the basis of the world is a special substance - a single, infinite, eternal, unchanging - apeiron . Apeiron is the source from which everything arises, and everything returns to it after death. Apeiron is not amenable to sensory perception, therefore, unlike Thales, who believed that knowledge about the world should be reduced only to sensory knowledge, Anaximander argued that knowledge should go beyond direct observation, needs a rational explanation of the world. All changes in the world, according to Anaximander, come from the struggle between warm and cold, an example of which is the change of seasons (the first naive-dialectical ideas).
Anaximenes. He considered the foundation of life air . When rarefied, air becomes fire; thickening, it turns first into water, then into earth, stones. He explains all the diversity of the elements by the degree of air condensation. Air, according to Anaximenes, is the source of both the body and the soul, and the entire Cosmos, and even the gods are created from the air (and not, conversely, the air is the gods).
The main merit of the philosophers of the Milesian school lies in the attempt to give a complete picture of the world. The world is explained on the basis of material principles, without the participation of supernatural forces in its creation.
Following the Miletus school, a number of other philosophical centers arose in Dr. Greece. One of the most significant - school of pythagoras(VI century BC). It was Pythagoras who first used the term "philosophy". The philosophical views of Pythagoras are largely due to mathematical concepts. He paid great importance number , said that the number is the essence of any thing (a number without a world can exist, but a world without a number cannot. That is, in understanding the world, he singled out only one side - its measurability numerical expression. According to Pythagoras, the objects of thought are more real than the objects of sensory knowledge, because they are eternal. Thus, Pythagoras can be called the first representative of the philosophical idealism.
Heraclitus(ser. VI - early V centuries BC). He considered the fundamental principle of the world the fire . According to Heraclitus, the world is in constant change, and of all natural substances, fire is the most changeable. As it changes, it passes into various substances, which, through successive transformations, again become fire. Consequently, everything in the world is interconnected, nature is one, but at the same time it consists of opposites. The struggle of opposites as the cause of all changes is the main law of the universe. Thus, in the teachings of Heraclitus, dialectical views. His statements are widely known: “everything flows, everything changes”; "You can't step into the same river twice."
eleian(Elei) - VI - V centuries. BC. Its main representatives: Xenophanes,Parmenides, Zeno. The Eleatics are considered the founders of rationalism. They first began to analyze the world of human thinking. They represented the process of cognition as a transition from feelings to reason, but considered these stages of cognition separately from each other, believed that feelings cannot give true knowledge, the truth is revealed only to the mind.
4. Atomistic materialism of Democritus.
In the 5th century BC. a new form of materialism emerges atomistic materialism, most prominent representative which is Democritus.
According to the ideas of Democritus, the fundamental principle of the world is the atom - the smallest indivisible particle of matter. Every atom is surrounded by emptiness. Atoms float in the void like dust particles in a beam of light. Colliding with each other, they change direction. Diverse compounds of atoms form things, bodies. The soul, according to Democritus, also consists of atoms. Those. he does not separate the material and the ideal as completely opposite entities.
Democritus was the first to attempt a rational explanation of causality in the world. He argued that everything in the world has its own reason, there are no random events. He associated causality with the movement of atoms, with changes in their movement, and he considered the identification of the causes of what was happening to be the main goal of knowledge.
The meaning of the teachings of Democritus:
Firstly, as the fundamental principle of the world, he puts forward not a specific substance, but elementary particle- an atom, which is a step forward in creating a material picture of the world;
Secondly, by pointing out that atoms are in perpetual motion, Democritus for the first time considered motion as a way of existence of matter.
5. The classical period of ancient philosophy. Socrates.
At this time, paid teachers of rhetoric appeared - the art of eloquence. They taught not only knowledge in the field of politics and law, but also general worldview issues. They were called sophists, i.e. sages. The most famous of them - Protagoras(“Man is the measure of all things”). The focus of the sophists was man and his cognitive abilities. Thus, the sophists directed philosophical thought from the problems of the cosmos, the surrounding world to the problem of man.
Socrates(469 - 399 BC) He believed that the best form of philosophizing is a live conversation in the form of a dialogue (he called writing dead knowledge, he said that he did not like books because they should not be asked questions).
Socrates focuses on man and his cognitive abilities. Knowledge of the world, the philosopher believes, is impossible without knowledge of oneself. To know oneself for Socrates means to comprehend oneself as a social and moral being, as a person. The primary for Socrates is the spirit, the consciousness of man, and the secondary is nature. He considers the main task of philosophy to be the knowledge of the human soul, and in relation to the material world he acts as an agnostic. Socrates considers dialogue to be the main means of comprehending the truth. He sees the essence of dialogue in the fact that, by consistently asking questions, to reveal contradictions in the answers of the interlocutor, thereby forcing one to think about the nature of the dispute. He understood truth as objective knowledge, independent of people's opinions. The concept of " dialectics as the art of dialogue, conversation.
6. Philosophy of Plato.
Plato(427 - 347 BC). The main significance of Plato's philosophy is that he is the creator of the system objective idealism, the essence of which is that the world of ideas is recognized by him as primary in relation to the world of things.
Plato speaks of existence two worlds :
1) world of things - changeable, transient - perceived by the senses;
2) world of ideas - eternal, infinite and unchanging - is comprehended only by the mind.
Ideas are the ideal prototype of things, their perfect model. Things are just imperfect copies of ideas. The material world is created by the Creator (Demiurge) according to ideal patterns (ideas). This Demiurge is the mind, the creative mind, and the source material for creating the world of things is matter. (The demiurge does not create either matter or ideas, he only shapes matter according to ideal images). The world of ideas, according to Plato, is a hierarchically organized system. At the top = - the most general idea - Good which manifests itself in the beautiful and true. Plato's theory of knowledge is based on the fact that a person has innate ideas that he "remembers" in the process of his development. At the same time, sensory experience is only an impetus to recollection, and the main means of recollection is dialogue, conversation.
An important place in Plato's philosophy is occupied by the problem of man. Man, according to Plato, is the unity of soul and body, which are at the same time opposite. The basis of man is his soul, which is immortal and returns to the world many times. The mortal body is only a prison for the soul, it is the source of suffering, the cause of all evils; the soul perishes if it grows too close to the body in the process of satisfying its passions.
Plato divides the souls of people into three varieties, depending on which principle prevails in them: the rational soul (reason), militant (will), suffering (lust). The owners of a rational soul are sages, philosophers. Their function is the knowledge of the truth, the writing of laws and the administration of the state. The warlike soul belongs to warriors, guards. Their function is to protect the state and enforce the laws. The third type of soul - suffering - strives for material, sensual benefits. This soul is possessed by peasants, merchants, artisans, whose function is to provide for the material needs of people. Thus, Plato proposed the structure ideal state , where three estates, depending on the type of soul, perform functions inherent only to them.
7. Teaching of Aristotle.
Aristotle(384 - 322 BC). He refuses the notion of a separate existence of the world of ideas. In his opinion, the primary reality, which is not defined by anything, is the natural, material world. However matter passive, formless and is only the possibility of a thing, the material for it. Possibility (matter ) turns into reality (specific thing ) under the influence of an internal active cause, which Aristotle calls form. The shape is perfect, i.e. the idea of a thing is in itself. (Aristotle gives an example with a copper ball, which is the unity of matter - copper - and form - sphericity. Copper is only the possibility of a thing, without a form there cannot be a really existing thing). The form does not exist by itself, it forms the matter and then becomes the essence of the real thing. Aristotle considers Mind to be the formative principle - an active, active prime mover, which contains the plan of the world. “The form of forms”, according to Aristotle, is God - this is an abstract concept, understood as the cause of the world, a model of perfection and harmony.
According to Aristotle, any living organism consists of a body (matter) and a soul (form). The soul is the principle of the unity of the organism, the energy of its movement. Aristotle identifies three types of soul:
1) vegetative (vegetative), its main functions are birth, nutrition, growth;
2) sensual - sensations and movement;
3) reasonable - thinking, knowledge, choice.
8. Philosophy of the Hellenistic era, its main directions.
Stoicism. The Stoics believed that the whole world was animated. Matter is passive and created by God. The true is incorporeal and exists only in the form of concepts (time, infinity, etc.). The Stoics developed the idea of universal predestination. Life is a chain of necessary causes, nothing can be changed. A person's happiness is in freedom from passions, in peace of mind. The main virtues are moderation, prudence, courage and justice.
Skepticism– Skeptics talked about the relativity of human knowledge, about its dependence on various conditions(* states of the senses, the influence of traditions, etc.). Because to know the truth is impossible, one should refrain from any judgments. Principle " refraining from judgment"- the basic position of skepticism. This will help to achieve equanimity (apathy) and serenity (ataraxia) - the two highest values.
Epicureanism. The founder of this trend is Epicurus (341 - 271 BC) - developed the atomistic doctrine of Democritus. According to Epicurus, the cosmos consists of indivisible particles - atoms that move in empty space. Their movement is continuous. Epicurus does not have the idea of a creator god. He believes that, apart from the matter of which everything consists, there is nothing. He acknowledges the existence of the gods, but claims that they do not interfere in the affairs of the world. In order to feel confident, one must study the laws of nature, and not turn to the gods. The soul is “a body consisting of fine particles, scattered throughout the body.” The soul cannot be incorporeal and dissipates after the death of a person. The function of the soul is to provide a person with feelings.
The ethical doctrine of Epicurus, which is based on the concept of "pleasure", has become widely known. The happiness of a person is in getting pleasure, but not all pleasure is good. “It is impossible to live pleasantly without living reasonably, morally and justly,” said Epicurus. The meaning of pleasure is not bodily satisfaction, but the pleasure of the spirit. The highest form of bliss is a state of peace of mind. Epicurus became the founder of social psychology.
Neoplatonism. Neoplatonism became widespread during the period when the ancient way of philosophizing was giving way to a philosophy based on Christian dogma. This is the last attempt to solve the problem of creating a holistic philosophical doctrine within the framework of pre-Christian philosophy. This direction is based on the ideas of Plato. Its most famous representative is Plotinus. At the heart of the teachings of Neoplatonism - 4 categories: -One (God), -Mind; -World Soul, Space. The One is the top of the hierarchy of ideas, it is the creative force, the potential of all things. By acquiring form, the One turns into the Mind. Mind becomes Soul, which brings motion into matter. The soul creates the Cosmos as a unity of the material and the spiritual. The main difference from Plato's philosophy is that the world of Plato's ideas is a motionless, impersonal model of the world, and in Neoplatonism an active thinking principle appears - the Mind.
ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY
ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY
The conditional date of the beginning of ancient philosophy is 585 BC. e., when the Greek and sage Thales of Miletus predicted a solar eclipse, the conditional final date is 529 AD. e., when the Platonic Academy in Athens, the last philosophical school of antiquity, was closed by the edict of the Christian emperor Justinian. The conditionality of these dates lies in the fact that in the first case, Thales turns out to be the “ancestor of philosophy” (for the first time Aristotle called him so in Metaphysics, 983b20) long before the appearance of the word “philosophy”, and in the second case, the history of ancient philosophy is considered completed, although somewhat its outstanding representatives (Damascus, Simplicius, Olympiodorus) continued their scientific work. Nevertheless, these dates make it possible to determine that within which a schematic presentation of a diverse and heterogeneous heritage, united in the concept of “ancient philosophy”, is possible.
Sources of study. 1. Corpus of philosophical texts of antiquity, preserved in medieval manuscripts in Greek. The texts of Plato, Aristotle and the Neoplatonist philosophers, who represented the greatest for Christian culture, are best preserved. 2. Texts that became known to scholars only in modern times thanks to archaeological excavations; The most important finds are the Epicurean library of papyrus scrolls from Herculaneum (see Philodemus of Godara), a stone stele with an Epicurean text carved on it (see Diogenes of Enoanda), papyri with Aristotle's "Athenian polity" found in Egypt, anonymous 2nd century BC. n. e. to Plato's Theaetetus, a papyrus from Derveni, 5th c. with the interpretation of Homer. 3. Ancient texts preserved only in translation into another language: Latin, Syriac, Arabic and Hebrew. Separately, one can mention ancient historical and philosophical texts, which are both primary and secondary sources on ancient philosophy. The most common genres of ancient historical and philosophical literature were philosophical biographies, compendiums of opinions, in which the teachings of philosophers were grouped thematically, and school “successions”, combining the first two methods within a strict scheme “from teacher to student” (see Doxographs). In general, a relatively small part of texts has come down to us from antiquity, and the selection that has been preserved due to historical circumstances can be recognized as representative with reservations. Researchers often have to turn to the methods of reconstruction of sources to restore a more complete picture of the philosophical thought of antiquity.
Socrates, a contemporary of the Sophists, is close to them in his interest in “social philosophy” and pedagogy, but he was distinguished by a different understanding of his teaching. He said that he “knew nothing” and therefore could not teach anyone, he liked not to answer questions, but to ask them (see maieutics), urged not to achieve success and not seek benefits, but to take care of his soul first of all, he he did not judge questions of religion (cf. the beginning of Protagoras' book "On the Gods", which says that the existence of the gods is Too obscure), but said that ("demoiy") is in everyone and that he sometimes hears his voice. Socrates believed that it was possible to check whether we had found the truth or not if we looked at ourselves after all the reasoning: if we reasoned about what it was, but we ourselves did not become kinder, then we did not know the main thing; if we have become better and kinder (cf. Kalokagatiya), then we have reliably learned the truth. In Athens, Socrates gathered around him a circle of regular listeners who did not constitute a school; however, some of them (Antisthenes, Euclid, Aristsht, Fedop) founded their own schools after his tragic death (see Socratic schools, Cynics, Megarian school, Cyrene school, Elido-Eretrian school). For all subsequent history, Socrates became a philosopher as such, standing alone against the "sophists" in his pursuit of true wisdom.
The nature of philosophical teaching has changed significantly: instead of a school as a community of like-minded people, with a single way of life and constant closeness of the teacher and student, leading oral, the school becomes a professional institution, and they begin to teach philosophy professional educators who receive a salary from the state (emperor). In 176 n. e. Emperor Marcus Aurelius establishes (allocates state subsidies) in Athens four philosophical departments: Platonic, Peripatetic, Stoic and Epicurean, which clearly limits the main philosophical currents of the period. Main focus in different schools was given to one thing - the restoration of an authoritative body of texts for a particular tradition (cf. the publication of Aristotle's texts by Andronicus, Plato's texts by Chrasilyom). The beginning of the era of systematic commentary: if the previous period can be designated as the era of dialogue, then this and the next stage in the history of ancient philosophy is the period of commentary, i.e., the text created in connection with and in relation to another, authoritative text. The Platonists comment on Plato, the peripatetics on Aristotle, the Stoics on Chrysippus (cf. Epictetus, “Manual” § 49; “Conversations” 110, 8 - on the Stoic school exegesis, in contrast to the Platonic and Peripatetic, represented by the surviving texts, we can only judge by hints). According to the remark of the peripatetic Alexander of Aphrodisias (2nd century AD), the discussion of “theses” was in the habit of the ancient philosophers, “they gave their lessons in precisely this way, without commenting on books, as they do now (then there were no books of this kind ), but by presenting a thesis and arguing for and against, they thereby exercised their own to find evidence based on premises accepted by everyone” (Alex. Aphrod. In Top., 27, 13 Wallies).
Of course, oral exercises could not be discarded - but now they are exercises for explaining written texts. The difference is clearly visible in the new school formulation of the question of research (not about the subject, but about how Plato or Aristotle understood the subject): for example, not “is the world eternal?”, but “can we assume that, according to Plato, the world is eternal if in “Timaeus” does he recognize the demiurge of the world?” (cf. "Platonic Questions" by Plutarch of Chaeronea).
The desire to systematize and streamline the heritage of the past was also manifested in a huge number of doxographic compendia and biographical histories created just in this period from the 1st century BC. BC e. (the most famous compendium of Aria Didyma) to the beginning. 3 in. (the most famous are Diogenes Laertius and Sextus Empiricus), and in the wide distribution of school textbooks, designed to correctly and intelligibly devote both students and the general public to the teachings of the great philosophers (cf. especially the Platonic textbooks of Apuleius and AlciNOJ).
Plotinus is considered the founder of Neoplatonism, because the corpus of his writings (“Enneads”) contains all of Neoplatonic philosophy, which he built into a coherent ontological hierarchy: the superexistential principle is the One-blizgo, the second hypostasis is Um-nus, the third is the World Soul and the sensual Cosmos . The One is inaccessible to thought and is comprehended only in an over-intelligent ecstatic unity with it, expressed not by ordinary linguistic means, but negatively, through (cf.). The transition from a single to other levels of being is described in terms of “radiation”, “disclosure”, later the main term is “exodus” (proodos), see Emanation. itself (thus acting as the beginning for the soul, the soul for the cosmos). In the future, this scheme will be subjected to refinement and careful development. In general, systematism, scholasticism, and magic (theurgy) are extremely characteristic of late (post-Iamblichian) Neoplatonism. Noteworthy is the absence of socio-political issues, so important for Plato himself; Neoplatonism is entirely and theology.
Among the texts authoritative for Neoplatonists, in addition to the texts of Plato (commentaries on the Platonic dialogues form the main part of the heritage of this tradition), were the works of Aristotle, Homer and the Chaldean oracles. Commentaries on Aristotle are the second largest part of the surviving heritage of Neoplatonism; the key for Neoplatonic commentators was the harmonization of the teachings of Plato and Aristotle (see Aristotle's commentators for more details). On the whole, the course of Aristotle's philosophy was seen as the ("small mysteries") to the study of Plato ("great mysteries").
In 529, the Academy of Athens was closed by edict of Emperor Justinian, and philosophers were forced to stop teaching. This date is accepted as a symbolic end to the history of angina philosophy, although the philosophers expelled from Athens continued to work on the outskirts of the empire (for example, the comments of Simplicius, which became for us one of the main sources on the history of ancient philosophy, were written by him already in exile). PHILOSOPHY-?ΙΛΙΑ ΣΟΦΙΑΣ. About what philosophy is, the ancient philosophers themselves spoke as often as they often had to embark on an initial philosophical course. A similar course in the Neoplatonic schools was opened by reading Aristotle.
Aristotle began with logic, logic with "Categories". Several “Introductions to Philosophy” and “Introductions to Aristotle” have survived, anticipating school commentaries on the “Categories”. Porfiry, who first proposed considering Aristotle's writings as a propaedeutic to Platonic ones, at one time wrote a special "Introduction to the Categories" ("Isagoge"), which became the basic textbook for Neoplatonists. Commenting on Porphyry, the Neoplatonist Ammonius lists several traditional definitions in which Platonic, Aristotelian and Stoic themes can be distinguished: 1) “knowledge of beings because beings”; 2) “knowledge of divine and human affairs”; 3) “likeness to God, as far as it is possible for a person”; 4) “preparation for death”; 5) “the art of arts and sciences”; 6) "love of wisdom" (Airtmonius. In Porph. Isagogen, 2, 22-9, 24). The best way all the ancient philosophical texts at our disposal could clarify these later school definitions, which also demonstrate the spaciousness of the tradition that has consolidated the various teachings of more than a thousand years into one “history of ancient philosophy”.
Encyclopedias and dictionaries: Pauly A., Wssowa G; Kroll W. (hrsg.). Realencyclopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, 83 Bande. Stuttg., 1894-1980; Der Neue Pauly. Enzyklopaedie der Antike. Das klassische Altertum und seine Rezeptionsgeschichte in 15 Banden, hrsg. v. H. Cancik and H. Schneider. Stuttg., 1996-99; Goulet S. (ed.). Dictionnaire des philosophes antiques, v. 1-2. P., 1989-94; 2e.”/ D. J. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Classical Philosophy. Westport, 1997.
Detailed expositions of the history of ancient philosophy: Losev A.F., History of ancient aesthetics in 8 vols. M., 1963-93; Guthlie W. K. C. A History of Greek Philosophy in b vols. Cambr., 1962-81; Algra K., Bames J; Mansfeld f.. Schoßeid M. (eus.). The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy. Cambr., 1999; Armstrong A. B. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Later Greek and Early Medieval Philosophy. Cambr., 1967; Grundriss der Geschichte der Philosophie, begr. v. fr. Ueberweg: Die Philosophie des Altertunis, hrsg. v. K. Prächter, völlig neubearbeitete Ausgabe: Die Philosophie der Antike, hrsg. v. H. Raschar, Bd. 3-4. Basel-Stuttg., 1983-94 (volumes l-2 forthcoming); Reale G. Storia delia filosofia antica, v. 1-5. Mil., 1975-87 (English translation: A History of Ancient Philosophy. Albany, 1985); Zeller £. Die Philosophie der Griechen in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwicklung, 3 Teile in 6 Banden. Lpz., 1879-1922 (3-6 Aufl.; Neudruck Hildesheim, 1963).
Textbooks: Zeller E. Essay on the history of Greek philosophy. St. Petersburg, 1912 (reissued 1996); Chanyshev A. N. Course of lectures of ancient philosophy. M., 1981; He is. A course of lectures on ancient and medieval philosophy. M., 1991; Bogomolov A.S. Antique Philosophy. M., 1985; Reale J., Antiseri D. Western philosophy from its origins to the present day. I. Antiquity (translated from Italian). SPb., 1994; Losev A.F. Dictionary of ancient philosophy. M., 1995; History of Philosophy: West-Russia-East, book. 1: Philosophy of Antiquity and the Middle Ages, ed. N. V. Motroshilova. M., 1995; Ado Pierre. What is ancient philosophy? (translated from .). M., 1999; Canto-Sperber M., Barnes J; ßrisson L., £runschwig J., Viaslos G. (eds.). Philosophie Grecque. P., 1997.
Readers: Pereverzentsev S. V. Workshop on the history of Western European philosophy (Antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance). M., 1997; tbgel C. de (ed.). Greek philosophy. A collection f texts selected and supplied with some notes and explanations, vol. 1-3. Leiden, 1963-67; Long A. A., Sedley D. X (eds. and trs.). The Hellenistic Philosophers, 2 v. Cambr., 1987.
Manuals on the history of Greek culture and education: Zelinsky F.F. From the life of ideas, 3rd ed. Pg., 1916; He is. Religion of Hellenism. Pg., 1922; Marru A.-I. History of education in antiquity (Greece), trans. from French. M., 1998; Yeager W. Paydeia. The Education of the Ancient Greek, trans. with him. M., 1997.
Lit .: Losev A.F. Antique space and modern science. M., 1927 (reissued 1993); He is. Essays on ancient symbolism and mythology. M., 1930 (reissued 1993); He is. Hellenistic-Roman 1-11 centuries. n. e. M., 1979; Rozhachshy ID The development of natural science in the era of antiquity. M., 1979; Bogomolov A.S. Dialectical Logos. Becoming antique. M., 1982; Gaidenko P. P. Evolution of the concept of science. M., 1980; Zaitsev A.I. Cultural upheaval in ancient Greece VIII-VI centuries. BC e .. L., 1985; Dobrokhotov A. L. The category of being in classical Western European philosophy. M., 1986; Anton J. P., Kustos G. L. (eds.). Essays in Ancient Greek Philosophy. Albany, 1971; Haase W., lèmporini J. (eds.), Aufstieg und Niedergang der Römischen Welt. Geschichte und Kultur Roms ün Spiegel der neueren Forschung, Teil II, Bd. 36:1-7. B. - N. Y., 1987-98; Mansfeid]. Questions to be settled before the study of anauthororatext.Leiden-N.Y.-Koln, 1994; Irwin T. (ed.). Classical Philosophy: Collected Papers, vol. 1-8. N.Y., 1995; The Cambridge Companoin to early Greek philosophy, ed. by A. A. Long. N. Y, 1999. Continuing editions: Entretiens sur l "Antiquité classique, t. 1-43. Vandoevres-Gen., 1952-97; Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy, ed. J. Annas et al., v. 1- 17. Oxf., 1983-99.
Bibliographies: Marouwau J. (ed.), L "Année philologique. Bibliographie critique et analytique de l" antiquité gréco-latine. P., 1924-99; Bell A. A. Resources in Ancient Philosophy: An An An Annotated Bibliography of Scholarship in English. 1965-1989. Metuchen-N. J., 1991.
Internet facilities: http://callimac.yjf.cnrs.fr (various in classical antiquity, including the latest editions of Maruso); http://www.perseus.tufts.edu (classical texts in original and English translation); http;//www.gnomon.kueichsiaett. de/Gnomon (bibliographies of works on ancient culture and philosophy); http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/bmcr (Bryn Mawr Classical Review of literature on antiquity).
M. A. Solopova
New Philosophical Encyclopedia: In 4 vols. M.: Thought. Edited by V. S. Stepin. 2001 .
A complex of ideas and teachings produced by ancient Greek and Roman thinkers in the period from the 7th century. BC. by 6th c. and characterized by a certain problematic content and style unity. It is a product of an unconventional type of culture ... The latest philosophical dictionary
ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY- (lit. ancient philosophy) the first time form of being of European philosophy, an element of the spiritual culture of the Greco-Roman world. The term philo (love of wisdom) and the word sophos (wisdom) used along with it denoted among the ancients themselves knowledge very ... ... Modern Philosophical Dictionary
A complex of ideas and teachings produced by ancient Greek and Roman thinkers in the period from the 7th century. BC. by 6th c. AD and characterized by a certain problematic content and style unity. It is a product of non-traditional type ... ... History of Philosophy: Encyclopedia
ancient philosophy (genesis)- Philosophy as a creation of the Hellenic genius Philosophy, as a kind of integrity (both as a term and as a concept), is recognized by scientists as a product of the Hellenic genius. Indeed, if the rest of the components of Greek culture can be found analogues in others ...
ancient philosophy (concept and purpose) - Distinctive features ancient philosophy Tradition ascribes the introduction of the term philosophy to Pythagoras: this, if not historically obvious, is, in any case, plausible. The term is definitely marked by a religious spirit: only for God… … Western philosophy from its origins to the present day
- (from Greek phileo love, sophia wisdom, philosophia love of wisdom) a special form of social consciousness and knowledge of the world, developing a system of knowledge about the fundamental principles and foundations of human existence, about the most general essential ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia
Philosophy of chemistry is a branch of philosophy that studies the fundamental concepts, development problems and methodology of chemistry as part of science. In the philosophy of science, chemical problems occupy a more modest place than the philosophy of physics and the philosophy of mathematics ... Wikipedia
- (from phil ... and Greek sophia wisdom), worldview, a system of ideas, views on the world and the place of man in it. Explores the cognitive, socio-political, value, ethical and aesthetic attitude of man to the world. Based on… … Modern encyclopedia Read more
The philosophy of antiquity is divided into two forms: ancient Greek and ancient Roman(end of $7$ century BC - $6$ century AD).
ancient greek philosophy
There is no place for anonymity in ancient philosophy. There will always be an appeal to one or another philosophical figure.
It includes $12$ centuries of outstanding names and unsurpassed personalities - the founders of many natural sciences and humanities disciplines and philosophers.
Remark 1
Thales opens the ancient philosophy, Boethius completes it.
The understanding of ancient philosophy is based on the interaction of two approaches: the formation of an awareness of the emergence model and the construction of ancient philosophy, and the development of concepts and concepts by philosophers, on the basis of which one can capture their worldview with one glance.
In the absence of barriers between one's own and another's, Greek thought borrows "philosophy" from the barbarians: Persians, Babylonians, Indians. Thus, ancient philosophy absorbs oriental wisdom.
Ancient Greek philosophy is divided into three periods:
- Origin:$7-5$ cc. BC e. (Early Classics, Naturphilosophy)
- Heyday:$5-6$ cc. BC e. (Classic, Socrates, Socrates, Platonists)
- Sunset:$4-1$ cc. BC e. (Hellenistic philosophy)
The philosophy of Antiquity is born in the form of worldly wisdom. This is the doctrine of Being. Philosophy, as a rule, did not go beyond these limits. The function of philosophy was aimed at wisdom and the search for knowledge of being.
One of central concepts ancient philosophy is the concept of "nature", which over the course of this period succumbed to various interpretations.
The Greek concept of nature includes the concept of nature and the world as a whole. She is inseparable from the person.
Cosmocentrism - as a fundamental concept of ancient Greek philosophy, is associated with the comprehension of reality, space, harmony, being, for this current the world as a whole is important. Also at this time, various versions of the origin of being, and the essence of the world of things, are considered. For example, Democritus believed that the world consists of indivisible particles - atoms.
The early philosophers were collected in one general work, Fragments of the Pre-Socratics, by Hermann Diels.
Asia Minor was the center of Greek civilization. The colony of Miletus, the birthplace of Thales, becomes the key to all ancient philosophy, where the first school of philosophy arises.
Pythagoras is called the ancestor of the concept of philosophy, which we now use to describe this thought and spiritual process. Philosophy is the love of wisdom.
Main names and philosophical schools
The following schools belong to the early classical, natural-philosophical ancient Greek tradition:
- Milesian school (Thales, Anaximenes, Anaximander)
- Pythagorean school (Pythagoras, Archytas, Timaeus, Philollai)
- Eleatics (Parmenides, Zeno)
- Heraclitus school (Heraclitus, Cratylus)
- School of Anaxagoras (Anaxagoras, Archelaus, Metrodorus)
- Atomists (Democritus, Leucippus)
The first stage of ancient philosophy ends with Plato. Hellenistic philosophy is moving forward.
There are four leading philosophical schools of antiquity - the Academy, Peripate, Portico and Garden, which to a certain extent have a representative position in the Hellenistic era.
The concept of Hellenistic philosophy appeared in the $XX$ century. It was formulated by Droysen, who wrote a work on the history of Hellenism. Traditionally, Hellenism concerns only Greek culture and characterizes the spread of Greek culture and language over a wider area. The word itself is translated as "to live in Greek." However, Rome, having adopted Greek culture, retained Latin. It was through the translation of Greek philosophy that the Latin philosophical language was formed.
From $III$ c. Platonism becomes the leading direction, which settles in Aristotelianism and Stoicism.
For contemporaries and subsequent representatives of European culture, the philosophical knowledge and teachings of Plato became an important event. The conventional wisdom is being questioned. Plato changes the essence of wisdom and philosophy itself, while he himself was a student of Socrates. Socrates had a rather strong influence on Plato, however, his ideas went even further, including they are the basis of idealism. Plato overestimates questions about the nature of philosophical knowledge, man, puts forward his ideas about the essence of the world, truth, and good. In part, his ideas are continued by Aristotle, who is a student of Plato, but in many aspects Aristotle does not support Plato's ideas, but puts forward completely opposite ones. The teachings of Aristotle later a huge impact on Alexander the Great.
A common feature of Hellenistic philosophy is the emphasis on ethics, which is associated with a correct and happy way of life. Each school of the Hellenistic era develops its own idea of perfection and its own image of a sage. This image of the sage remains the same. The philosopher begins to be associated with the "strange" figure. Genuine philosophizing in everyday life acquires a specific character.
There are three periods in the history of Stoicism:
- ancient standing($III-II$ centuries BC). Founder Zenon Kititsky ($336-264$).
- Average standing($II-I$ centuries BC) The founders of Roman stoicism: Panetius of Rhodes ($180-110$), Posidonius ($135-51$).
- Late standing or Roman stoicism. This is purely ethical. In $I-II$ centuries. AD it existed simultaneously with the Judeo-Christian tradition, which influenced the formation of Christian doctrine.
Remark 2
The most prominent among the philosophers of Stoicism were Seneca Lucius Anneus, Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius.
Stoicism can be described as the "religion" of the Roman aristocracy. He considers questions about happiness, about its attainability and its relationship with virtue.
From $1$ century BC to $5$ century AD Greek philosophy is influenced by ancient Rome and early Christianity.
School of Neoplatonists
Neoplatonism is a very influential concept.
The first school of Neoplatonism took shape in Rome in the $III$ century. Its founder was Plotinus, he used many of the ideas put forward by Plato. In the $4th century Neoplatonism flared up in Syria and Pergamon. In the $V$ century the center of Neoplatonism moved to Athens and Alexandria of Egypt.
The Roman, Syrian and Pergamon schools are known.
Plotinus, speaking about the One, was based on Plato's Parmenides. Parmenides was the first to understand in the most general terms what it means to be. The One Plotinus transcends both being and existence. It emanates: the first step is Mind. The nature of Mind is to think, for without thinking there is no being.
Ancient philosophy gave rise to many hypotheses and concepts that formed the basis of all further philosophical tradition.
Thanks to these specific ideas of philosophizing, interest in thought, being and the essence of the universe arose in European culture.
