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Activity human - a type of human activity aimed at cognition and creative transformation of the surrounding world, including oneself and the conditions of one’s existence.
The main activities are play, study, work.
A game- a type of unproductive activity, the purpose of which is entertainment, relaxation, and not the production of material goods. Character traits games:
- existence of rules
- conditional situation
- use of substitute items
- goal - satisfaction of interest
- Personal development (enrichment, necessary skills)
Teaching (study)- a type of human activity, as a result of which the acquisition of knowledge, skills, abilities and mastery of methods of action necessary for successful interaction with the world occurs.
Learning can be organized, unorganized, self-educational.
1. Organized learning is a learning process that takes place in educational institutions.
2. Unorganized (informal) learning - a learning process that is carried out in other types of activities as their by-product, additional result.
3. Self-education - selfeducation, acquisition of systematic knowledge in any field of science, technology, culture, political life etc., presupposing the direct personal interest of the student in organic combination with the independence of studying the material.
Educational activity is the most important condition for the development of human consciousness and preparing him for independent life in society. Continues to occupy a large place even after graduation.
The essence is mastering the experience of previous generations. The result is the assimilation of the values and norms of the national culture.
Work- a type of human activity aimed at achieving certain goals, at preserving, modifying, adapting the environment to meet human needs.
Characteristics of work:
- expediency
- focus on achieving programmed, expected results
- presence of skill, skills, knowledge
- practical usefulness
- getting the result
- personal development
- transformation of the external human environment
The specific difference between work and play and study is the creation of products that are useful to humans - both material and spiritual.
Scientists have developed doctrine of activity , which is leading for each age period of a person’s life, because
- that it is she who forms the most important personality traits at each age stage.
- that all other activities during a person’s life develop in its wake.
|
Age period |
Leading activity |
Related/additional activity |
|
Child before entering school |
Gradual learning and hard work |
|
|
Schoolboy |
Teaching (study) |
Work, play in free time |
|
Teenager |
Communication (many researchers think so) |
Teaching and new games |
|
Adult |
Study, play, communicate in free time |
Let's look at examples teachings (studies).
|
Organized | 1.Training in secondary educational institutions(schools). 2.Training in vocational educational institutions (lyceums). 3.Training in higher educational institutions (universities, institutes, etc.). |
|
Unorganized (informal) | 1.Trainings - “Development of management skills”, “Art public speaking" etc. 2. Seminars - “Active sales”, etc. 3.Consultations on various topics. 4.Courses Intensive courses " English language. Conversation practice", course "WEB-design", course "Real estate agent (realtor)", etc. |
|
Self-education |
Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov was engaged in self-education: he learned to read and write early and by the age of 14 he had read all the books he could get his hands on: Magnitsky’s Arithmetic, Smotritsky’s Slavic Grammar and the Rhymed Psalter of Simeon of Polotsk. In 1730 he went to Moscow and, hiding his origin, entered the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, where he received good preparation in ancient languages and other humanities. Latin language knew it perfectly, and was subsequently recognized as one of the best Latinists in Europe. |
Let's complete online tasks(tests).
Used Books:
1. Unified State Exam 2009. Social studies. Directory / O.V. Kishenkova. - M.: Eksmo, 2008. 2. Social studies: Unified State Examination-2008: real tasks/aut.-state O.A.Kotova, T.E.Liskova. - M.: AST: Astrel, 2008. 3. Social studies: complete guide/ P.A.Baranov, A.V.Vorontsov, S.V.Shevchenko; edited by P.A. Baranova. - M.: AST: Astrel; Vladimir: VKT, 2010. 4. Social studies: profile level: academic. For 10th grade. general education Institutions / L.N. Bogolyubov, A.Yu. Lazebnikova, N.M. Smirnova and others, ed. L.N. Bogolyubova and others - M.: Education, 2007. 5. Social science. 10th grade: textbook. for general education institutions: a basic level of/ L.N.Bogolyubov, Yu.I. Averyanov, N.I. Gorodetskaya and others; edited by L.N. Bogolyubova; Ross. acad. Sciences, Ross. acad. education, publishing house "Enlightenment". 6th ed. - M.: Education, 2010.
Internet resources used
Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia
Activity - specific type human activity aimed at creative transformation, improvement of reality and oneself. Activity is a form of realization of the subject’s relationship to the world of objects, we can distinguish different types such relationships, realized in different forms of activity: practical, cognitive, aesthetic, etc. Practical activity is aimed primarily at transforming the world in accordance with the goals set by man. Cognitive activity serves the purpose of understanding the objective laws of the existence of the world, without which it is impossible to carry out practical tasks. Aesthetic activity associated with the perception and creation of works of art involves the translation (transmission) of meanings, which are determined by the value orientations of a particular society and individual. All these are types of human activity.
Within each type of activity, individual types of activity can be distinguished according to the differences in their subjects - motives: communication, play, learning and work.
Communication is the first type of activity that arises in the process of individual development of a person, followed by play, learning and work. All these types of activities are developmental in nature, i.e. When a child is included and actively participates in them, his intellectual and personal development occurs.
Communication is considered as a type of activity aimed at the exchange of information between communicating people. It also pursues the goals of establishing mutual understanding, good personal and business relationships, providing mutual assistance and the educational influence of people on each other. Communication can be direct and indirect, verbal and non-verbal. In direct communication, people are in direct contact with each other.
A game is a type of activity that does not result in the production of any material or ideal product (with the exception of business and design games for adults and children). Games are often of an entertainment nature and serve the purpose of relaxation. Sometimes games serve as a means of symbolic release of tensions that have arisen under the influence of the actual needs of a person, which he is unable to weaken in any other way.
Games can be: individual (one person is engaged in a game), group (with several people), subject-based (associated with the inclusion of some objects in a person’s gaming activity), plot (unfold according to a script, in the main details), role-playing (in the game a person leads himself according to the role he takes on) and games with rules (regulated by a system of rules). Games are of great importance in people's lives. For children, games have a developmental value, while for adults they have a relaxing value.
Teaching is a type of activity whose purpose is to acquire knowledge, skills and abilities by a person. Learning can be organized (in special educational institutions) and unorganized (in other types of activities as a by-product, additional result). Educational activity serves as a means of psychological development of the individual.
Labor occupies a special place in the system of human activity. Thanks to labor, man built modern society, created objects of material and spiritual culture, transformed the conditions of his life in such a way that he opened up prospects for further, almost unlimited development. Labor is primarily associated with the creation and improvement of tools. They, in turn, were a factor in increasing labor productivity, the development of science, industrial production, technical and artistic creativity. These are the main characteristics of activities.
At school A.N. Leontiev distinguishes two forms of subject activity (according to the nature of its openness to observation): external and internal. By external activity we usually mean various forms of objective-practical activity (for example, driving a nail with a hammer, working on a machine, manipulating toys in small children, etc.), where the subject interacts with an object clearly presented for external observation. Internal activity is the activity of a subject with images of objects hidden from direct observation (for example, the theoretical activity of a scientist in solving a mathematical problem, the work of an actor on a role, taking place in the form of internal thoughts and experiences, etc.). The ratio of external and internal components is not constant. As activities develop and transform, a systematic transition from external to internal components is carried out. It is accompanied by their internalization and automation. If any difficulties arise in activity, when it is restored, associated with violations of internal components, a reverse transition occurs - exteriorization: reduced, automated components of activity unfold, appear externally, internal ones again become external, consciously controlled.
Activity differs from behavior (behavior is not always purposeful, does not involve the creation of a specific product, and is often passive in nature) and has the following main characteristics: motive, goal, subject, structure, means. We talked about motives and goals in paragraph 1.1., so let’s immediately move on to the third characteristic - the subject of activity. The object of activity is everything with which it directly deals. So, for example, the subject of cognitive activity is information, educational activity is knowledge, skills and abilities, and labor activity is the created material product.
The activity has a complex hierarchical structure. It consists of several “layers” or levels. These are special activities (or special types activities); then the action level; the next is the level of operations; finally, the lowest is the level of psychophysiological functions. Special types of activities: gaming, educational, work activities.
Action is the basic unit of activity analysis. Action is one of the main “formative” activities. This concept, like a drop of water, reflects the basic starting points or principles of the theory of activity, new in comparison with previous concepts.
1. Consciousness cannot be considered as closed in itself: it must be brought into the activity of the subject (“opening” the circle of consciousness).
2. Behavior cannot be considered in isolation from a person’s consciousness. When considering behavior, consciousness must not only be preserved, but also defined in its fundamental function (the principle of the unity of consciousness and behavior).
3.Activity is an active, purposeful process (the principle of activity).
4.Human actions are objective; they realize social - production and cultural - goals (the principle of the objectivity of human activity and the principle of its social conditionality).
The goal sets the action, the action ensures the realization of the goal. By characterizing the goal, you can also characterize the action. There are large goals that are divided into smaller, private goals, which, in turn, can be divided into even more private goals, etc. Accordingly, any sufficiently large action is a sequence of actions of a lower order with transitions to different “floors” hierarchical system of actions. This can be demonstrated using any example.
Let's say a person wants to call another city. To carry out this action (I order), he needs to perform a number of private actions (II order): go to the telephone booth, find a suitable machine, take a turn, purchase telephone tokens, etc. Once in the booth, he must perform the following action in this row: connect to the subscriber. But to do this, he will have to perform a number of even smaller actions (III order): put in a coin, press a button, wait for the beep, dial a certain number, etc.
Now we turn to operations, which form the next, underlying level in relation to actions.
An operation is a way of performing an action. Multiply two double digit numbers you can do it in your head and in writing, solving the example “in a column”. These will be two different ways of performing the same arithmetic operation, or two different operations. As you can see, operations characterize the technical side of performing actions, and what is called “technique,” dexterity, dexterity, refers almost exclusively to the level of operations. The nature of the operations depends on the conditions of the action being performed. If the action meets the goal itself, then the operation meets the conditions under which this goal is given. In this case, “conditions” mean both external circumstances and the possibilities, or internal means, of the acting subject himself.
The most accurate psychological sign that distinguishes actions and operations - awareness/unconsciousness - can, in principle, be used, however, not always. It stops working precisely in the border zone, near the border that separates the layer of actions and operations. The farther from this boundary, the more reliable the self-observation data: the subject usually has no doubt regarding the representation (or non-representation) in the consciousness of very large or very small acts. But in the border zone the situational dynamics of the activity process become significant. And here the very attempt to determine the awareness of any act can lead to its awareness, that is, disrupt the natural structure of activity.
The only way that is now seen is the use of objective indicators, i.e. behavioral and physiological signs, the active level of the current process.
Let's move on to the last one low level in the structure of activity - psychophysiological functions. Psychophysiological functions in activity theory are understood as physiological support for mental processes. These include a number of abilities of our body, such as the ability to sense, to form and record traces of past influences, motor ability, etc. Accordingly, they speak of sensory, mnemonic, and motor functions. This level also includes innate mechanisms fixed in the morphology of the nervous system, and those that mature during the first months of life. Psychophysiological functions constitute the organic foundation of activity processes. Without relying on them, it would be impossible not only to carry out actions and operations, but also to set the tasks themselves.
Let's return to the characteristics of activity, and the last characteristic is the means of carrying out the activity. These are the tools that a person uses when performing certain actions and operations. The development of means of activity leads to its improvement, as a result of which it becomes more productive and of higher quality.
And at the end of the paragraph, we emphasize the main differences between human activity and animal activity:
1.Human activity is productive, creative, creative in nature. Animal activity has a consumer basis; as a result, it does not produce or create anything new compared to what is given by nature.
2. Human activity is connected with objects of material and spiritual culture, which are used by him either as tools, or as objects to satisfy needs, or as means of his own development. For animals, human tools and means of satisfying needs do not exist as such.
3. Human activity transforms himself, his abilities, needs, and living conditions. The activity of animals practically does not change anything either in themselves or in external conditions life.
4. Human activity in its various forms and means of implementation is a product of history. The activity of animals appears as a result of their biological evolution.
5. People’s objective activities are not given to them from birth. It is “given” in the cultural purpose and way of using surrounding objects. Such activities need to be formed and developed in training and education. The same applies to internal, neurophysiological and psychological structures that control the external side of practical activity. The activity of animals is initially given, genotypically determined and unfolds as the natural anatomical and physiological maturation of the organism occurs.
The essence of motivation. Motive and incentive. Basic theories of motivation.
Motivation is a process of motivating oneself or others to act and achieve certain goals. Incentive, stimulation also includes the material side, it is a kind of promise of reward, a reward that also serves as an incentive to activity and achieve goals. Motivation is an internal process. Stimulation - external. Motive implies the internal urge or desire of an individual to behave in a certain way to satisfy needs. And the incentive also captures the material aspect. Theories of motivation: Content-based: A. Maslow’s model of motivation based on the hierarchy of needs: primary, social, respect and self-expression, self-realization through their consistent implementation;
D. McClelland's model of motivation using the needs of power, success and recognition in the group, involvement in it; F. Herzberg's model of motivation using hygienic factors (working conditions, interpersonal relationships, etc.) in combination with the “enrichment” of the work process itself: a sense of success, promotion, recognition from others, responsibility, growth of opportunities; Processual: a model of motivation based on V. Vram's expectancy theory: a person directs his efforts to achieve a goal when he is confident that his needs will be met. Motivation is a function of the expectation factor according to the scheme: “labor costs -> results -” reward”; model of motivation based on equity theory: people compare personal effort expended with reward, comparing it with the reward of others for similar work. If labor is undervalued, effort decreases.
Leadership is a purposeful influence on the people being led and their communities, which leads to their conscious and active behavior and activities, in accordance with the intentions of the leader. Leadership is the process of psychological influence of one person on others during their joint life activities, which is carried out on the basis of perception, imitation, suggestion, and understanding of each other. Leadership is based on the principles of free communication, mutual understanding and voluntary submission. A leader is characterized by: the ability to perceive the general needs and problems of the team and take on a certain share in solving these problems; the ability to be an organizer of joint activities: he formulates a task that worries the majority of team members, plans joint work, taking into account the interests and capabilities of each team member; sensitivity and insight, trust in people, he is an exponent of the collective positions of its members. The main differences between management and leadership: management provides for the organization of all group activities, and leadership characterizes the psychological relationships that arise in the group “vertically,” that is, from the point of view of relations of dominance and subordination; leadership is a natural and necessary element of the process of the emergence of a formal organization, while leadership arises spontaneously as a consequence of the interaction of people; leadership acts as a process of legal organization and management of joint activities of members of organizations, and leadership is a process of internal socio-psychological organization and management of communication and activity; the leader is a mediator social control and power, and the leader is the subject of group norms and expectations that are spontaneously formed in personal relationships. A manager-leader does not command, does not call upon or “put pressure” on employees, but leads people along with them to solve problems common to the given team.
General and special functions management activities.
Control functions- this is a direction or types of management activity, based on division and cooperation in management, and characterized by a separate set of tasks and performed by special techniques and methods. Any management function includes collecting information, transforming it, making decisions, giving it form and communicating it to performers. General control functions:- carried out in every organization and at every level of management; - inherent in the management of any organization; - divide the content of management activities into types of work based on the sequence of their implementation over time; - are relatively independent and at the same time closely interact. Such functions, in particular, management include: planning, organizing, motivating and controlling. Specific (specific) functions- represent the result of the division of managerial labor. Such functions include various types of activities that differ in purpose and method of implementation. Specific functions do not affect the entire organization, but its specific aspects or parts. Each specific management function in an organization is complex in content and includes general functions: planning, organization, motivation and control. Special functions - are subfunctions of a specific function (for example, a special function of main production management is operational scheduling of main production).
The main categories of PU are activity and labor. Activity is an activity that realizes human needs, its characteristics are the external side (tools used, technologies, social roles, languages, norms and values), the internal side (expressed in the conditioning of the psyche by past experience, needs, motives and goals). Human activity has a complex genetic, functional and structural nature. It has its origins, “causes” and a more or less definite structural and functional organization. Its composition is multicomponent. Its implementation involves mental processes, states and personality traits of varying levels of complexity. Depending on the goals, this activity can last for years or even a lifetime. However, no matter how complex it may be, no matter how long it lasts, it can be described using universal units that reflect not the content, but rather the structural-level approach to its description. Units of activity, which represent its smaller fragments, but at the same time preserving the specificity of its psychological content, are those elements that are enshrined in the concepts of action and operation. Purposeful activity associated with the achievement of specific goals while carrying out broader activities is usually called actions in psychology. An operation is that specific set and sequence of movements that is determined by the specific conditions of interaction with objects in the process of carrying out actions (for example, the physical properties of the object, location, orientation in space, accessibility, etc.). Simply put, an operation is a way of performing an action. Operations are formed through imitation (copying) and by automating actions. Unlike actions, operations are little conscious.
The principle of unity of psyche and activity;
The principle of the unity of consciousness and activity is the fundamental principle of the activity approach in psychology. Activity is not a set of reflexive and impulsive reactions to external stimuli, since it is regulated by consciousness and reveals it. At the same time, consciousness is considered as a reality that is not given to the subject directly, in his introspection: it can be known only through a system of subjective relations, incl. through the activity of the subject, during which consciousness is formed and developed. The psyche, consciousness “lives” in activity, which constitutes their “substance”; the image is “accumulated movement”, i.e. compressed actions that were at first completely developed and “external”, i.e. consciousness does not simply “manifest and form” in activity as a separate reality - it is “built-in” into activity and is inseparable from it. The principle of a two-stage psychological study of activity. According to him, the analysis of activity should include two successive stages - analysis of its content and analysis of its psychological mechanisms. The first stage is associated with the characterization of the objective content of the activity, the second - with the analysis of the subjective, actually psychological content.
Basic management functions: planning, motivation, etc.
Currently, a process approach to management is widespread, which considers management as a process consisting of a number of specific sequential steps. Most people plan their activities for the day (month, year, etc.), then organize the resources that will be needed to carry out their plan. Those. management must be viewed as a cyclical process ^ Main types of managementPlanning - the process of preparing for the future decisions about what should be done, how, when, what and how many resources should be used. The planning function answers three questions: · where the organization is currently located; Where does she want to go? · how the organization is going to do this. ^ Organization. Stages: 1. structural organization (includes the structure of authority and the structure of communications; 2. organization of the production process (includes the organization of personnel work, work in time, work in space). Motivation - maximum satisfaction of the needs of the organization's employees in exchange for their effective work. Stages: 1. determining the needs of employees; 2. providing the opportunity for the employee to satisfy these needs through good work. Control - the process of ensuring that an organization actually achieves its goals. Stages: 1. setting standards; 2. measuring what has actually been achieved and comparing what has been achieved with intended standards; 3. identification of sources of discrepancies and actions necessary to correct plans.
Basic psychological requirements for an effective manager.
Many existing approaches to defining a normative model of an effective leader can be combined into 3 main groups:
1. Situational;
2. Personal;
3. Situational.
1. Functional approach. The main point for developing requirements for
An effective manager is to define his functions. In this case, the main structure for identifying functions is the structure of the manager’s activities.
In most cases, the functional characteristics of managers' activities are associated with the understanding and formulation of the organization's mission, goal setting, resource management, and control of processes in the external and internal environment of the organization.
We can name 12 functions that reflect the structure and specifics of the professional activity of a manager:
1. Knowledge - knowledge of a person, group, organization, its environment, the current management situation;
2. Forecast - determination of the main directions and dynamics of development of controlled variables;
3. Design - determining the mission, goals and objectives of the organization, programming and planning activities;
4. Communication and information - formation, structuring, preservation of communication networks, collection, transformation and direction into communication networks necessary for information management;
5. Motivation - rational influence on the totality of external and internal conditions that cause activity and determine the direction of activity of the subject and object of management;
6. Guidelines - taking responsibility for proposed decisions and their consequences based on regulations or agreements within organizations;
7. Organizations - implementation of management goals and objectives;
8. Training - transfer of necessary knowledge, skills and abilities to personnel;
9. Development - expedient change in psychological variables of the individual and group;
10. Assessments - the formation and application of norms and standards of activity;
11. Control - a reflection of the compliance of the current state of organizations with management goals;
12. Corrections - making necessary changes to management goals and programs.
When carrying out professional selection procedures for managers, the readiness of applicants to effectively perform exactly those functions that are characteristic of the proposed position is assessed from the perspective of a functional approach.
2. Personal approach. It is based on the assumption that effective management activity is associated with the manager’s possession of several personality traits.
The profile of an effective manager, according to which a successful manager is characterized by the following features:
Search for opportunities and initiative; perseverance and perseverance;
Focus on efficiency and quality; involvement in work contacts;
Determination;
Awareness;
Ability to persuade and establish connections; independence and self-confidence.
3. Situational (behavioral) approach. Successful leadership depends on:
1. expectations and needs of managed persons;
2. group structure and situation specifics;
3. The cultural environment in which the group is included;
4. history of the organization in which leadership activities are carried out;
5. age and experience of the manager, his length of service;
6. Psychological climate in the group;
7. personal characteristics of subordinates.
The situational approach allows us to identify a number of personality traits of a manager, which indicate the manager’s readiness for productive activity in a wide range of situations. These include, in particular, the ability to flexibly change leadership style, resistance to uncertainty, and the absence of rigid stereotypes.
Thus, we can conclude that the overriding task of professional selection of managers is to establish the correspondence of the applicant’s personal characteristics with the characteristics of the organization, the structure and functions of the activity, and the current and predicted state of the professional environment.
The essence of management activity, two main plans for its characteristics.
Activity is defined as a form of the subject’s active relationship to reality, aimed at achieving consciously set goals and associated with the creation of socially significant values and the development of social experience. The subject of the psychological study of activity is the psychological components that encourage, direct and regulate the subject’s labor activity and realize it in performing actions, as well as the personality traits through which this activity is realized. The main psychological properties of activity are activity, awareness, purposefulness, objectivity and consistency of its structure. Activity is always based on some motive (or several motives). Activity involves two main levels of characterization - external (objectively active) and internal (psychological). External characteristics of activity are carried out through the concepts of subject and object of labor, object, means and conditions of activity. The subject of labor is a set of things, processes, phenomena with which the subject, in the process of work, must mentally or practically operate. Means of labor are a set of tools that can enhance a person’s ability to recognize the characteristics of the subject of labor and influence it. Working conditions are a system of social, psychological and sanitary-hygienic characteristics of activity. The internal characteristics of activity presuppose a description of the processes and mechanisms of its mental regulation, its structure and content, operating funds its implementation.
The mechanism for executing decisions and its role in management activities. Model of decision making as a circular process, its stages.
Stages of the decision-making process: 1) Problem identification - the primary identification in a particular contradictory situation of a problem that requires resolution. A discrepancy has emerged between the actual and desired state of the organization. 2) Analysis, diagnosis of the problem based on the collection of factual material related to the problem that has arisen. Having discovered a problem, it is necessary to correctly qualify it, which is the second task of the process of developing a management solution. Diagnostics is designed to establish the nature of the problem, its connection with other problems, the degree of its danger, collection and analysis of facts. 3) Determination of the essence of the problem, its main content. At this stage, the results of the analysis are used to develop solution options. There should be many such options so that by comparing them one can choose the best, most reasonable one.4) Choice optimal option decisions and bringing its content to the performers. Such a choice involves considering all options for the proposed solution and excluding subjective aspects in its content. The optimal option will be the one that best takes into account the essence of the problems that have arisen, is acceptable in terms of the amount of expenses required for its implementation and is the most reliable in terms of the possibility of its implementation. 5) Practical implementation under the control of the manager through the use of a feedback mechanism. The implementation of the decision includes all the main phases of the management cycle - planning, organization, motivation and control.
Sole and agreed decisions, conditions for their adoption. The need to make a decision arises when in that case when the usual, stereotypical reaction to the information received is impossible.
The manager can make decisions either individually or in agreement with the work collective. Individual decisions are made by the manager mainly with minimal communication space - for example, decisions made in emergency conditions, or decisions whose significance is not great. But there are also decisions that are better made agreed, taking into account the opinion of the team, or taking into account the opinion of the companies with which the enterprise cooperates, for example, on changing the delivery time of products.
Feedback is a prompt reaction to what is heard, read or seen; This is information (in verbal and non-verbal form) that is sent back to the sender, indicating the degree of understanding, trust in the message, assimilation and agreement with it. Feedback allows the sender not only to know the result of the communication act, but also to adjust the next message to achieve greater effect. If the result of the message transmission is achieved, it is said that positive feedback is in effect; otherwise negative feedback applies. Establishing feedback in an organization is a rather difficult task. This is especially true for vertical, power communications under control through coercion, when the recipient of information is afraid of possible sanctions and deliberately distorts the message coming through feedback channels.
Methods psychological research: general scientific and special; non-experimental and experimental.
Non-experimental methods: observation; survey; conversation; archival method" or the study of the products of an activity (The object of research when using the method of studying the products of an activity can be a wide variety of creative products of the subjects (poems, drawings, various crafts, diary entries, school essays, objects as a result of a certain type of labor activities). laboratory equipped with special instruments and devices. This type of experiment, which is also distinguished by the greatest artificiality of experimental conditions, is usually used in the study of elementary mental functions (sensory and motor reactions, choice reactions). General scientific methods reflect the scientific apparatus of research that determines the effectiveness of any type. Specific are methods that are born of the specifics of management systems and reflect the peculiarities of management activities.
Activities are certain actions that are performed by a person in order to produce something significant for himself or for the people around him. This is a meaningful, multi-component and quite serious activity, which is fundamentally different from relaxation and entertainment.
Definition
The main discipline that studies human activity as part of the curriculum is social science. The first thing you need to know to correctly answer a question on this topic is the basic definition of the concept being studied. However, there may be several such definitions. Another says that activity is a form of human activity that is aimed not only at adapting the body to environment, but also for its qualitative transformation.
All living beings interact with the world around them. However, animals only adapt to the world and its conditions; they cannot change it in any way. But man differs from animals in that he has a special form of interaction with the environment, which is called activity.
Main components
Also, to give a good answer to a social studies question about human activity, you need to know about the concepts of object and subject. The subject is the one who performs the actions. It doesn't have to be a single person. The subject can also be a group of people, an organization or a country. The object of activity in social science is what the activity is specifically aimed at. It could be another person, and Natural resources, and any areas public life. The presence of a goal is one of the main conditions under which human activity is possible. Social science, in addition to the goal, also highlights the action component. It is carried out in accordance with the set goal.
Types of actions
The expediency of an activity is an indicator of whether a person is moving towards the result that is important to him. The goal is the image of this result, which the subject of activity strives for, and the action is a direct step aimed at realizing the goal facing a person. The German scientist M. Weber identified several types of actions:
- Purposeful (in other words - rational). This action is carried out by a person in accordance with the goal. The means to achieve the desired result are chosen consciously, possible side effects activity.
- Value-rational. Actions of this kind occur in accordance with the beliefs that a person has.
- Affective is an action that is caused by emotional experiences.
- Traditional- based on habit or tradition.
Other activity components
Describing human activity, social science also highlights the concepts of result, as well as the means to achieve a goal. The result is understood as the final product of the entire process carried out by the subject. Moreover, it can be of two types: positive and negative. Belonging to the first or second category is determined by the correspondence of the result to the set goal.
Reasons why a person might get negative result, can be both external and internal. External factors include changes in environmental conditions for the worse. Internal factors include such factors as setting an initially unattainable goal, incorrect choice of means, inferiority of actions, or lack of necessary skills or knowledge.
Communication
One of the main types of human activity in social science is communication. The purpose of any type of communication is to obtain some result. Here the main goal is often the exchange of necessary information, emotions or ideas. Communication is one of the basic qualities of a person, as well as an indispensable condition for socialization. Without communication, a person becomes antisocial.
A game
Another type of human activity in social studies is a game. It is characteristic of both people and animals. Situations are modeled in a children's game adult life. The main unit of children's play is the role - one of the main conditions for the development of children's consciousness and behavior. A game is a type of activity in which social experience is recreated and assimilated. It allows you to learn methods of carrying out social actions, as well as master the objects of human culture. Play therapy has become widespread as a form of correctional work.
Work
It is also an important type of human activity. Without work, socialization does not occur, but it is important not only for personal development. Labor is a necessary condition for the survival and further progress of human civilization. At the level of an individual, work is an opportunity to ensure one’s own existence, to feed oneself and one’s loved ones, as well as the opportunity to realize natural inclinations, capabilities.
Education
This is another important type of human activity. The social studies topic devoted to activity is interesting because it examines its various types and allows us to consider the whole variety of types of human activity. Despite the fact that the human learning process begins in the womb, at a certain period of time this type of activity becomes purposeful.
For example, in the 50s of the last century, children began to be taught at the age of 7-8 years; in the 90s, mass education was introduced in schools from the age of six. However, even before the start of targeted learning, the child absorbs a huge amount of information from the world around him. The great Russian writer L.N. Tolstoy emphasized that at the age of 5 years a small person learns much more than in the rest of his life. Of course, one can argue with this statement, but there is a fair amount of truth in it.
The main difference from other types of activity
Often schoolchildren receive as homework social studies question: “Activity is a way of people’s existence.” In the process of preparing for such a lesson, the most important thing to note is the characteristic difference between human activity and the usual adaptation to the environment, which is characteristic of animals. One of these types of activity, which is aimed directly at transforming the world around us, is creativity. This type activities allows a person to create something completely new, qualitatively transforming the surrounding reality.
Types of activity
The time when students study the social studies topic “Man and Activity”, according to the Federal State Educational Standard - 6th grade. At this age, students are usually old enough to distinguish between types of activities, as well as understand their importance for the overall development of a person. In science, the following types are distinguished:
- Practical- aimed directly at transforming the external environment. This type, in turn, is divided into additional subcategories - material and production activities, as well as social and transformative ones.
- Spiritual- an activity that is aimed at changing a person’s consciousness. This type is also divided into additional categories: cognitive (science and art); value-oriented (determining the negative or positive attitude of people towards various phenomena of the surrounding world); as well as prognostic (planning possible changes) activity.
All these types are closely related to each other. For example, before carrying out reforms (related to the need to analyze them possible consequences for the country (forecasting activities.
THOUGHTS OF THE WISE
“The more you live a spiritual life, the more independent you are from fate, and vice versa.”
L. N. Tolstoy (1828-1910). Russian writer
" 5. " Activity is a way of existence of people
Can a person do nothing in his life? Is there activity outside consciousness and consciousness outside activity?
HUMAN ACTIVITY: BASIC CHARACTERISTICS
Activity- this is a form of interaction with the outside world inherent only to humans. While a person lives, he constantly acts, does something, is busy with something. In the process of activity, a person learns about the world, creates the conditions necessary for his own existence (food, clothing, housing, etc.), satisfies his spiritual needs (for example, by doing science, literature, music, painting), and also engages in self-improvement (strengthening the will, character , developing your abilities).
In the course of human activity, the world changes and transforms in the interests of people, creating something that does not exist in nature. Human activity is characterized by such features as consciousness, productivity, transformative and social character. These are precisely the features that distinguish human activity from animal behavior. Let us briefly describe these differences.
Firstly, human activity is conscious. A person consciously puts forward the goals of his activity and anticipates its result. secondly, the activity is productive. It is aimed at obtaining a result, a product. These, in particular, are tools made and constantly improved by man. In this regard, they talk about the instrumental nature of activity, since to carry it out a person creates and uses tools. Thirdly, activity is transformative in nature: in the course of activity, a person changes the world around him and himself - his abilities, habits, personal qualities. Fourthly, human activity reveals its social character, since in the process of activity a person, as a rule, enters into various relationships with other people.
Human activity is carried out to satisfy his needs.
A need is a person’s experienced and perceived need for what is necessary to maintain his body and develop his personality.
IN modern science apply various classifications needs. In the very general view they can be combined into three groups.
Natural needs. In another way they can be called innate, biological, physiological, organic, natural. These are the needs of people for everything that is necessary for their existence, development and reproduction. Natural ones include, for example, human needs for food, air, water, housing, clothing, sleep, rest, etc.
Social needs. They are determined by a person’s membership in society. Social needs are considered to be human needs for work, creation, creativity, social activity, communication with other people, recognition, achievements, i.e. in everything that is a product of social life.
Ideal needs. They are otherwise called spiritual or cultural. These are the needs of people for everything that is necessary for their spiritual development. The ideal includes, for example, the need for self-expression, the creation and development of cultural values, the need for a person to understand the world around him and his place in it, the meaning of his existence.
Natural social and ideal human needs are interconnected. Thus, the satisfaction of biological needs acquires many social facets in a person. For example, when satisfying hunger, a person cares about the aesthetics of the table, the variety of dishes, the cleanliness and beauty of the dishes, pleasant company, etc.
Describing human needs, American psychologist Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) described man as a “desiring being” who rarely achieves a state of complete, complete satisfaction. If one need is satisfied, another one rises to the surface and directs the person's attention and efforts.
This same feature human needs Russian psychologist S. L. Rubinstein (1889-1960) also emphasized when speaking about the “unsatiability of needs” that a person satisfies in the course of his activities.
The theory of activity in Russian science was developed by psychologist A. N. Leontyev (1903-1979). He described the structure of human activity, highlighting its goal, means and result.
STRUCTURE OF ACTIVITY AND ITS MOTIVATION
Every human activity is determined by the goals that he sets for himself. We have already talked about this, touching on such a feature of human activity as its conscious nature. A goal is a conscious image of an anticipated result, towards the achievement of which activity is directed. For example, an architect first mentally imagines an image of a new building, and then embodies his plan in drawings. The mental image of a new building is an anticipated result.
Certain means of activity help to achieve the desired result. So, in the learning activity you are familiar with, the means are textbooks and teaching aids, maps, tables, layouts, instruments, etc. They help in the acquisition of knowledge and the development of the necessary educational skills.
In the course of activity, certain products (results) of activity arise. These are material and spiritual benefits. forms of communication between people, social conditions and relationships, as well as the abilities, skills, and knowledge of the person himself. The results of activities embody a consciously set goal.
Why does a person put forward this or that goal? He is driven to this by motives. “A goal is what a person acts for; “motive is why a person acts,” explained Russian psychologist V. A. Krutetsky.
Motive is the motivating reason for an activity. Moreover, the same activity can be caused by different motives. For example, students read, that is, they perform the same activity. But one student can read, feeling the need for knowledge. The other is out of a desire to please parents. The third is driven by the desire to get a good grade. The fourth wants to assert himself. At the same time, the same motive can lead to different activities. For example, trying to establish himself in his team, a student can prove himself in educational, sports, and social activities.
Usually, human activity is determined not by one motive and goal, but by a whole system of motives and goals. There is a combination, or, one might say, composition, of both goals and motives. And this composition cannot be reduced to any one of them, nor to their simple sum.
The motives of a person’s activities reveal his needs, interests, beliefs, and ideals. It is motives that give meaning to human activity.
Any activity appears before us as a chain of actions. A component, or, in other words, a separate act, of an activity is called an action. For example, educational activities consists of such activities as reading educational literature, listening to teachers’ explanations, taking notes, conducting laboratory work, doing exercises, solving problems, etc.
If a goal is set, the results are mentally presented, the order of actions is planned, the means and methods of action are chosen, then it can be argued that the activity is carried out quite consciously. However, in real life, the process of activity takes it beyond the banks of any goals, intentions, or motives. The emerging result of activity turns out to be poorer or richer than the initial plan.
Influenced strong feelings and other stimuli, a person is capable of acting without a sufficiently conscious goal. Such actions are called low-conscious or impulsive actions.
People's activities always proceed on the basis of previously created objective prerequisites and certain public relations. For example, agricultural activities during the times Ancient Rus' fundamentally different from modern agricultural activities. Remember who owned the land in those days, who cultivated it and with what tools, what the harvests depended on, who owned agricultural products, how they were redistributed in society.
The conditioning of activity by objective social prerequisites indicates its specific historical nature.
VARIETY OF ACTIVITIES
Depending on the diversity of needs of a person and society, the diversity of specific types of human activities also develops.
Based on various reasons, different types of activities are distinguished. Depending on the characteristics of a person’s relationship to the world around him, activities are divided into practical and spiritual. Practical activities are aimed at transforming real objects of nature and society. Spiritual activity is associated with changing people's consciousness.
When human activity is correlated with the course of history, C social progress, then they distinguish between a proactive or reactionary direction of activity, as well as a creative or destructive one. Based on the material studied in the history course, you can give examples of events in which these types of activities were manifested.
Depending on the compliance of the activity with existing general cultural values and social norms, legal and illegal, moral and immoral activities are determined.
In connection with social forms of bringing people together for the purpose of carrying out activities, collective, mass, and individual activities are distinguished.
Depending on the presence or absence of novelty in goals, results of activities, and methods of its implementation, they distinguish between monotonous and stereotyped ones. monotonous activity, which is carried out strictly according to rules, instructions, the new in such activity is reduced to a minimum, and most often completely absent, and innovative, inventive, creative activity. The word “creativity” is usually used to denote an activity that generates something qualitatively new, previously unknown. Creative activity is distinguished by originality, uniqueness, and originality. It is important to emphasize that elements of creativity can find a place in any activity. And the less it is regulated by rules and instructions, the more opportunities it has for creativity.
Depending on the social spheres in which the activity takes place, there are economic, political, social activity etc. In addition, in each sphere of society’s life, there are specific certain types human activity. For example, the economic sphere is characterized by production and consumption activities. Political activities are characterized by state, military, and international activities. For the spiritual sphere of society's life - scientific, educational, leisure.
Considering the process of formation of the human personality, domestic psychology identifies the following main types of human activity. Firstly, this is a hierarchy: subject, role-playing, intellectual, sports. Game activity is focused not so much on a specific result, but on the process of the game itself - its rules, situation, imaginary environment. It prepares a person for creative activity and life in society.
Secondly, this teaching is an activity aimed at acquiring knowledge and methods of action.
Thirdly, this is work - a type of activity aimed at achieving a practically useful result.
Often, along with play, learning and work, communication is identified as the main activity of people - the establishment and development of mutual relationships and contacts between people. Communication includes the exchange of information, assessments, feelings and specific actions.
When studying the features of the manifestation of human activity, they distinguish between external and internal activities. External activity manifests itself in the form of movements, muscle efforts, and actions with real objects. Internal occurs through mental actions. During this activity, human activity is manifested not in real movements, but in ideal models created in the process of thinking. There is a close connection and complex dependence between these two activities. Internal activities, figuratively speaking, plan external ones. it arises on the basis of the external and is realized through it. This is important to take into account when considering the connection between activity and consciousness.
CONSCIOUSNESS AND ACTIVITY
Consciousness is the ability inherent only in humans to reproduce reality in ideal images.
For centuries, the problem of consciousness has been the arena of heated ideological debate. Representatives of different philosophical schools They answer the question about the nature of consciousness and the peculiarities of its formation in different ways. The natural-scientific approach is opposed to religious-idealistic views in these disputes. Proponents of the natural scientific approach consider consciousness to be a manifestation of the functions of the brain, secondary in comparison with the bodily organization of a person. Supporters of religious idealistic views, on the contrary, consider consciousness to be primary, and the “bodily” person to be its derivative.
But, despite the differences in the interpretation of the nature of consciousness, both note that it is associated with speech and goal-setting activity of a person. What consciousness is like, what it represents, is evidenced by the language of people and cultural objects - the results of labor, works of art, etc.
Based on the natural science approach, domestic psychology has developed the doctrine of the formation of stable structures of human consciousness in early age thanks to communication with adults. According to this teaching, each person, in the course of individual development, is introduced to consciousness, i.e., shared knowledge, through mastery of language. And thanks to this, his individual consciousness is formed. Thus, from birth, a person finds himself in the world of objects created by previous generations. As a result of communication with other people, he learns the purposeful use of these objects.
It is precisely because a person relates to the objects of the external world with understanding, with knowledge, that the way he relates to the world is called consciousness. Any sensory image of an object, any sensation or idea, having a certain meaning and meaning, becomes part of consciousness. On the other hand, a number of sensations and experiences of a person are beyond the scope of consciousness. They lead to little-conscious, impulsive actions, which were mentioned earlier, and this affects human activity, sometimes distorting its results.
Activity, in turn, contributes to changes in a person’s consciousness and his development. Consciousness is formed by activity in order to at the same time influence this activity, determine and regulate it. By practically implementing their creative plans born in consciousness, people transform nature, society and themselves. In this sense, human consciousness not only reflects the objective world, but also creates it. Having absorbed historical experience, knowledge and methods of thinking, having acquired certain skills and abilities, a person masters reality. At the same time, he sets goals, creates projects for future tools, and consciously regulates his activities.
Making the case for unity. activity and consciousness, domestic science has developed a doctrine of activity that is leading for each age period of a person’s life. The word “leading” emphasizes, firstly, the fact that it is she who forms the most important personality traits at this age stage. secondly, all other types of activity develop in line with the leading activity.
For example, before entering school, a child’s leading activity is play, although he already studies and works a little (at home with his parents or in kindergarten). The leading activity of a schoolchild is learning. But, despite the fact that work occupies an important place in his life, in his free time he still continues to play with pleasure. Many researchers consider communication to be the leading activity of a teenager. At the same time, the teenager continues to study and new favorite games appear in his life. For an adult, the leading activity is work, but in the evenings he can study, and devote his free time to sports or intellectual games, and communication.
Concluding our conversation about activity and consciousness, let us once again return to the definition of activity. Human activity, or what can be considered synonymously, conscious activity, is a person’s activity aimed at achieving set goals related to satisfying his needs.
PRACTICAL CONCLUSIONS
1 Learn to set specific goals for yourself and determine the optimal means to achieve them. This gives the activity a conscious character, allows you to control its progress and make, if necessary, certain adjustments.
2 Remember: it is important to see not only the immediate, but also the distant goals of your activities. This will help you overcome difficulties and will not allow you to stop halfway without achieving your goal.
3 Show concern for the variety of your activities. This will provide the opportunity to satisfy different needs and develop different interests.
4 Do not forget about the importance of internal activities in people's lives. This will help you be attentive to the opinions, emotions, and feelings of others, and show sensitivity in your relationships with other people.
From the work of modern domestic psychologist V. A. Petrovsky “Personality in psychology: the paradigm of subjectivity.”
For example, we are convinced that any activity has an author (“subject”), that it is always aimed at one thing or another (“object”), that first there is consciousness, then there is activity. In addition, we have no doubt that activity is a process and that it can be observed from the outside, or, in any case, “from the inside” - through the eyes of the person himself. Everything is so as long as we do not take into account a person’s progress towards an already accepted goal... But if we make the movement of activity the subject of attention, then it suddenly turns out that everything that has been said about its structure loses its clarity... The author loses its “sharpness” ; the orientation of activity towards an object gives way to orientation towards another person... the process of activity breaks up into many branching and again merging “streams-transitions”... instead of consciousness preceding and directing activity, it itself turns out to be something secondary, derived from activity ... And all this due to trends own movement, self-development activities...
There is always an element of discrepancy between what you strive for and what you achieve... Regardless of whether the plan turns out to be higher than the embodiment or, conversely, the embodiment exceeds the plan, the discrepancy between the aspiration and the effects of the actions taken stimulates the activity of a person, the movement of his activity. And as a result, new activity is born, and not only one’s own, but perhaps that of other people.
Questions and tasks for the document
1. Based on the text of the document, explain what an object and subject of activity are. Give specific examples of objects and subjects of activity various types.
2. Find lines in the text of the document where the author talks about the movement of activities. What meaning does he put into these words? What appears as a result of the movement of activity?
3. How, according to the author, are activity and consciousness related?
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
1. What is an activity?
2. What features are inherent in human activity?
H. How are activities and needs related?
4. What is the motive of activity? How is a motive different from a goal? What is the role of motives in human activity?
5. Define the need. Name the main groups of human needs and give specific examples.
6. What can be attributed to the results (products) of human activity?
7. Name the types of human activities. Expand to specific examples their diversity.
8. How are activities and
Variety of activities
Let's start with the questions that interest us. What is an activity? What is his concept? What is the activity divided into? What is the nature of human activity? And depending on the different needs of society, how does the variety of human activities develop?
Activity is a form of interaction with the world around us, during which a person satisfies his needs, as a result of which he achieves his goal. Throughout his life, a person comprehends, explores the world, creates for himself the necessary conditions, improves himself, satisfies spiritual needs, i.e., engages in music, dancing, science, literature, clay modeling, drawing.
But I wonder what features distinguish animal behavior from human activity? A person consciously sets goals for himself, already anticipating the result in advance, therefore, his activity is aimed at obtaining the right result (Consciousness, Productivity). Humanity also has the ability to change the world and your personal qualities and habits. And a person can enter into various relationships with other people in the course of life. (Transformative, Public).
Currently, activities are distinguished between practical and spiritual. The first activity is aimed at changing the surrounding world and society. The second activity is aimed at changing people's consciousness. That is, the reflection of reality in the laws of nature, science, or in religious instructions, myths.
When human activity affects the historical course of events, with social growth, then progressive or reactionary, as well as creative and destructive activities are distributed. For example: The progressive role of the industrial activity of Peter 1 or the progressive activity of Peter Arkadyevich Stolypin.
Conditions based on the activity’s compliance with existing general cultural traditions and social norms differentiate legal and illegal, as well as moral and immoral activities. Illegal activity is everything that is prohibited by law or constitution. Take, for example, the manufacture and production of weapons, explosives, drug distribution, all of this is illegal activity. Naturally, many try to adhere to moral activities, that is, to study conscientiously, be polite, value their relatives, help the old and homeless. Eat a striking example moral activity - the whole life of Mother Teresa.
To my regret, there are people who follow immoral activities, they are rude, do not value their norms and traditions; drinking alcohol, disorderly conduct. A clear example of immorality is the crime boss Mishka Yaponchik.
Depending on the social forms of association of people for the purpose of carrying out activities, they establish individual (example: management of a region or country), collective (ship management systems, work of schoolchildren in a team), mass (an example of mass media is the death of Michael Jackson)
Depending on the absence or presence of any goals, the success of the activity and the ways of its implementation, monotonous, monotonous, template activity is revealed, which in turn proceeds strictly according to certain requirements, and new things are most often not given (Manufacture of any product, substance according to the scheme at the plant or factory). But creative, inventive activity, on the contrary, carries with it the character of originality of the new, previously unknown. It is distinguished by its specificity, exclusivity, and uniqueness. And elements of creativity can be used in any of the activities. Examples include dancing, music, painting, there are no rules or instructions here, here is the embodiment of fantasy and its implementation.
There is also economic activity, where consumer and production activities reign. Of course, in political activity State, international and military activities predominate. But in the social sphere, the spiritual sphere is affected, that is, scientific, educational, etc.
Activities are divided into four big types. And this:
There are external activities, which manifest themselves in the form of movements, that is, muscle efforts, and internal activities, which include mental work, planning, and mental reproduction of actions. These two types are closely interrelated, since internal activity arises on the basis of external activity and is carried out through it.
