Reforms that subsequently led to democratization public life could not but affect interethnic relations. The first who began to openly defend their national freedoms were the Yakuts. At the beginning of 1986, a number of protests were held in Yakutsk, at which demonstrators demanded the abolition of the mass closure of Yakut schools.
The ruling elite gradually went over to the side of the common population. local government and state power. So, for example, M. Gorbachev was forced to change the chairman of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan, who actively supported and encouraged popular protests.
After G.V. Kunaev took the position, a wave of protests swept across the country, which for the first time began to have a revolutionary character. The Crimean Tatars and the Volga Germans wanted to recreate their autonomy, but Transcaucasia became the territory of the most acute conflict on a national basis.
Formation of national movements
Taking advantage of the outbreak of conflicts in Transcaucasia, popular fronts were actively created in the Baltic countries, the goal of which was the exit of Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia from the USSR.
At the initial stages of their activity, radical nationalist organizations of the Baltic states were able to obtain from the Supreme Councils of the republics the declaration of national languages as the only state languages. Already in mid-1989, the Russian language was deprived of the status of the state language in these countries.
Following the example of the Baltic states, demands to introduce national languages into state institutions were put forward by Moldova, Belarus and Ukraine. The populations of Tataria, Bashkiria and Yakutia demanded immediate recognition of their republics as full members of the Union.
"Parade of Sovereignties"
In the first half of 1990, national movements and attempts by the government to independently resolve economic and social issues without the participation of the Center led to the adoption of sovereignty in many union republics Oh.
The Russian Federation, Ukraine, the Baltic countries, Georgia, Moldova, Uzbekistan and Belarus became sovereign states. The reaction of the top of the CPSU Central Committee was sharp; economic sanctions were applied to many states.
With great delay, Gorbachev began to develop a new union treaty, which still could not preserve the Soviet state.
The government's attempt to save the collapsing state with the help of the State Emergency Committee led to the exact opposite result. During the period August-October 1991, declarations of state independence were adopted in the Baltic states, Ukraine, Moldova, Belarus, Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan, Armenia and Turkmenistan.
The existence of the Soviet state became possible only in the status of a confederation. In September 1991, the USSR State Council recognized the independence of the Union Republics, which marked the beginning of the end of the existence of the Soviet Union.
Already on December 8, at an official meeting of the presidents of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus, the liquidation of the USSR as a subject of international law and the termination of its geopolitical existence was announced.
The final collapse of the USSR became obvious on December 27, 1991, when the last Soviet Secretary General, M. Gorbachev, resigned. Thus, the history of what was once one of the most powerful powers in the world quickly ended. The dreams of the fathers of communism were buried under the ruins of the Soviet state.
Prerequisites for the collapse of the USSR: Here factors that are generally recognized:1) A deep socio-economic crisis that has engulfed the entire country. The crisis led to a severance of economic ties and gave rise to a desire among the republics to “save themselves alone.”2) The destruction of the Soviet system means a sharp weakening of the center3) The collapse of the CPSU4). Exacerbation of interethnic relations. National conflicts undermined the state. unity, becoming one of the reasons for the destruction of the union statehood. Factors, presence and role which are the subject of debate:1) Subversive activities of foreign intelligence services and the “fifth column” within the country. 2) Republican separatism and political ambition of local leaders 3) General historical processes - “all empires will one day collapse” - but whether the USSR was an empire in the usual sense of the word is still a question. The dynamics of the weakening of the center: the Soviets pushed the party to the margins of political life, the president did not allow the monopoly of the Soviets, the national republics ceased to need a union president, the union collapsed
B. Collapse of the CPSU, cementing force political system, the entire union statehood followed not only an ideological, but also a national line. a) the end of 89-90. - exit of the Baltic Communist Parties from the CPSUb) 90 - creation of the Communist Party of the RSFSR (as part of the CPSU)c) 90-91. - multi-party system. In January 1991, the Democratic Congress (47 parties and movements from 12 republics) was held in Kharkov, which proposed expressing no confidence in the government and the president, boycotting the March 17 referendum and dissolving the USSR. B. Weakening the power of the councils- the next stage of weakening the center (material in ticket 18) D. National conflicts, "scattering" of the republics, parade of sovereignty) 1988 - the opposition in the Baltic states heads towards leaving the USSR. "Sajūdis" in Lithuania, fronts in Latvia and Estonia (they would later win the elections), b) 1988 - the beginning of the Armenian-Azerbaijani conflict over the ownership of Nagorno-Karabakh. Great sacrifices, over 800 thousand refugees. Helplessness of the union structures. c) 1990 - the republics adopt the Declaration of Sovereignty (including Russia), declare the superiority of their laws over the union ones. The first was Lithuania - on March 11, 1990, it declared sovereignty in violation of the USSR law on the procedure for the withdrawal of republics from the USSR. The union center can no longer retain power democratically and resorts to military force-d) Tbilisi - Sept. 1989, Baku - Jan. 1990, Vilnius and Riga - Jan. 1991, Moscow - August 1991. In addition - interethnic conflicts in Central Asia (89-90): Fergana, Andijan, Dushanbe, Osh. D. Novoogorevsky process(by the name of Gorbachev’s residence)1) 90-91. - Discussion of the new Union Treaty (first option: broad powers of the republics while maintaining single state)Discussions on issues: strong center - strong republics, or vice versa.2) March 17, 1991 All-Union referendum: 76.4% of voters are in favor of preserving the USSR.3) New project renewed USSR - USSR (commonwealth of sovereign states - confederation with preservation of presidential power) E. Events of August 19-21, 1991(“Word to the People”)1) August 91 Gorbachev in Faros, signing of a new Union Treaty is scheduled for August 202) August 18 A number of senior officials suggest Gorbachev introduce a state of emergency throughout the country. The President refuses. 3) August 19 - the State Emergency Committee takes full power into its hands (Yanaev, Pavlov, Pugo, Yazov, Starodubtsev, etc.) In their address to the country they spoke about preserving the Union and the socialist gains of the people. Troops are sent to Moscow 4) August 19-20. The State Emergency Committee is inactive. Yeltsin organizes resistance.5) Arrest of the Emergency Committee, Gorbachev in Moscow. The reasons for the indecisiveness of the Emergency Committee, the nature of the “defense” of the White House, and Gorbachev’s role in the events remain the subject of debate. AND. The final stage collapse of the USSR.(September - December 1991)1) 5th Congress people's deputies(5 September 91) announces a transition period and surrenders its powers to the State Council of the USSR (highest officials of the republics) and the Supreme Council.2) 9 September. - The State Council officially recognizes the independence of the Baltic states.
3) Attempts to resume the Noogorevsky process - 8 republics decided to sign a new union treaty of the republics. The process is dragging on4) December 8 - Belovezhskaya Agreement (Yeltsin, Kravchuk, Shushkevich): The USSR ceases to exist, Russia, Ukraine and Belarus unite into the CIS. 5) December 21 Alma-Ata meeting of leaders of 9 republics - Declaration on the cessation of the existence of the USSR and on the principles of the CIS.
By the end of 1991, Moldova and Azerbaijan joined the CIS, in total there are 11 states in the CIS (15 minutes 3 Baltic republics)6) Gorbachev resigned.7) On December 26, the Council of Republics and the Supreme Council (one of the chambers) officially recognized the dissolution of the USSR and self-liquidated.
As perestroika progressed, everything higher value national problems began to emerge. Moreover, national contradictions and clashes were often artificially inflated by politicians from various camps who tried to use tension to solve certain problems.
With the beginning of democratization and the restoration of historical truth, the accumulated long years the tension was discharged in the rapidly growing centrifugal forces. Thus, the anniversary of the signing of the Soviet-German Pact of 1939 (which became the focus of press attention for the first time in many years) became the reason for mass demonstrations on August 23, 1987 in the capitals of the three Baltic republics. These speeches marked the beginning of a process that later ended with the declaration of independence of these republics.
Tensions related to ethnic relations arose in almost all republics. She touched upon a variety of issues, from demands for recognition of the state status of the national language (formulated first in the Baltic republics, then in Ukraine, Georgia, Moldova, Armenia, and, ultimately, as the movement expanded and deepened, put forward in other republics: RSFSR, Belarus, Azerbaijan and the Muslim republics of Central Asia) until the return of deported peoples to their historical homeland.
National problems that came to the center of attention led to an intensification of conflicts between Russian “colonizers” and representatives of “indigenous” nationalities (primarily in Kazakhstan and the Baltic states) or between neighboring nationalities (Georgians and Abkhazians, Georgians and Ossetians, Uzbeks and Tajiks, Armenians and Azerbaijanis etc.). The conflict between Armenians and Azerbaijanis over Nagorno-Karabakh, which was annexed to Azerbaijan in 1923, despite the Armenian majority of its population, took the most tragic forms. In February 1988, the Armenians of this autonomous region within Azerbaijan officially demanded reunification with Armenia. Due to the ambiguous position of the union government and the resistance of the leadership of Azerbaijan, the conflict escalated, and the pogrom of Armenians carried out by the Azerbaijanis in Sumgait became the prologue to a real war between Armenia and Azerbaijan.
In 1989 and especially in 1990-1991. bloody clashes occurred in Central Asia (Fergana, Dushanbe, Osh and a number of other areas). National minorities, which included the Russian-speaking population, were particularly affected. The Caucasus, primarily South Ossetia and Abkhazia, was an area of intense ethnic armed conflict. In 1990-1991 in South Ossetia, in essence, there was a real war in which only heavy artillery, aircraft and tanks were not used. Clashes, including with the use of firearms, also occurred between various mountain peoples.
Confrontation also took place in Moldova, where the population of the Gagauz and Transnistrian regions protested against the infringement of their national rights and in the Baltic states, where part of the Russian-speaking population opposed the leadership of the republics. These confrontations were supported and provoked by part of the central leadership of the USSR and the CPSU.
In the Baltic republics, Ukraine, Georgia sharp forms takes the fight for independence, for secession from the USSR. In early 1990, after Lithuania declared its independence and negotiations over Nagorno-Karabakh stalled, it became obvious that the central government was unable to use economic ties in the process of radically renegotiating federal relations, which was the only way to prevent, or even though would stop the collapse of the Soviet Union.
On this moment There is no consensus on what the prerequisites for the collapse of the USSR were. However, most scientists agree that their beginnings were laid in the very ideology of the Bolsheviks, who, albeit in many ways formally, recognized the right of nations to self-determination. The weakening of central power provoked the formation of new power centers on the outskirts of the state. It is worth noting that similar processes occurred at the very beginning of the 20th century, during the period of revolutions and the collapse of the Russian Empire.
Briefly speaking, the reasons for the collapse of the USSR are as follows:
A crisis provoked by the planned nature of the economy and leading to a shortage of many consumer goods;
Unsuccessful, largely ill-conceived reforms that led to a sharp deterioration in living standards;
Massive dissatisfaction of the population with interruptions in food supplies;
The ever-increasing gap in living standards between citizens of the USSR and citizens of countries in the capitalist camp;
Exacerbation of national contradictions;
Weakening of central power;
The processes that led to the collapse of the USSR became apparent already in the 80s. Against the backdrop of a general crisis, which only deepened by the beginning of the 90s, there was a growth in nationalist tendencies in almost all union republics. The first to leave the USSR were: Lithuania, Estonia and Latvia. They are followed by Georgia, Azerbaijan, Moldova and Ukraine.
The collapse of the USSR was the result of the events of August - December 1991. After the August putsch, the activities of the CPSU party in the country were suspended. The Supreme Soviet of the USSR and the Congress of People's Deputies lost power. The last Congress in history took place in September 1991 and declared self-dissolution. During this period, the State Council of the USSR became the highest authority, headed by Gorbachev, the first and the only president THE USSR. The attempts he made in the fall to prevent both the economic and political collapse of the USSR did not bring success. As a result, on December 8, 1991, after the signing of the Belovezhskaya Agreement by the heads of Ukraine, Belarus and Russia, the Soviet Union ceased to exist. At the same time, the formation of the CIS - Commonwealth Independent States. The collapse of the Soviet Union was the largest geopolitical catastrophe of the 20th century, with global consequences.
Here are just the main consequences of the collapse of the USSR:
Sharp decline in production in all countries former USSR and a decline in the standard of living of the population;
The territory of Russia has shrunk by a quarter;
Access to seaports has again become difficult;
The population of Russia has decreased - in fact, by half;
The emergence of numerous national conflicts and the emergence of territorial claims between former republics THE USSR;
Globalization began - processes gradually gained momentum, turning the world into a single political, informational, economic system;
The world has become unipolar, and the United States remains the only superpower.
Political reforms 90s 20th century in Russia
After the collapse of the USSR in 1991, changes occurred in all areas of life in Russia. One of the most important events of the last decade of the 20th century. was the formation of a new Russian statehood.
Presidential power. The central place in the system of power of modern Russia is occupied by the institution of the President, who, according to the 1993 Constitution, is the head of state, and not the executive branch (as it was until December 1993).
Almost no important issue in the life of the state and society can be resolved without the consent and approval of the head of state.
The President is the guarantor of the Constitution and can take any measures to protect the sovereignty, independence and territorial integrity of Russia. The Government of the country is accountable to the President, the composition and main directions of whose activities he determines and whose work he actually directs. The head of state also heads the Security Council. He is the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the country's Armed Forces, and can, if necessary, introduce a state of emergency, martial law or special state.
This scope of the President's powers is fully consistent with the historical traditions of the highest authorities in Russia. Some opponents of strong presidential power sometimes call this regime an elective monarchy. However, despite the full powers of the head of state, his power is sufficiently limited by a system of checks and balances.
From Soviets to parliamentarism. The main political event of the 90s. was the dismantling of the Soviet system of power and its replacement with the separation of powers - legislative, executive, judicial.
Using historical experience parliamentarism in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, the Constitution of 1993 completed the process of formation of a new Russian parliamentarism that began during the years of perestroika.
The Russian parliament is the Federal Assembly, consisting of two chambers - the Federation Council (upper) and the State Duma (lower). The Upper House calls elections for the President and, if necessary, decides on his removal from office; approves the decision of the head of state to introduce martial law or a state of emergency; appoints and dismisses the Prosecutor General and members of the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court, and the Supreme Arbitration Court of Russia. The main subjects of jurisdiction of the State Duma are the approval of the composition of the Government and the adoption of the laws of the country. Both houses of parliament approve the federal budget and national taxes and fees; ratify international agreements signed by Russia; declare war and make peace. All these decisions are subject to approval by the President.
Government. Executive power in the country is exercised by the Government of Russia. It develops and implements the federal budget after approval; ensures the implementation of a unified state financial, credit and monetary policy in the country; determines the parameters for the development of culture, science, education, healthcare, social security, and ecology; ensures the implementation of defense and foreign policy countries; cares about the observance of law and order, the rights and freedoms of citizens. He is also responsible for the disposal of federal property.
The activities of the Government, in contrast to the pre-revolutionary and Soviet periods history of Russia, is not only directly dependent on the instructions and orders of the head of state, but also under significant control by parliament.
Judicial branch. Judicial power in the country is exercised through constitutional, civil, administrative and criminal proceedings. The Constitutional Court issues decisions at the request of the authorities final decision on the compliance of federal and regional laws and orders with the Constitution of the country; decrees of the President of the country and heads of the constituent entities of the Federation. At the request of citizens, he resolves the issue of violation of their constitutional rights and freedoms. If necessary, he gives an interpretation of those provisions of the Constitution that are not regulated by special laws and other documents.
The Supreme Court is the highest court in civil, criminal and administrative cases.
The Supreme Arbitration Court is the highest court for resolving economic disputes.
The prosecutor's office monitors compliance with the laws of the country both by citizens and by state and public bodies.
Center and regions. Russia is a federation consisting of 88 subjects. The political and economic rights granted by the federal authorities to the regions in the early 90s led to a significant weakening of the role of the Center. The laws adopted locally and even their own constitutional acts were in conflict with the federal Constitution and the laws of the federation. The creation of a network of provincial banks and even the constituent entities of the Federation’s own “gold reserve” began. In certain regions of the country, not only did the transfer of funds to the federal budget cease, but also a ban on the export of various types products beyond the borders of territories and regions. There were voices about giving administrative borders (especially national regions) the status of state ones. The Russian language has ceased to be recognized as the state language in a number of republics. All this gave rise to a dangerous trend of transformation of the federation into a confederation and even the possibility of its collapse.
The situation in Chechnya was especially alarming, where “state independence” was proclaimed, and power essentially passed into the hands of criminal and extremist groups. Weakened Federal Center Having failed to achieve compliance with federal legislation here through political means, he took forceful action. During the first (1994-1996) and second (from the summer of 1999) military campaigns in Chechnya, it was possible to ensure control of the central authorities over the territory of this subject of the Federation. But production and social sphere The region was completely destroyed during protracted hostilities. The losses were significant both among the federal forces and among the local population. However, emerging in the 90s. tendency for Chechnya to leave Russian Federation was stopped.
Local government. Developing the traditions of local self-government established during the zemstvo (1864) and city (1870) reforms, the 1993 Constitution granted local authorities the right independent decision issues of local importance, ownership, use and disposal of municipal property. The main forms of local self-government are referendums (national expressions of will) and elections of heads of deputies municipalities. During referendums of the population, issues of changing the boundaries and belonging of a city or village to a particular district or region are also resolved. Organs local authorities independently manage municipal property, form and execute the local budget, determine the articles and amounts of local taxes and fees, protect public order, etc. In 1998, Russia ratified the European Charter of Local Self-Government, in which local self-government bodies are recognized as one of the basic principles democratic system. An important event was the establishment by municipalities of the Congress of Municipal Entities of the Russian Federation to coordinate the efforts of local governments in defending their interests before regional and central authorities.
Thus, in the 90s. in Russia, a legitimate basis for Russian statehood was created, built on democratic principles, and a new system of relations between the Center and the regions was tested.
Article. "Interethnic relations in modern Russia: reflections on"
Completed by: 2nd year student of State Budgetary Educational Institution “Balakhna Technical College”
Borisova Nadezhda
Head: teacher of history and social studies GBPOU "BTT"
Odintsova Galina Nikolaevna
What's happened national question?..
To paraphrase the classic, this is “the most painful, most burning issue of our time.” And this, in reality, is a given of the modern multinational world (after all, most modern states are multinational in composition). And at the heart of, if not all, then most of the tragic events of today’s world are relations between nations and, as a rule, different national confessions. After all, national and religious backgrounds often overlap. And that’s why the Middle East and some regions of Africa are still bleeding, modern Ukraine appears so terrible in its incomprehensibility and unpredictability, and huge migration flows of refugees to Europe...
For Russia, the national issue has always been relevant. Russia was originally and always multinational, always: Kievan Rus, Russia, Russian empire, USSR, Russian Federation.
And who else but us understands how fragile an issue that has a national overtones is!
At the end of the 20th century, we lost a country that, for all its greatness and seemingly power, was unable to maintain unity and ceased to exist. And this is an absolute tragedy - our memory of past friendship, unity and, at the same time, a reminder of how important it is to value national interests, national traditions, national principles...
I believe that the loss of the USSR is the greatest tragedy of all times, of all countries and peoples.
What about modern Russia? Is everything safe in it now?
Russia is still multinational. Thank God this is true! We were able to maintain the unity of Russia despite all the difficulties that we had to go through.
But is everything going well in the relations between us, representatives of different nations and nationalities, small and large? Do we always understand each other, are we always ready to meet each other halfway?
When I think about this question, I see in front of me the body of a little Tajik girl killed by skinheads in Moscow; a young Spartak fan who died at the hands of “Caucasians” due to “differences in culture”;
the wild massacre carried out in the synagogue; mass fights on ethnic grounds in Moscow, Nalchik, Kondopoga, Arzamas... I see in front of me some carriers of “Caucasian nationality” running wild and presumptuous, often in their impunity, ready to easily start a showdown at the slightest provocation, grab a weapon, arrange “wedding shooters” “... At the same time, I hear calls “Russia for Russians”, “Russia is not the Caucasus”...
All this, of course, is clear evidence serious problems in interethnic relations in Russia and the lack of necessary tolerance and understanding. Understanding the reasons is a thankless task and, probably, in no way leading to unity. This means that it is more important to answer not the question “Who is to blame?”, but “What to do?”
What to do to stop all these “hate crimes”, to uproot the thistles of hostility.
Probably, the solution to these problems, first of all, depends on the thoughtfulness and rationality of the state national policy, from the activity and effectiveness of Russian civil society, tolerance towards the “others” of each of us.
And when, for the second year on May 9th, I see the “Immortal Regiment” marching in a single stream through the streets of our big and small cities, where we are all together, I believe that everything is possible!!!
Key dates and events: 1986 - the beginning of mass protests on national grounds; 1990 - elections of people's deputies of the union republics; 1991 - adoption of declarations on state sovereignty of the union republics, collapse of the USSR.
Historical figures: M. S. Gorbachev; B. N. Yeltsin; L. M. Kravchuk; S. S. Shushkevich; N. A. Nazarbayev.
Basic terms and concepts: federalism; the right of nations to self-determination.
Working with the map: show the borders of the USSR and union republics. Response plan: 1) the origins of the revitalization of national self-awareness; 2) interethnic conflicts; 3) the formation of mass national movements; 4) elections of 1990 in the union republics; 5) development of a new union treaty; 6) the August political crisis of 1991 and its consequences for the union state; 7) collapse of the USSR: causes and consequences; 8) formation of the CIS.
Material for the answer: The democratization of public life could not but affect the sphere of interethnic relations. Problems that had been accumulating for years, which the authorities had long tried not to notice, manifested themselves in drastic forms as soon as there was a whiff of freedom. The first open mass demonstrations began as a sign of disagreement with the number of
national schools and the desire to expand the scope of the Russian language. Gorbachev's attempts to control national authorities caused even more active protests in a number of republics. In December 1986, in protest against the appointment of first secretary Central Committee Communist Party of Kazakhstan instead of D. A. Kunaev - Russian G. V. Kolbin, demonstrations of thousands took place in Alma-Ata, which turned into riots. The investigation into abuses of power that took place in Uzbekistan has caused widespread discontent in the republic. Demands for the restoration of autonomy were voiced even more actively than in previous years Crimean Tatars, Germans of the Volga region.
Transcaucasia became the zone of the most acute ethnic conflicts. In 1987, mass unrest began in Nagorno-Karabakh (Azerbaijan SSR) among Armenians, who made up the majority of the population of this autonomous region. They demanded the transfer of territory NKAO into the Armenian SSR. The promise of the allied authorities to “consider” the Karabakh issue was perceived as agreement with the demand of the Armenian side. This led to pogroms of Armenian families in Sumgait (Az SSR). It is characteristic that the party apparatus of both republics not only did not interfere with the interethnic conflict, but also actively participated in the creation of national movements. Gorbachev gave the order to send troops into Sumgayit and declare a curfew. The USSR did not yet know such measures.
Against the backdrop of the Karabakh conflict and the impotence of the union authorities, popular fronts were created in Latvia in May 1988. Lithuania, Estonia. If at first they spoke “in support of perestroika,” then after a few months they declared secession from the USSR as their ultimate goal. The most widespread and radical of these organizations was Sąjūdis (Lithuania). Soon, the supreme councils of the Baltic republics decided to declare national languages as state languages and deprive the Russian language of this status. The requirement to introduce the native language in state and educational institutions sounded in Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova.
In the Transcaucasus, interethnic relations have worsened not only between the republics, but also within them (between Georgians and Abkhazians, Georgians and Ossetians, etc.). In the Central Asian republics, for the first time in many years, there was a threat of penetration of Islamic fundamentalism. In Yakutia, Tataria, and Bashkiria, movements were gaining strength that demanded that these autonomous republics be given union rights. The leaders of national movements, trying to secure mass support for themselves, placed special emphasis on the fact that their republics and peoples “feed Russia.”
this” And the Union Center. As the economic crisis deepened, this instilled in people's minds the idea that their prosperity could only be ensured by secession from the USSR. an exceptional opportunity was created for the party leadership of the republics to secure a quick career and prosperity. · “Gorbachev’s team” was not ready to offer ways out of the “national impasse” and therefore constantly hesitated and was late in making decisions. The situation gradually began to get out of control.
The situation became even more complicated after elections were held in the Union republics in early 1990 on the basis of a new electoral law. Leaders of national movements won almost everywhere. The party leadership of the republics chose to support them, hoping to remain in power. The “parade of sovereignties” began: on March 9, the declaration of sovereignty was adopted by the Supreme Council of Georgia, on March 11 - by Lithuania, on March 30 by Estonia, on May 4 - by Latvia, on June 12 - by the RSFSR, on June 20 - by Uzbekistan, on June 23 - by Moldova, on July 16 - by Ukraine, July 27 - Belarus. Gorbachev's reaction was initially harsh. For example, economic sanctions were adopted against Lithuania. However, with the help of the West, Lithuania managed to survive. In the conditions of discord between the center and the republics, the leaders tried to act as arbiters Western countries- ClllA, Germany, France. All this forced Gorbachev to announce, with great delay, the beginning of the development of a new union treaty.
This work began in the summer of 1990. The majority of members of the Politburo and the leadership of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR opposed the revision of the foundations of the Union Treaty of 1922. Gorbachev began to fight against them with the help of B. N. Yeltsin, who was elected Chairman of the Supreme Council of the RSFSR, and the leaders of other union republics. The main idea embedded in the draft document was the idea of broad rights for the union republics, primarily in the economic sphere (and later - their economic sovereignty). However, it soon became clear that Gorbachev was not ready to do this. Since the end of 1990, the union republics, which had previously enjoyed great independence, entered into a series of bilateral agreements in the field of economics.
Meanwhile, the situation in Lithuania became sharply more complicated, where the Supreme Council, one after another, adopted laws that in practice formalized the sovereignty of the republic. In January 1991, Gorbachev in an emphatic manner demanded that the Supreme Council of Lithuania restore the full validity of the USSR Constitution, and after the refusal, he introduced additional military formations into the republic. This caused clashes between the army and the population.
nium in Vilnius, which resulted in the death of 14 people. These events caused a violent outcry throughout the country, once again compromising the Union center.
March 17, 1991 was A referendum was held on the fate of the USSR. 76% of the population of the huge country spoke in favor of maintaining a single state. In the summer of 1991, the first presidential elections in Russian history took place. During the election campaign, the leading candidate from the “democrats,” Yeltsin, actively played the “national card,” inviting Russia’s regional leaders to take as much sovereignty as they “could eat.” This largely ensured his victory in the elections. Gorbachev's position weakened even more. Growing economic difficulties required speeding up the development of a new union treaty. The Union leadership was now primarily interested in this. In the summer, Gorbachev agreed to all the conditions and demands presented by the union republics. According to the draft of the new treaty, the USSR was supposed to turn into a Union of Sovereign States, which would include both former union and autonomous republics on equal terms. In terms of the form of unification, it was more like a confederation. It was also assumed that new union authorities would be formed. The signing of the agreement was scheduled for August 20, 1991.
Some of the top leaders of the USSR perceived the preparations for signing a new union treaty as a threat to the existence of a single state and tried to prevent it. In the absence of Gorbachev in Moscow, on the night of August 19, the State Committee for a State of Emergency (GKChP) was created, headed by Vice President G. I. Yanaev. The State Emergency Committee introduced a state of emergency in certain areas of the country; declared the power structures that acted contrary to the 1977 Constitution disbanded; suspended the activities of opposition parties; banned rallies and demonstrations; established control over the media; sent troops to Moscow. On the morning of August 19, the leadership of the RSFSR issued an appeal to the citizens of the republic, in which it regarded the actions of the State Emergency Committee as a coup d'état and declared them illegal. At the call of the Russian President, tens of thousands of Muscovites took up defensive positions around the building of the Supreme Council to prevent it from being stormed by troops. On August 21, a session of the Supreme Council of the RSFSR began, supporting the leadership of the republic. On the same day, USSR President Gorbachev returned from Crimea to Moscow, and members of the State Emergency Committee were arrested.
Trying members State Emergency Committee to prevent the collapse of the USSR led to the opposite result. 21 aBrysta Latvia ff Estonia declared their independence, 24 aBrysta - Ukraine, 25 aBrysta - Belarus, 27 aBrycta - Moscow, 30 aBrycta - Azerbaijan, 31 aBrysta - Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan, 9 September - Tajikistan, 23 September - Armenia, October 27 - Turkmenistan. The central authority was compromised. Now we could only talk about creating a confederation. On September 5, the V Extraordinary Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR actually announced self-dissolution and the transfer of power to the State Council of the USSR, composed of the leaders of the republics. Gorbachev, as the head of a single state, turned out to be superfluous. On September 6, the USSR State Council recognized the independence of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia. This was the beginning of the real collapse of the USSR. On December 8, President of Russia B.N. Yeltsin, Chairman of the Supreme Council of Ukraine L.M. Kravchuk and Chairman of the Supreme Council of Belarus S.S. Shushkevich gathered in Belovezhskaya Pushcha (Belarus). They announced the denunciation of the Union Treaty of 1922 and the end of the existence of the USSR. Instead, the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) was created, which initially united 11 former Soviet republics (excluding the Baltic states and Georgia). On December 27, M. S. Gorbachev announced his resignation. The USSR ceased to exist.
Thus, in conditions of an acute crisis in the union power structures, the initiative in political reform of the country passed to the republics. The events of August 1991 finally showed the impossibility of the existence of a single union state.
