The first cause of feudal fragmentation was the growth of boyar victuchin, the number of death addressed in them. XII - the beginning of the XIII century was characterized by the further development of boyars land tenure in various principles of Russia. The boyars expanded their own ownership due to the seizures of the lands of free communities, rolled them, bought land. In an effort to get a larger surplus product, they increased natural lifts and workouts that were performed by dependent death. The increase in this receiving product received by the boyars made them economically powerful and independent. In various lands of Russia, economically powerful boyars corporations began to develop, striving to become the most frequent owners on the lands, where they were arranged. They wanted to finish the trial over their peasants themselves, get fines from them. Many boyars had a feudal immunity (the right of non-interference in the affairs of Votchiny), "Russian True" defined the right of boyarism. However, the Grand Duke (and this is the nature of the princely authority) sought to preserve all the complete power in his hands. He intervened in the affairs of Boyar Votchin, sought to retain the right of court over the peasants and receive from them Vir in all the lands of Russia.
The Grand Duke, as follows by the Supreme Owner of all the land of Russia, and their supreme ruler continued to consider all the princes and boyars as his servants, and therefore forced them to participate in numerous campaigns. These trips often did not coincide with the interests of Boyar, rejuvenated them from their victobin. The boyars began to make a great princess service, they sought to see from her, which led to numerous conflicts. The contradictions between afraids in the field and the Grand Kiev Prince led to strengthening the desire of the first to political independence. To this, there was also a battleship of his need for his, close to the princely power, which could quickly convene the norms of the "Russian truth" norm, as the power of grand liners, the governor, the warriors could not have a quick real help of the Boyars remote from Kiev land. The strong power of the local prince was needed by the Boyars and due to the growth of the resistance of citizens, death, the seizures of their lands, challenge, increasing the towers. The consequence of this was the growth of curses of death and citizens with a boyar.
The need for the princely power in the field, the creation of the state apparatus forced local boyars to invite prince to their lands with a squad. But, inviting Prince, the boyars were inclined to see in it only a police and military power, not interfering with boyars. Princesses and squad such an invitation was also beneficial. The prince received a constant reign, his land defend, stopped rushing from one princely table to another. Satisfied was the squad, who was also tired of following the table with the prince. Princes and warriors had the opportunity to receive a steady rente tax. At the same time, the prince, settled in one or another land, as a rule, was not satisfied with the role that the boyars took him, but sought to focus in his hands all the fullness of power, limiting the rights and privileges of the boyar. It inevitably led to the struggle between the prince and boyars.
Growth and strengthening cities like new political and cultural centers
During the period of feudal fragmentation, the number of cities in the Russian lands has reached the figures 224. Their economic and political role increased as centers of a landmark. It was on the city that the local boyars and the prince in the struggle against the Great Kiev Prince was restored. The increase in the role of boyars and local princes led to the revival of urban events. Evening, a peculiar form of feudal democracy was political organ. In fact, it was in the hands of the boyars, which excluded the real decisive participation in the management of ordinary citizens. The boyars, controlling the veche, tried to use the political activity of citizens in their own interests. Very often, the evening was used as a pressure tool not only on the Great, but also at the local prince, forcing him to act in the interests of local nobility. Thus, cities, as local political and economic centers, which have been a stronghold of the decentralizer aspirations of local princes and nobility.
First gravestics.
After the death of Vladimir Svyatoslavich, in 1015, a long war began between his many sons who managed individual parts of Russia. The gravestone was the gravestone was Svyatopolk Okayan, who killed his brothers Boris and Gleb. In the internecine wars of the princes - brothers led backhoegov, the Poles, then the hired detachments of Varyagov. In the end, Yaroslav Wise Delivated Russia was the winner (according to Dnipro) with Brother Mstislav Tmutarakan from 1024 to 1036, and then after the death of Mstislava, became a "self-assembly".
After the death of Yaroslav Wise in 1054, there was a significant number of sons, relatives and cousins \u200b\u200bof the Grand Duke in Russia.
Each of them had one or another "father", their domain, and everyone sought to increase the domain or exchange him to a richer. It created a tense position in all princely centers and in Kiev itself. Researchers sometimes call the time after the death of Yaroslav the time of feudal fragmentation, but this cannot be recognized correct, since the real feudal fragmentation occurs when individual lands are crystallized, they grow large cities, heading these lands when its princess dynasty is fixed in each sovereign principal. All this appeared in Russia only after 1132, and in the second half of the XI century. Everything was changeable, irrelevant and unstable. Princely gravestites ruined the people and squad, loosened Russian statehood, but did not introduce any new political form.
In the last quarter of the XI century. In difficult conditions of the inner crisis and the constant threat of an external danger from the Polovtsy Khanov, the princely gravestites acquired the nature of a nationwide disaster. The object of the parties was the Grand Duty Throne: Svyatoslav Yaroslavich drove his older brother Izyaslav from Kiev, "putting the beginning of the expulsion of the brothers."
Decisions were especially scary after the son of Svyatoslav Oleg entered the Allied relations with the Polovtsy and repeatedly led Polovtsky hordes on Russia for a self-sufficient solution of transparents.
The enemy of Oleg was the young Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh, who was contacted in the borderline. Monomakh managed to assemble the princely congress in Lishech in 1097, whose task was to consolidate the "heaven" for princes, condemn the Scheduler of Oleg's grooves and, if possible, eliminate future gravestones in order to confront Polovtsy in one forces.
However, the princes were powerless to establish order not only throughout the Russian land, but even within their princely circle of relatives and cousins \u200b\u200band nephews. Immediately after the congress, a new gravestone, which lasted for several years broke out in Lychech. The only force that in those conditions could actually suspend the dealership of the princes and princely svary are a boyars - the main composition of the young and progressive then the feudal class. Boyarskaya program at the end of the XI and early XII century. It consisted in limiting the princely arbitrariness and the decentities of the princely officials, in the elimination of the gravestics and in the general defense of Russia from Polovtsy. Coinciding in these paragraphs with the aspirations of citizens, this program reflected common interests and was definitely progressive.
In 1093, after the death of Vsevolod Yaroslavich, the Kievans were invited to the throne of a small Torovsky Prince Scholyopolka, but significantly calculated, as he turned out to be a bad commander and the greedy ruler.
Svyatopolk died in 1113; His death served as a signal to a wide uprising in Kiev. The people hit the courtyards of princely managers and Roshovshchikov. Kiev boyarism, bypassing the princely seniority, chose the Grand Duke Vladimir Monomakh, who was shifted successfully until his death in 1125. After him, the unity of Russia was still kept at his son Mstislava (1125-1132), and then, according to the expression of the chronicler, " Russian land "for separate independent reign.
Essence
The loss of state unity of Russia weakened and disconnected her strength in the face of the challenge of the threat of foreign aggression and above all the steppe nomads. All this predetermined the gradual decline of the Kiev Earth from the XIII-century. For a while, during the monamach and Mstislava, Kiev again raised. These princes were able to respond to polovtsam nomads.
Rus broke into 14 principalities, the republican form of government was established in Novgorod. In each principality of the princes together with the boyars "thought about strictly land and rants." The princes declared wars, the world and various alliances were concluded. The Grand Duke was the first (senior) among equal princes. Preserved Princely Congresses, where community policy issues were discussed. Princes were associated with a system of vassal relations. It should be noted that with all the progressiveness of feudal fragmentation, it had one substantial negative moment. Permanent, then subsided, then flashing with a new force, the gravestones between the princes dragged the forces of Russian lands, weakened their defense capability in the face of external danger. The collapse of Russia did not lead, however, to the decay of the ancient Russian nationality, historically established language, territorial, economic and cultural communities. In the Russian lands continued to exist in the unified concept of Russia, Russian land. "Oh, Russian Earth, you already have a hill!" - the author of "Word about the regiment of Igor" was helaced. In the period of feudal fragmentation in the Russian lands, three centers were distinguished: Vladimir-Suzdal, Galico-Volyn Principality and the Novgorod Faudal Republic.
Power prince
Princely power.
In political stricter of Russian lands and principalities there were local peculiarities due to differences in the level and pace of development of productive forces, feudal land ownership, maturity of feudal production relations. In some lands, the princely power, as a result of a stubborn, continued with the variable success of the struggle, was able to subordinate to himself a local to know and strengthen. In the Novgorod land, on the contrary, the feudal republic was established, in which the princely power lost the role of the head of state and began to play a subordinate, mainly a military-official role.
With the celebration of feudal fragmentation, the communional importance of the power of the Kiev Great Princes gradually was reduced to the nominal "elderness" among other princes. Associated with each other complex system of suzerita and vassalitet (due to the complex hierarchical structure of land ownership), rulers and feudal to know the principalities, with all their local independence, were forced to recognize the elderness of the strongest of their environments, which united their efforts to resolve issues that could not To be solved by the forces of one principality or affected the interests of a number of principalities.
Since the second half of the XII century, the strongest principalities, whose rulers become "great", "the oldest" in their lands, presenting the top of the entire feudal hierarchy in them, the Supreme Chandelum, without which vassals could not do and in relation to which they were at the same time were in state of continuous insurrection.
Political centers.
Before the middle of the XII century, the Kiev Prince was such a chapter in the feudal hierarchy. From the second half of the XII century. His role passed to the local grand princes, which in the eyes of contemporaries, as the "oldest" princes, were responsible for the historical destinies of Russia (the idea of \u200b\u200bthe ethnic-state unity of which continued to persist).
In the late XII - early XIII century. The three main political centers have been determined in Russia, each of which had a decisive influence on political life in the neighboring lands and principalities: for northeastern and western (as well as to a considerable degree for the North-West and South) Rus - Vladimir-Suzdal Principality ; For South and Southwestern Russia - Galico-Volyn Principality; For North-West Russia - Novgorod Faudal Republic.
In the conditions of feudal fragmentation, the role of the community and land congresses (Seyama) of Princes and Vassalov, which addressed the issues of international relations were considered and the relevant treaties were concluded, the issues of the organization of the fight against Polovtsy and holding other joint events were discussed. But the attempts of the princes convening such congresses to smooth the most negative consequences of the loss of the state unity of Russia, tie their local interests with the problems of the communional (or common-term) problem with the problems of the communional (or common-earth) scale in the ultimately failed due to the instruments of the assumed.
Vassals and Süster
Kievan Rus IX - XII centuries - first, the cradle of the statehood of three fraternal peoples - Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, and secondly, this is one of the largest powers of medieval Europe, playing a historical role in the fate of the peoples and states of the West, the East and remote north. Kiev - the capital of Russia - was part of the five largest cities in the world.From a relatively small union of the Slavic tribes of the Middle Podprovia (the origins of this union leaves at the time of Herodota) Rus grew to a huge power, which united both the Eastern Slavic tribes and a number of Lithuanian-Latvian tribes of the Baltic States and the numerous Finno-Ugric tribes of the Northeast of Europe.
The importance and necessity of studying Kievan Rus as the first state formation was fully realized by our ancestors: "Tale of the time years" Nestor, created at the beginning of the XII century, was copied and multiplied with correspondence for more than 500 years. And this is for us to explore the glorious epic past of our homeland in its entirety and diversity of historical sources available to us.
The era of Kievan Rus is the era of the greatness of our people, so I consider its story one of the most important pages of our past.
In this work I would like to consider the role of the prince and evening in the "political" sphere of life of the society of the IX - XII centuries. Here, the main question is how the relationship between the considered government began and called on tribes, equal to those that were subordinated subsequently; As the life of these tribes changed due to the influence of the government began - the squad and, as in turn, the goat tribes acted to determine the relationship between the government began and the rest of the population when establishing an internal order, or a dreamed.
Sources and historiography
The sameness on the history of Kiev Rus is quite abundant and varied. A good and detailed review of Russia and feudal principalities is made in a solid collective work created by V. V. Mavrodina: "Soviet Kiev Rusi" (l., 1979), where the authors reasonably understand the Kiev Rus, not only the period from IX at the beginning of XII century, but also the initial phase of feudal fragmentation before the beginning of the XIII century, which is justified by them in the other is also a very useful edition.
Of great interest are the leaders of the XII century that came to us, some of which reflect individual transactions between feudalities, and some give a wide picture of the whole principality. A number of princely and elders are reflected in the Berchini might of Novgorod the Great. A very important source, birchy diplomas turn out to be compared with the annals, actual material of later pesting books.
For the era of the existence of Kievan Rus IX - XII centuries, the chronicles are still the most important historical source. In the numerous works of historians and literary criticized, both the community chronicles and the chronicles of different regions are discussed.
In the extensive and intentional disgraceful literature on Russian chronicle, two labor devoted to the bibliography and historiography of the chronicles are helped: this works V. I. Buganov and R. P. Dmitrieva.
If the X century left to us only the chronicle of Kiev, then the XI century, when the State Logging in the capital continued to continuously, added the chronicle of Novgorod, which often gave a different, local assessment of events and figures. In the future boyar republic (from 1136), interest in the life of the city is clearly visible, some Kiev princes are negatively estimated. It is possible that the initiator of the first chronicle "Mr. Veliky Novgorod" was the Novgorod Postener Ostomir.
In the XII century, the litigation ceases to be the privilege of only these two cities and appears in each major center. The chronicles continued to lead in Kiev, and in Novgorod.
Sources on the history of Kiev Rus are numerous and diverse. The study of their and extracting data on the economy, social structure, political strict and social thought is still far from completed.
In this work, I used several books - works of famous historians.
For example, the work of Danilevsky I. N. gives an idea of \u200b\u200bthe current state of domestic and foreign science in the study of the early period of the history of Russia (until the XII century). The book is based on a critical rethinking of the source base used for historical constructions, it also includes a detailed analysis of potential opportunities and accumulated to date with the experience of studying Russian history with different schools of humanitarian knowledge.
The work of the largest Russian historian Solovyov S.M. "History of Russia from ancient times," which is great scientific labor, and the historical and cultural interest in which it does not weaken.
Also, the sources were served by the monographs of Rybakov B. A., which belongs to the fundamental work on the history of our Motherland, the study of the origin of the ancient Slavs, the initial stages of the addition of Russian statehood, Kiev Rus IX - XII centuries, the development of crafts, the culture of Russian lands and the art of the ancient Slavs.
Prerequisites for the formation of the state
and his education.
The origin of the Eastern Slavs
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A-based analysis of archaeological monuments is known as follows: in p. I thousand BC e. Praslavyan lived in the midst. They supported ethnic contacts with Balti, Germanic, Illyrians, Celts, with II century. - With the descendants of Scythians and Sarmatov. Finds on Kiev hills of roman coins and decorations of the I-III centuries. Testify the trade of Slavs with Greek colonies. In the III century. The Slavs led fierce wars with Gotami, and in the IV century. - With Gunns. At the same time, the settlement of Praslavan in the IV century. Expanded from the low-level Elba in the West to the tributaries and the average Dnieper in the East. Slavs constituted the Indo-European community with the Germans.
From written sources, we know the following: Praslavyan - Veneny (so prashlyani called in ancient sources I c.) - lived in small villages. Public system - a generic community. The basis of the economy from the I-III centuries. It becomes arable farming, as well as cattle breeding, fisheries and hunting. The tools of labor - axes, knives, sickles - were made from stone. Bronze was mainly used for decorations, and from the economic inventory only for chisels fit in wooden construction. Herodotus wrote about the northern regions, where the "many huge rivers" the Scythians lived, "who sow bread not for their own needs, and for sale." In II century The colonists borrowed the Slavs borrowed the Mere "Chetverik". Information about the life, and public strictly eastern Slavs is contained in the work of the "Starkon" of the Byzantine historian Caesarian proof. In IV century Praslavyansky tribes combined into breeding unions.
We reliably do not know the origin of the Slavs from archaeological nor from written sources. Some researchers believe that Slavs were an autochthonous population of Eastern Europe; Others believe that Slavs come from the Herodotovsky "Scythians-Parames"; Third believe that the Slavs occurred from Finno-Ugroms and Balts. The "Tale of Bygone Years" reports that Slavs are immigrants from Central Europe. Academician Rybakov B. A. Noted: "... Judging by the general Slavic peoples with the designations of the landscape, Praslavyan lived in the deciduous forest area and forest-steppe, where there were glades, lakes, swamps, but there were no sea; where there were hills, ravines, watersheds, but There were no high mountains. "
Relief of the ancient Russian peoples
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III-IV centuries. It begins the settlement of the Slavs of the territory of Eastern and Southern Europe.
The reasons:
1. Slavic tribal unions were involved in the last wave of the great resettlement of peoples. In 530, Slavic migration increased. By this time refers to the first mention of the people "Ros"
2. The appearance of the Slavs in the IV-V centuries. Paew agriculture demanding new lands
3. Gradual cooling on the European continent.
Migration occurred not from one region, but from different dialect regions of Praslavyansky Arala. This circumstance, along with the processes of assimilation of the local population, determined the collapse in the VI-VIII centuries. Praslavan on three branches of Slavs: Venenov, Ants and Soclaboy. Veneny - the ancestors of Chekhov, Poles, Slovaks, Ludi Serbs - Western Slavs. Slobins are the ancestors of Serbs, Slovenians, Croats, Bulgarians, Balkan Muslims - Southern Slavs. Antairs - the ancestors of Ukrainians, Russians, Belarusians - Eastern Slavs.
Old Russian nationality was formed on extensive spaces of Eastern European Plain. Ants neighbors in the VI-VII centuries. There were Finno-Ugric, Lithuanian, Turkic (Berendia, Obra, Torki, Khazars, Black hoods, Pechenegs) Tribes. Relations with neighbors were uneven. In 558, Avar Kagan Boyan killed the ambassador of Mezhamir Ambassador and won their country. In 602, Avars were again sent to the land of Ants Army under the authorities of Aspih. The history of Eastern Slavs begins with the period when an independent East Slavic language began to be allocated from the General Slavonic (Praslavyansky) language. This happened in the VII-VIII centuries. Tribal differences inside the East Slavic community were determined by mixing with the peoples of the Finno-Ugric Group.
During the resettlement (IV-IV centuries) there were changes in the socio-political device:
1. Eastern Slavic Tribal Unions (Polyana, Northerners, Dules, Dulyba, Drevlyan, Volynan, Bunzane, White Croats, Dregovichi, Curvichi, Radmichi, Vägovichi, Ilmenie Slovenia and others), consisting of 120-150 tribes) formed. According to the "Tale of Bygone Years" in the VIII century. 12-15 tribal unions lived on the territory of Eastern Europe
2. Generic community and patriarchal family replaced branch
3. The transition from military democracy to the early refortel monarchy began.
State education
| D. |
The revurrent state was formed as a result of internal prerequisites: decomposition of the generic system, a common territory, culture, language, history, economic structure. Along with the formation of the state as a result of the merger of tribal unions, an ancient Russian single nationality was evolved.
The initiators of creating a tribal union on the Middle Dnieper in V c. There were glade in the face of Prince Kiya - the legendary founder of Kiev. Significant information about the history of this protogue is extremely small. It is known that the Kiev Prince with a friend attributed himself to "Rosham", unlike the majority of the consolidated population - Polyan.
OK. Vi in. There was a similar protogation of Slavia - the tribal Union of Ilmensky Sloves around Novgorod and Ladoga. It was Ilmenie Slovenia that were the initiators of the formation of a single East Slavic state by combining Kiev and Novgorod.
Absolutely not known when the ancient Russian state has developed, because This stage of development is legendary. The main signs of the existence of statehood in the Rannesseed-free society, modern historians consider the presence of power, alienated from the people, the placement of the population on the territorial principle and tightening the Dani for the maintenance of power. It can be added to this as a prerequisite - inheriting the power of the Prince. In the conditions of the Kiev Rus of the end of the VIII - the beginning of the 9th century, concrete forms of statehood were: conquering power of the state center of the territories of tribal principalities and distributing the system of collecting Dani, management and proceedings into these lands.
Thus, the Eastern Slavs can be distinguished by the existence of a collection of tribute and ever. The evening characterizes the fact that the Slavs had some kind of organization to lead, therefore, there is a "chairman". The collection of Dani is the establishment of a procedure for which the contract arises: "We protect you - you pay us." Tribute is a fee for the failed raid. So, we see that in the VIII century. - Nach. IX century The structure of the prince is a squad - the evening is connected with the use of force, but the rules (laws) as such are not yet. Therefore, we call this period "Military Democracy". At this time, the society is inhomogeneously: the prince is standing out - a military leader who managed the tribe affairs, but at the same time existed veche - the people's assembly, which was collected by the breeding militia (at the head of the militia - the governor). At Prince, there is a squad (her members - "rasters" - warriors).
The state of the Eastern Slavs arises as a two-centered centers in Kiev and Novgorod. (Oleg in 882 united the Novgorod and Kiev Rus. And, although Novgorod was the initiator of the union, the state of the eastern Slavs received the name "Kievan Rus", because Kiev was richer and had traditional ties with Byzantium.)
The history of the formation of the state Kievskaya Rus covers the period from 862 to 1019, i.e. With the calling of Rüric and before the start of the board in Kiev, Yaroslav Wise. At this time, Rusik Rurik - Oleg - Igor - Olga - Svyatoslav - Vladimir - Svyatopolk. The main subject of their concerns and efforts were: to associate all Eastern Slavic (and part of the Finnish) tribes under the authority of the Grand Duke Kiev; the acquisition of overseas markets for Russian trade and the protection of trade routes, which led to these markets; Protection of the borders of Russian Earth from the attacks of steppe nomads.
Later we will consider in detail how these rulers have contacted.
The political structure of the Russian lands in the X-XII centuries.
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The beginning of the IX century. There was a transition from military democracy to the early refortel monarchy. The process of transformation of a birthday mercenary known to the owners of the Earth began. The structure of the tribal "executive" authorities - Prince, Druzhina (Boyar, Grid, France) and the structure of the "Legislative" authorities are the structure of the authorities. The class of feudalists was also formed by allocating its most prosperous members from the community, which turned part of community arable land from the community. The growth of the economic and political power of landowners led to the establishment of various forms of the dependence of ordinary communities from landowners. Gradually, on this background, the role of the advice of elders and folk militia was reduced.
Kievan Rus XI-XII centuries. It was not a single state, she was not a political federation, for the princely congresses were relatively rare, they were collected only in exceptional cases, and the rulings did not have a legally binding nature. All members of Rurikova kind considered themselves the inborn dominated princes and "brothers" among themselves; Elder in the family, the Grand Duke Kiev, they usually call their "father", but it is no more as an honorable appointment without any real content, especially since the Kiev Prince was not always really eldest in the family. In fact, every prince inside his "parish" and in a transfreigable relationship kept himself as an independent sovereign and his relationship to other princes were determined by "either Reli, or the world", that is, all the controversial issues were solved or the power of weapons, or agreements, agreements With other princes. This negotiation began in transferential relations through the entire Old Russian history and is terminated only in the Moscow state.
Kievan Rus did not work out any definite order in the distribution of volosts between princes, for the next order of the princely ownership, based on the principle of the generic seniority, did not actually entered the political life of Kievan Rus.
A number of other principles and factors that did not depend on the seniority played a role in the distribution of princely tables. One of them was the principle of "pencils", or hereditary possession. Princes often claim to the real domain, which owned their father and where they were born and grew up. Already the Lubacheth Congress of Princes in 1097, to get out of difficulties, adopted a resolution: "The cable yes holds his father." Very often, the "tables" were distributed under agreements and under contracts between princes. Sometimes a disposal or testament has a rather strong and authoritative dominal prince passed the throne of his son or brother.
Very often, the population of senior volost cities in the evening solved the question of the invitation to the reign of some popular prince or about the expulsion of the prince of the unloved people, not paying, of course, no attention to the birth counters of the princes. Evening sent its ambassadors to the elected candidate for the throne with the invitation.
Finally, very often stronger, bold, enterprising and loose princes occupied tables simply by the power of weapons, wining over the prince of the opponent. This practice of "mining" the tables pass continuously through our ancient history.
Evening and Princely Power in Kiev Rus
Prince and Prince Management in Kievan Rus.
The prince in relation to other domain princes was an independent state ship. Inside its volost, the prince was the head of the administration, the highest warlord and the judge. The princely power was the necessary element in the composition of the state power of all Russian lands. However, the state system of the ancient Russian lands cannot be called monarchical. State system of the ancient Russian principalities of the X-XII centuries. It is a genus "unstable balance" between two elements of state power: monarchical, represented by Prince, and democratic, in the face of the National Assembly or Winger Senior volost cities. The power of the prince was not absolute, it is always limited to the power of the Wehper. But the power of the Vecha and his interference was manifested only in cases of emergency, whereas the power of the prince was constantly and daily by the current governing body.
The duties of the prince first of all laying the maintenance of external security and the protection of the Earth from the attacks of the external enemy. The prince was led by foreign policy, conducted interchanges with other princes and states, concluded alliances and treaties, declared war and concluded the world (however, in cases where the war required the convocation of the national militia, the prince had to enlist the province of Wenet). The guilty was a military organizer and Chief; He appointed the head of the folk militia ("" Thousands ") and during the hostilities commanded both his friend and folk militia.
The prince was the legislator, the administrator and the highest judge. He had to "truth to act in the sem." The prince often entrusted the court to his deputies, "Posadanm" and "Tyunam", but the people always preferred the Prince's personal court.
The prince was the head of government and appointed all officials. Regional guards appointed by the prince were called "Pames". In the hands of Planting, the government was administrative and judicial. At Prince and at the hallway, there were minor officials, part of the free, part of their slaves, for all kinds of judicial and police executive actions - these were "Virnery", "Metalniki", "Children's", "Retractions". The local free population, urban and rural, amounted to their communities, or worlds, had their own elected representatives, older and "good people" who defended his interests before the princely administration. With the princely courtyard, the extensive princely economy was managed - "Tiuna Capan".
Revenues Prince took place from Dani from the population, fines for crimes and trading duties and income from princely estates.
In their government activities, the princes usually used the Council and the help of their senior warriors, "Principles". In important cases, especially before the start of military expeditions, the princes collected the entire squad to the council. The warriors were personally free and connected with the prince only by the Uzami personal contract and confidence. But the Duma with the boyars and the warriors was not Mandatory For the prince, as did not impose any formal obligations on him. I also did not exist the mandatory composition of the Princely Council. Sometimes the prince was consulted with all the buddy, sometimes only with her higher layer "princes her husbands", sometimes with two-three approximate boyars. Therefore, the "aristocratic element of power", which some historians see in the Russian Prince Duma, was only a deliberative and subsidiary body during Prince.
But in this twin or boyars Duma, the "elders of the city", i.e., the elected military authorities of the city of Kiev, maybe other cities, "Thousands" and "Sotski". So the very question of the adoption of Christianity was resolved by the prince on the advice with the boyars and the "elders of Gradsky." These elders, or the elders are urban, are in hand with the prince, together with the boyars, in the business affairs, as with all courtieges, forming as it were from the ruler aristocracy next to the princely service. At the princes feast on the occasion of the consecration of the church in Vasilev in the 996 g. They were together with boyars and enjoyment and "elders in all hail." In the same way, by order of Vladimir, on his Sunday people in Kiev, it was necessary to come to the Boyars, Gradi, Sotska, "Deli" and all "deliberate husbands". But constituting the military-government class, the prince's squad at the same time remained still at the head of the Russian merchants, from which he was mediated by accepting active participation in overseas trading. This is Russian merchants about half of the X century. Far was not yet Slavorusskim.
Organization of military forces in Kiev Rus.
The main components of the princess forces in the X-XII centuries. There were, firstly, the princely squad, and secondly, the folk militia.
Princely squad was not numerous; Even the older princes, she was a detachment of 700-800 people. But these were strong, brave, trained professional warriors. The squad was divided into the younger (lower, "young"), which was called "grids" or "Grybamy" (Scandinavian Grid - a courtyard servant), "birthday", "children's", and the older (highest), which was called the princes her husbands or boyars. The oldest collective name of the younger squad "Merry" was replaced by the word yard or servants. This squad, together with his prince, left the environment of the armed merchants of large cities. In the XI century It has not yet differed from this merchant to sharp features either political, nor economic. The squad of the principality was, in fact, a military class.
Initially, the squad was kept and fed on the princely yard and as an additional remuneration received his share from Dani collected from the population, and from military prey after a successful hike. Subsequently, the warriors, especially their supreme layer, boyars, began to acquire land and acquire the economy, and then they came to war with their "birthdayrs" - servants.
The squad Prince was the most powerful core and the main rod of the troops. In the case of the upcoming extensive military operations, the national militia was called on arms, which was made from the free urban population, and in cases of emergency were called upon military service and rural residents - "death".
Large shopping cities were arranged in a military man, each solid organized regiment was formed, called a thousand, which was subdivided for hundreds and dozens (battalions and companies). A thousand (folk militia) was commanded by an embossing city, and then the prince of the "Thousands", hundreds and dozens of also elected "Sotskiy" and "Ten". These elected commanders constituted the military administration of the city and belonging to him the field, a military-government foreman, which is called in the annals "Elders Gradsky." Country regiments, more precisely, armed cities took a constant participation in the campaigns of the prince on a par with his friend. But the prince could call the people's militia only with the consent of the Wern.
In addition to the princely squad and folk militia, auxiliary detachments from Inomers took part in the wars. Initially, it was mainly the Varya Dogs, which Russian princes hired to their service, and from the end of the XI century, these were the equestrian detachments of "their dies" or "black hoods" (Torkov, Berentyev, Pechenegs), which Russian princes settled on the southern outskirts of Kiev Earth.
Vese.
The news of the chronicles on the evening life in Russia are numerous and diverse, although we find detailed descriptions of the evening meetings very rarely. Of course, in all cases where the city's population spoke independently and regardless of the prince, we must assume a preliminary meeting or advice, that is, veche.
In the era of breeding life. Prior to the formation and strengthening of the Grand Duchy of Kiev, individual tribes, glade, Drules, etc., gather, in case of need, on their tribal meetings and are advised to meet their tribal princes about general affairs. In X and at the beginning of the XI century. With the strengthening of the central power in the face of the Grand Duke of Kiev (Vladimir Saint and Yaroslav Wise), these breeding gatherings lose their political importance, and from the middle of the XI century they are to replace the active and influential vessel of senior regional cities.
However, in exceptional cases (especially in the absence of the prince), the urban population shows its activity and amateurness and in the early period of the Kiev state. For example, in 997 we see the vessel in the Bezenieg Belgorod.
After the death of Yaroslav (in 1054), when the Russian land was divided into several principalities, the veneer of the main loud cities acts as a carrier of the supreme power in the state. When the prince was strong enough and popular, the evening was inactive and provided by the prince of government affairs. But emergency cases, as a change on the throne or solving questions about war and peace, caused the powerful intervention of the Wern, and the voice of the National Assembly in these cases was decisive.
The power of the Winger, its composition and competence were not determined by any legal norms. Veche was an open meeting, a nationwide gathering, and all the free could take part in it. It was only necessary that the participating did not stand under the deception (fathers ever decide for children) or in any particular dependence. In fact, Veche was a meeting of the townspeople of the Main City; Residents of small cities or "suburbs" had the right to be present in the evening, but rarely had the actual opportunity. The decision of the elder's chassis was considered obligatory for the residents of the suburbs and for all the parish. No law determined and did not limit the competences of Wehte. Evening could discuss and solve any question that was interested in.
The most important and ordinary subject of competence of the elder meetings was the vocation, or acceptance, princes and expulsion of princes, unrelated people. The calling and change of princes were not only political Factsarising from the real ratio of forces, but were generally accepted right population. The right of them recognized the princes themselves and their squads.
The second is an extremely important - circle of issues to be decided, there were questions about the war and the world in general, as well as to continue or terminate hostilities. For the war with their own means, with the help of his squad and hunters from the people, the prince did not need the harmony of the Wehte, but for the war by means of the parish, when the convening of a folk militia was needed, it was necessary to the consent of the Wern.
The development of political freedom and independence of the Great
Novgorod. Evening and Princely Power of Novgorod Russia.
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X-XI centuries. Novgorod was under the rule of the great princes of Kiev, who kept their governor in it (usually one or their sons) and to which Novgorod, before the time of Yaroslavl I paid tribute to the other Russian lands. However, during Yaroslavl in the relations of Novgorod, a significant change occurred to the Great Prince Kiev. Yaroslav "Sit" in Novgorod in 1015, when his father died, Vladimir Saint and his brother, His Svyatopolk began to beat their brothers with the aim of seizing power over all Russian lands. Only thanks to the active and energetic support of Novgorod, Yaroslav managed to defeat the Svyatopolka and master the Grand Durability of Kiev.
The separation of Russia into several separate principalities weakened the strength and influence of the Grand Duke Kiev, and the parties and interdisodes in the princely genus provided Novgorod the opportunity to invite to the reign of themselves from the princes of rivals, which was "love" to him.
The right of Novgorod to choose any prince between all the princes of the Russians was indisputable and generally accepted. In the Novgorod chronicles, we read: "A Novgorod lay out the VSI Prince to Freedom: where they either, the same principle of prince." In addition to the prince at the head of the Novgorod administration, the landangen stood, which in the X-XI centuries. Prisoner was appointed, but in the 30s. XII centuries. An important post of Plantista in Novgorod becomes election, and the right to change the landanguisa belongs only to one.
The important position of the Massarous ('"Mall") also becomes election, and the Novgorod evening "gives" and "takes" her at its discretion. Finally from the second half of the XII century. The election of the Waite is noting a high post of head of the Novgorod Church, the Lord of the Archbishop of Novgorod. In 1156, by the death of Archbishop nififa, "Collected all hail of people and the liberal bishop put Arkady's husband with God," Of course, the elected named Waph was then to receive a "ruling" at the Episcopian department from the Metropolitan of Kiev and All Russia.
Thus, during the XI-XII century. All of the highest Novgorod administration becomes elected, and the evening of Mr. Veliky Novgorod becomes a full-awake manager of the fate of the Novgorod state.
State device and management:
Prince.
Novgorods were, "free men", lived and managed "on the whole will of their own", but they did not consider it possible to do without prince. The prince was needed by Novgorod mainly as the leader of the troops. That is why Novgorod so appreciated and respected their warlike princes. However, by providing the prince of the command by the Armed Forces, Novgorod people did not allow him to independently conduct the affairs of foreign policy and start the war without the consent of the Wern. Novgorods demanded the oath from their prince that he would be indisputable to abide by all their rights and liberty.
Inviting a new prince, Novgorod concluded a formal contract with him, accurately determining his rights and obligations. Each newly invited prince undertakes to abide by indispensable: "To the Sea Princess, Kissing Homes to the whole Novgorod, what grandfathers and fathers kissed, - Novgorod Teli in Starne, on the duty, without resentment." The entire judicial and government activity of the prince should go in agreement with the Novgorod Postener and under its constant supervision: "And the Bes of Planting Ti, princess, the courts are not judged, nor the volosts of distributing, nor Davati's literacy"; And without the guilt of the husband, the parish is not hoisted. And the row in the Novgorod parish Tob, the princess, and your judges are not to appear (i.e., do not change), and the sober does not progress. " The entire local administration must be appointed from Novgorod, and not from the princes of husbands: "That volosts of all the Novgorod, that princes, not to hold their husbands, but hold men by Novgorod; Dar have Tobe from those volosts. " This "gift" with volosts of the dimensions of which are precisely determined in the treaties, is the reward of the prince for its government activities. A number of decrees ensured trade rights and interests of Novgorod from violations. Providing freedom of commerce of Novgorod with Russian lands, contracts demanded that the prince also so that he would not prevent Novgorod trade with the Germans and that he himself did not take direct participation in it.
Novgorod took care that the prince with his friend was not too close and deep into the inner life of the Novgorod society and did not become an influential social force in it. The prince with his yard was supposed to live beyond the city, at the settlement. He and his people were forbidden to take someone from Novgorod to personal dependence, as well as acquire land ownership in the possessions of the great Novgorod - "and you, princess, nor your princess, nor your boyars, nor your nobles sat down or buy nor Various taking over the entire volost of Novgorod. "
Thus, "the prince was supposed to stand around Novgorod, serving him. And not at the head of him, the right to them, "says Klyuchevsky, who points to a political contradiction in Stroe Novgorod: He needed Prince, but" at the same time he treated him with extreme distrust "and tried to argue in every way and limit his power in every way.
Vese.
Mr. Veliky Novgorod was divided into "ends", "hundreds" and "Streets", and all these divisions were represented by self-governing communities, they had their local heads and chose to manage and representative offices of Sotskii, as well as the Konchangsky and Ulitski. The Union of these local communities was Veliky Novgorod, and "the cumulative will of all these allied worlds was expressed in the total verse of the city" (Klyuchevsky). Evening did not convene periodically, within a certain time, but only when it was likely to. Both the prince, and landing, and any group of citizens could convene (or "Consonal") veche. All free and full-fledged Novgorod, and all had the same voice right were gathered for the Venevnaya Square. Sometimes the residents of Novgorod suburbs (Pskovichi and Ladhodan) took part in the evening (Pskovichi and Ladhodan), but ordinary civilians consisted of citizens of one senior city.
The competence of the Novgorod Wehte was comprehensive. It made laws and rules (in particular, the veche was adopted and approved in 1471 Novgorod, or the so-called "vessel"); It invited the prince and concluded a contract with him, and in the case of discontent, it was expelled; Veche chose, replaced and tried to landing and Muscoy and disassembled their disputes with the prince; It chose a candidate for the post of Archbishop of Novgorod, sometimes the "world" put the churches and monasteries; Evening gave state lands of the Great Novgorod to church institutions or individuals, and also granted some suburbs and land "in feeding" invited princes; It was a higher court for suburbs and for individuals; Court for political and other essential crimes connected to the most serious sentences - deprivation of life or confiscation of property and exile; Finally, the evening led the whole area of \u200b\u200bforeign policy: made a decree on the collection of troops on the construction of fortresses at the country's borders and generally about the state defense measures; Announced the war and imprisoned the world, and also concluded trade agreements with other people's countries.
Evening had his office (or the Incenitudes at the head of which stood the "Eternal Deek" (secretary). Resolutions or sentences Wehte was recorded and fastened by the seals of Mr. Veliky Novgorod (the so-called "eternal certificates"). Diplons were written on behalf of all Novgorod, his governments and People. In the worst of the Novgorod diploma, this Solovetsky monastery, read: "And on the blessing of Mr. Pre-Great Archbishop of the Great Novgorod and the Pskov Lord of the Iona, Mr. Lukinich and Old Ployer, and Mr. Thousands of Veliky Novgorod, and the old people, And the boyars, and living people, and merchants, and black people, and all Mr. Sovereign Veliky Novgorod All five ends, in the evening, on the Yaroslavl courtyard, Hegumeni ... And Wsyih Elders ... the islands "...
The large Novgorod veche was gathered usually on the trading side, on Yaroslavl yard (or "courtyard"). The huge, crowded crowd of "free husbands", of course, did not always follow the order and a delicency: "In the evening, at the very composition itself, it could not be a proper discussion of the issue, no correct vote. The decision was made on the eye, it is better to say on the rumor, rather the strength of screams than most votes "(Klyuchevsky). In the case of disagreements in the evening, noisy disputes arose, sometimes fights, and "mastered side and recognized by the majority" (Klyuchevsky). Sometimes two Waponds were collected at the same time: one on the trade, other on the Sofia side; Some participants were "in armor" (ie in weapons), and disputes between hostile parties sometimes reached armed clashes on the Volkhov Bridge.
Administration and court.
The advice of the Lord. At the head of the Novgorod administration, "Power Plant" and "Power Massaya" were stood.
The court was distributed among different authorities: the Lord of the Novgorod, Princely Governor, Posadanik and Muscinsky; In particular, the thousands, together with the collegium of the three elder from living people and two elders from merchants, had to "manage all sorts of things" merchants and "Shopping Court". In appropriate cases, a joint court of different instances acted. For "Peresakh", i.e. To revise cases solved in the first instance, there was a board of 10 "rapporteurs", one boyar and one "life" from each end. For executive judicial and administrative and police actions, the highest administration had at their disposal a number of lower agents who wore various names: bailiffs, sowing, cobster, metering, biyyrich.
A crowded vet tool, of course, could not intelligently and thoroughly discuss the details of government events or individual articles of laws and treaties; She could only take or reject ready-made reports of the highest administration. To preliminarily develop the necessary events and for preparing reports in Novgorod, there was a special government council, or the advice of the Lord, he consisted of a power plant and a thousandth, Konchangsky Starright, Sotskiy and old (ie, former) enjoyment and thousands. This Council, which included the tops of Novgorod Boyars, had a great influence in the political life of Novgorod and often predetermined the issues to be decided, - "" It was a hidden, but very active spring of the Novgorod government "(Klyuchevsky).
In the regional administration of the Novgorod state, we find the duality of the beginning - centralization and local autonomy. Sedering in suburbs were appointed from Novgorod, and the court institutions of the senior city served as the highest authority for the Road. Suburbs and all volosts Novgorod should have paid tribute to Mr. Great Novgorod. Intelligence and abuses in the field of management caused a charturbation forces in Novgorod regions, and some of them sought to break away from their center.
Historical destinies of ancient Russia
Russian Earth as an inseparable whole, which was in the general holding of the princes-relatives, from the turn of the XI-XIII centuries. ceases to be actually political reality.
Despite the differences between Kiev and Novgorod Rus, they were inherent in some common features. Everywhere we see as the main political institutions three forces: Prince, squad (boyars), urban verse.
At the same time, these principalities can be divided into two types: earned monarchy and feudal republic. They differed in which of the listed political bodies played in them a decisive role. At the same time, other power structures could continue to exist, although in everyday life they completely and beside the attention of contemporaries. Only in extreme situations, the company "recalled" about such traditional state institutions.
An example of the first type of state is the Kiev principality. Princes are fighting for the Kiev throne. Possessing them gave the right to title the Grand Prince, formally stood over all other - princes.
In Kiev (and in the consequence in Galich and Volyn), the princely power that appeared on the squad was strong. One of the first references to the direct attempt of the squad of the Kiev Prince to independently decide the question of who will sit on the Kiev table refers to 1015 by learning about the death of Vladimir Svyatoslavich, his density was offered to become a Kiev prince younger son Boris. And only the unwillingness to violate the tradition of subordination to the eldest in the family (so in any case, this episode of the chronicler treats this episode) did not allow a friend to insist on his. By the way, immediately after the refusal of Boris, fighting for power in Kiev, paternal warriors left him. Another example of this kind may be a meeting with its "men" in 1187. The dying Galician prince Yaroslav Orthomyslla about the transfer of power in Galich to the younger son, bypassing the senior - the legal heir.
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Southern princes consisted with their squads and in solving issues of war and peace. So, in 1093, the princes of Svyatopolk, Vladimir and Rostislav, before the start of hostilities, kept the Council with their "meaningful men": "You should attack the Polovtsy or more profitable to conclude peace with them?" The question was discussed and the question of the timing of the speech at Polovtsy during the princely congresses of 1103 and 1111. At the same time, the prince's voice turned out to be decisive, but only after he urged the warriors at the right point of his decision.
At the same time, in critical situations, when the prince for some reason could not fulfill its functions, the city ever took real power into their own hands. This happened in 1068, when Kiev Prince Izyaslav could not resist Polovtsy and fled from the battlefield. The consequence of this was the ever decision of Kievans to shift the "legitimate" prince and put on his place at all of Bryachivich Polotsky. Only as a result of the toughest measures, the Kiev throne managed to register the same prince.
Another example is the situation when the Kiev veche in 1113, contrary to the existing procedure for the pre-surgery (Kiev was not his "primary" invited On the grand-pendant throne of Vladimir Monomakh. In 1125, the Senior Monomashić Mstislav was planted on the Kiev table, and after his death in 1132, Kievan gave the power of his brother Yaropolk. In 1146, Kievans were summoned at the eve of the prince of Igor Olgovich, who was to have a Vsevolod's brother's will, join the Kiev throne. It is characteristic that Igor was afraid to appear in the evening, did not solve and ignore the "invitation". As a Plenipotentiary Representative (as long as the applicant for the throne, he was sitting in ambush), he sent Svyatoslav Olgovich's citizens to the meeting, who had to listen to complaints of Kiev residents and promise to stop the abuse of princely people.
The situation in Kiev has changed with the coming to power of the Grand Duke Andrei Yurevich Bogolyubsky (1157-1174). If his father Yuri Vladimirovich, the Dolgoruky's Kiev thrust all his life, was achieved by the Kiev throne, then Andrei left the Kiev suburbs twice, where he was saved by the Grand Duke in the northeast of Russia. There he, in the end, settled. Becoming the Grand Duke, Andrei suffered his "table" to the former suburb of Suzdal - Vladimir-on-Klyazemma. Moreover, in 1169, the united troops of Russian lands under the leadership of Andrei attacked Kiev, who tried to get out of his influence, and loosened him. After that, the value of the southern capital of Russian Earth began to quickly fall. Despite the fact that the second commonhouse campaign on Kiev 1173 turned into a failure, the former capital has never recovered from impact. In 1203 Kiev was again looted in a joint campaign of Ryric Rostislavich, Olgovichi and Polovtsy. The invasion of Mongolian detachments in 1240 was only completed by Russian princes. Nevertheless, it was the southern Russian lands for a long time continued to maintain the traditions of the Office, which established in Kievan Rus: the power of the prince was resting there on the power of the squad and was controlled by the urban veche. Conditionally, this form of government is called Rannefodal monarchy.
Its type of state power has developed in the north-west of Russia. Here, the princely power as an independent political force ceased to exist as a result of the events of 1136 (the so-called Novgorod "revolution"). On May 28, the Novgorod residents were put under the arrest of their prince - the prince of Prince of Kiev, Vsevolod Mstislavich, and then expelled him from the city. From this time, the order was finally established, the order of choosing the Novgorod Prince, like all other state positions of Novgorod the Great, in the evening. He became part of the city administrative apparatus. Now the functions were limited to military issues. The protection of the law enforcement in the city was engaged in the voivode, and all the fullness of power during the periods between the elder gatherings focused in the hands of Novgorod Planting and Bishop (from 1165 by the Archbishop). Sophisticated questions could be solved on the so-called mathematical The court, which included representatives of all authorities of Novgorod.
This type of state device can be defined as feudal republicmoreover, the Republic "Boyarskaya", "Aristocratic".
On the one hand, at the highest public office (primarily posted possessed, apparently, the entire fullness of power in the interruptions between the Waite meetings) was elected only members of influential (aristocratic) boyars.
On the other hand, the characteristic of the Novgorod state is associated with the aristocratic composition of the Wern - the Supreme State Body of Novgorod. According to V.L. Janina, at the eve of 300 to 500 people - immigrants from the largest boyars "names" (as we remember, M.Kh. Aleshkovsky believed that in the number of eternities from the XIII century. He also included the richest Novgorod merchants). There are, however, and another point of view, according to which not only all adults of Novgorod participated in the Novgorod, regardless of their social status, but perhaps the residents of Novgorod suburbs, including rural (I.Y. Froyanov, in .F. Andreev, etc.). In the evening, the most important issues of the political life of the republic were solved. The main one is the election of officials who carried out power functions: Pames, Thousands, Bishop (Archbishop), Archimandrite, Prince.
Further development of Russian land could follow any of the emerging paths, but the invasion of the second third of the XIII century. Mongolian troops significantly changed the political situation in the country. But this is a topic for a special conversation.
Kievan Rus was a whole epoch in the history of Slavic peoples. She was the only Slavic state that could compete in the level of its development with leading countries of the world.
As a result of the collapse of the ancient Russian state to the second half of the XII century. On the territory of Kievan Rus, there were 13 separate feudal principalities and the republics: the Novgorod and Pskov lands and the Principles of Kiev, Pereyaslav, Chernigovsky, Galico-Volyn, Town-Pinsky, Polotsk-Minsk, Smolenskoye, Vladimir-Sus-Dalsky, Muromskoye, Ryazan, Tmutarakanskoye. The great Kiev princes continued to be considered the Supreme Head of the Rubber Land. However, the supremacy it was purely nominal. In the system of political entities, the Kiev principality was far from the strongest. The power of Kiev princes steadily fell, and Kiev himself turned into an object of the struggle between the strongest Russian princes. The campaign to Kiev Andrei Bogolyubsky in 1169 was even more undermined the meaning of this city, and the invasion of the Tatar-Mongols in 1240 turned him into the pile of ruins.
At the head of the Russian land, which broke up the ancient Russian state was stood by princes. The strongest of them soon began to assign themselves the title of great princes and claimed to unite under their authority to other Russian lands.
In all lands, the princes had to drive a stubborn fight against the boyars who did not want to strengthen the princely power. The results of this struggle in various Russian lands were unequal, because the unequal levels were the level of development of feudalism in them, and therefore the compliance of the class forces. In Novgorod, for example, a strong Novgorod boyars won the victory, there was a feudal aristocratic republic. Novgorod princes were elected and had very limited rights. The authorities were limited in the main framework of military leadership.
In Vladimir-Suzdal Earth, on the contrary, the princely power was extremely important. The fact is that Northeastern Russia in the Kiev period had a relatively low level of feudalism. Therefore, they did not have time to develop a cohesive group of local feudalists, capable of withstanding the princely power. Vladimir-Suzdal Princes quickly defeated their opponents, created an extensive princely domain that was not equal in other Russian lands, they distributed the lands to their warriors and thus strengthened their supreme, actually monarchical power.
In the Galician-Volyn Earth, the third type of political system was developed, the characteristic feature of which was the fact that the struggle of the princes with boyars here was accurately successful. In this part of Kievan Rus, the princely authorities settled pretty late when there was a numerous layer of local faeodals on the basis of intensive decomposition of the rural community. Based on its extensive victobs, local boyars played a major role in the political life of the Galician-Volyn land. They often replaced the princes at their discretion, were widely attracted to the fight against the prince of Poles and Hungarians. The power of the boyars could not break even such strong princes as the novel and his son Daniel. The political system of the Galician-Volyn land occupied as if the average situation between the political system of Novgorod and Vladimir-Suzdal Land.
The political system of other Russian lands has little reflected in the sources, but, apparently, one of the characterized options was repeated in them.
Common for all lands was the hierarchical order of power and subordination. The dominant class was organized in the system of a feudal hierarchy, where every member, with the exception of the highest and lower, at the same time was Sissen, and Vassal. The completed forms of this order received, however, only the XIV century, but it can also be talked in relation to the XII - XIII centuries. At the top of the feudal hierarchical staircase stood the prince, below - his vassaly boyars. The boyar had her vassals, less severe feudal owners, the latter, in turn, had people dependent on them. Boyar were free servants from princes. They could choose Mr., move from one prince to another, without losing their victobs. Princely fees and subsidy with Boyar Votchin were made at their location.
Being vassals of princes, boyars at the same time performed as sovereign rulers in their faiths. They carried out the right of court and management on the territory of their victobin. The largest faithful owners had in addition more immunities - granulated princes benefits, who freed the defenders of the owners from princely taxes and duties.
During the feudal fragmentation period in all Russian lands, a further strengthening of the feudal state apparatus occurs - the number of state (princess) and voted officials is increasing. Their task was to ensure the power of feudal over the peasants and urban Nizami; Collection from them rent, taxes, fines, etc. and suppressing anti-refortion performances of workers.
At the guard of the interests of the feudal class there was feudal legislation, punitive organs and armed forces. The lawsuit in all Russian lands still remained the "Russian truth", permeated by the idea of \u200b\u200bprotecting the property and power of feudal. We raised the hand on the feudal ownership or feudal orders of the "Tathi", or "Robbers", they were shook in the iron and threw in prisons - "Foreign" and "Dtomnov" - deep dark pits.
The strongest political instrument in the hands of the feudalists were armed forces, the composition and organization of which vividly reflected the socio-political system of feudal fragmentation period. The armed forces of Russian feudal principalities consisted of princely druzes, which were now called by the princely courtyards, boyars and rates and folk militia.
Only part of the princely courtyard was permanent military service, it was a professional army. The rest of the princely servants, who made his courtyard, lived in her faith and was to the prince at the earliest need. In the event of a war to the aid to the prince, he also hurried to the boyars with their warriors and shelves. However, the main armed force of feudal principalities was not a princely squad and boyars troops, but folk militia. They were in every prince, but convened only in special, extreme cases.
The armed forces of the feudal fragmentation period were thus the motley composition and in the main mass were irregular, which, undoubtedly affected their fighting qualities.
The most common weapons were a spear and an ax, they armed a walk of militias. Weapon dwellery served as a sword. During the siege of the cities, vices were used, patrants, tarana.
Hasp summer 1556.4. Novgorod land
Novgorod occupies a special place in Russian history. Here longer than in other dructants, persisted Veva orders. Novgorod in the domestic literature was considered "stronghold of liberty." His story is much more related to International Tradethan with feudal land tenure. However, in contrast to trade republics European Middle Ages, the richness of Novgorod relying primarily on land tenure and commercial hunt. That is why real power in Novgorod belonged boyars. Novgorod land, located in the north-west of Russia, is distinguished by an abundance of marshes and poor soil. Extensive forests, many fur beast. Conditions for agriculture - unfavorable. Bread had to buy, most often in Northeast Russia. Novgorod is located on the R. Volkhov, directly on the way " from Varyag in Greeks"That created favorable conditions for the development of trade with Western Europe.
R. Volkhov Delilila Novgorod on two sides - Sofia and trading. Each consisted of ends. At first there were three, later - five. Ends were independent Divorced The villages that spined later in a single city. Scientists believe that they were inhabited Ilmenie Slovenia, Krivichi., Merya ("Nareva"). Directly "Novgorod" was first called not the whole city, but Kremlinwhere the secular administration and priests and priests have been located.
Decisive role In Novgorod belonged to boyars. Novgorod boyars, unlike boyars Vladimir-Suzdal Rusthere were no origin Prince warriors, and the descendants of the local Rhodeployen Nobility. They were closed Aristocratic Casta, determined circle of families. Novgorod boyar was impossible to become M.B. Just be born. Boyars belonged extensive possessions on the subjects of the Novgorod territories. Initially, they collected land from the population tribute in favor of the urban treasury, and then took possession of them, turning into their Votchina. So Private A land tenure in Novgorod, unlike Northeast Russia, was not based on the princely sufficiency. From the Votchin Boyar received not only agricultural products, but also salt and (GL) what was produced on forest and marine fishery: fur, honey, wax, skin, firructible bone. Exactly these products Massed the basis of Novgorod Export to Western Europe.
Novgorod merchants were commercial agents. Novgorod traded not only what was produced in his lands, but led and intermediary trading. The merchants-ingenians could not trade in Novgorod with each other, but were obliged to sell their products only by Novgorod. The most important trading partners of Novgorod were Northemetsky ( hansees) Cities, especially Lubecks, as well as Swedish merchants with O-Va Gotland. In Novgorod existed Hanseatic and Gotland Trade Dumors. Novgorod imported fabrics, metal products, luxury items, and raw materials for Craftsman Production (in the Novgorod Earth itself only a tree and a building stone). Since the exported goods belonged to Boyars, they also belonged to the imported raw materials. The boyars supplied artisans. Novgorod craft has reached an exceptionally high level of development. Craftsmen depended on the boyars, worked on them, the courtyards of artisans were often located on the land belonging to the boyars. The wealth and power of Boyar was based, so on, on land tenure and trade.
Political device of Novgorod. Novgorod was sharply different from all other Russian lands with their political structure.
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White hood of Novgorod Archbishop Vasily. Ethnographic sketches of Fedor Solntsev
Power in Novgorod belonged to the evening. Modern data suggests that it consisted of 300-500 humanrepresented by 30-40 noble names of the city. Apparently, at the eve of the boyars and perhaps some richest merchants. Veche elected landanger who managed the urban economy, and the thousands of the fee taxes. The city was divided into 10 submitted "Sothey", which was ruled by Sotsk, who submitted to a thousand thousand. Previously it was believed that the Molodsky led the Novgorod militia - "thousand". Postunner always became any of the boyars. Thousands originally was the representative of the merchants, but in the XIII-XIV centuries. And this position passed into the hands of Boyar. At the disposal of Planting and Moltsky, there was a whole state of subordinates, with the help of which they carried out management and court. They announced the decision of Wenet, the court was notified to commit a crime, called to court, produced Search, etc. However, the first place among the elected officials was held by the Bishop, who received 1165 San Archbishop. He was chosen in the evening, and then he claimed to Kiev metropolitan. Archbishop (along with Posadner) fastened its printing of international treaties Novgorod, represented by Novgorod; In negotiations with Russian princes. He even had his own regiment. The ordinary population of Novgorod participated only in the Konchang and Urechant, elevating the ends of the ends and streets (Ulich). However, the Konchansky and Ucharian streets also often used for their own purposes, setting up the inhabitants of "their" end against rivals from other Kontsov.
Veliky Novgorod (Novgorod boyars
The prince played in the system of Novgorod government in many ways a formal role. IN 1015 Yaroslav Wise, then, then in Novgorod, in exchange for supporting its inhabitants in the struggle for Kiev I agreed to the possibility of Novgorod Boyar to the princely court. IN 1136 Novgorod residents rebelled and expelled the prince Vsevolod (Grandson of Monomakh). After that, Novgorod began to invite the prince himself, with whom the evening concluded a "row" - a contract. Prince who broke the "row" could be expelled. Prince did not have the right to interfere in the affairs of the urban Self-government, appoint and remove from the post of landing and thousands of, buy land on the outskirts of the Novgorod territory. As a rule, Novgorod residents invited princes from the most powerful kind of princely kind. But Novgorod never tried to do without prince. Prince because he belonged to a single race Rurikovich, was symbol Unity of Novgorod with the rest of Rus. Danan came to his name, for he was considered the Supreme Owl of the Novgorod Land. He performed (together with the landing and archbishop) the functions of the arbitration judge. The prince could and lead the Novgorod army, but this function was secondary. Often, the juvenile reigned in Novgorod. A widespread idea of \u200b\u200bthe Novgorod Prince as a commander is explained by the influence of the image. Alexander Nevsky. Political history Novgorod in the XII-XIII centuries. Differed complex weave struggle For independence S. antifeodal Performances folk masses and struggle for power M. Boyarsi Grouping (represented by boyars gods of commercial and Sofia cities, His ends and streets). The whole population of Novgorod shared on the "best people" and "smaller ( black) of people".
In the XIII-XIV centuries. There was OK.50 uprises of "black" people against the "best." Sometimes two Waire was going: on the trading side and Sophia Cathedral. Antifeodal speeches urban Poor The boyars were often used to eliminate their rivals to dull the anti-refortion character of these speeches with separate boyars or officials. The largest antipodeal movement There was a rebellion of B. 1207 against the landing Dmitra Miroshkinich and his relatives, burdened urban people and peasants arbitrary defeats I. rosovshchikov kabala. The rebels defeated urban manor And the village of Midashkin seized their debt bonders. Boyars, hostile to Miroshkinich, took advantage of the uprising to eliminate them from authorities. Novgorod conducted an active external policy. Known his contract 1191 with Gothic shore (O. Gotland on Baltic), as well as an agreement with the German cities of the world, the Embassy, \u200b\u200bTrade Relationships And Court 1192 . In the XIII century. From Novgorod separated from Novgorod Pskov, but after that, when Novgorod republic joined Moscow states, the territory of the latter increased twice. Joining Novgorod so strengthened Moscow that in the same (1192), she refused to pay tribute Mongol- tataram. Evolution Republican statehood was accompanied by the extinction of the role of the city poverty. At the same time, the importance of the city boyars grew. Republican statehood has undergone changes from relative democratism before frank oligarchic system Board to the XV century. In the XIII century. Council was formed from the representatives of the five ends of Novgorod from which the landange was chosen. In N.XV c. Decisions of Wern were almost entirely prepared by the Council. Novgorod boyarism Interests Gorozhevan prevented accession to Moscow. 15 Yang 1478. Novgorod obeyed Moscow.
So, Novgorod managed Elected The authorities represented by the top of the population. It is on this basis that Novgorod is considered the aristocratic republic.
Aristocracy Archbishop Balts of Good Boyar Veche Vladimir-Suzdal Principality (Zalesska Land, Zalessky Krai) Power Power Power Power Political Eastern Slavs Varya Gansa City of Eastern Slavs
The main activity and the subject of the efforts of the first Kiev princes were: 1. Association of all Eastern Slavic tribes under the rule of the Grand Duke Kiev, 2. Acquisition of overseas markets for Russian trade and trade routes, which led to these markets, 3. Protection of the borders of Russian Earth from the attacks of steppe nomadics.
The main goal and the task of the Princely Administration was the collection of Dani from the subject population. Ways to pick up Dani "Fiji" and "Movie". "Fuling" was called the slide of the prince (usually in the winter) of its area and the collection of Dani which was collected or money, or more often in kind. Especially fur. During the "FIRD", the prince or his governor chinned the court and massacre. In those areas in which they could not or did not want to ride the prince, the population should have conducted "vase", i.e. Carry tribute to Kiev.
In the spring of the prince, his warriors, the merchants accumulated a large amount of goods, these were mostly traditional Russian goods: honey, fur, wax, slaves (captured during the war or resell), the goods were loaded on the rook and moved down the Dnieper by Princely squad. The guard defended the caravan from the attack of steppe nomads. In addition to military protection, Kiev princes should have taken care of the diplomatic protection of Russian trade. To do this, they concluded trade agreements with the Byzantine government, which should ensure the correct and unhindered course of Russian trade, as well as the interests and rights of Russian merchants.
The defense of the Kiev princes was the defense of the Russian limits from the attack of steppe nomads. Kiev lay almost on the border of the steppe strip and repeatedly subjected to attacks. Kiev princes had to strengthen not only their capital, but also to create a whole system of border fortifications.
Vese. Chronicler in the XII century. He said that the population of the senior cities "inscribed" in the evening and made decisions to which the younger cities (or suburbs) were subordinate. It should be noted that the People's Assembly in Russia at this time as an organ of primitive democracy plays very important, often decisive, role in the life of all Russian lands from Kiev to Novgorod and from Volyn to the Rostov-Suzdal Earth. Only on the western outskirts in Galicia, the aristocratic element (boyars) plays an important political role. In all cases, when the population acted independently of the prince, there must be a preliminary council or meeting, i.e. Vese. When after the death of Yaroslav (in 1054), the Russian land was divided into several principalities, the events of the main loud cities often acts as a carrier of the supreme power in the state. When the prince was strong enough and popular (like Vladimir Monomakh) in the evening inactive and provided the prince of government affairs. Only in Novgorod and Pskov Veche became a permanent existing government body, in the rest of the regions, it was usually not interfered with the principal activities of the Prince at normal time. In emergency situations, as a change on the prince of the throne or resolving issues of war and peace, the voice of the national assembly in these affairs was decisive.
The power of the Wonder, its composition was not determined by any legal norms. Evening was an open meeting, a nationwide gathering, and all the free could take part in it. In fact, Veche was a meeting of the townspeople of the Main City. The decision of the senior city was considered obligatory for residents of the suburbs and for the entire parish. No law defined and did not limit the competencies of the Wern. Vese could discuss and solve any question he was interested in. Sometimes even folk militia. Being in the campaign, the eve of the eve of the congregation and solved the issue of continuing a campaign or about the upcoming hostilities. The most important and ordinary subject of competence of the elder meetings was the vocation, or acceptance, princes and expulsion of princes, unrelated people. At the same time, both sides sometimes concluded additional conditions. The vocation and change of princes were not only political facts resulting from the real relationship of forces, but were a generally accepted right of the population. The right of them recognized the princes themselves, and their squads.
Another circle of issues to be subject to the decision of the Wern was issues of war and peace in general, as well as to continue or terminate hostilities. Sometimes the people themselves assumed the initiative of the announcement of the war, sometimes refused to participate in the war, which he started or ended the prince, sometimes demanded more energetic actions or the opposite of their termination.
Wapond solutions must be "unanimous" and unanimous. In fact, this "unity for all" meant an agreement of such an overwhelming majority, which forced to be silent than diverse.
