Putrefactive infection - symptoms and treatment. Rotting and decomposition of a corpse is the last form of human existence. The most active decay of a corpse develops at temperature

It develops only in a wound where there is dead tissue, which, as a result of the activity of putrefactive bacteria, undergoes decay. Observed as a complication in extensive soft tissue wounds, open fractures and bedsores. The development of putrefactive infection is caused by non-clostridial anaerobes - bacteroides, fusobacteria, peptococci, which are mainly found on the mucous membranes digestive tract, respiratory tract, female genital organs.

It is believed that about 90% of surgical infections are of endogenous origin. Since most of the normal human microflora is represented by anaerobes, anaerobic and mixed (anaerobic-aerobic) infections constitute one of the most significant categories of human purulent-inflammatory diseases. They play a particularly important role in the development of dental, abdominal and gynecological diseases and complications, as well as for some soft tissue infections. Experience shows that the majority of infections that occur with the participation of anaerobes are not monomicrobial. Most often they are caused by the association of anaerobes or a combination of anaerobes with aerobes (staphylococci, E. coli).

Symptoms of putrefactive infection

A putrefactive infection on its own is observed in a wound relatively rarely; it usually joins an already developed anaerobic or purulent (aerobic) infection. Due to this clinical picture This complication is often not clear enough and merges with the clinical picture of an anaerobic or purulent infection.

General symptoms of putrefactive infection: depression, drowsiness, loss of appetite, development of anemia. The appearance of sudden chills - early sign putrefactive decay in the wound. Its most important and constant sign is the presence of a sharp unpleasant odor of exudate. The bad odor is caused by volatile sulfur compounds (hydrogen sulfide, dimethyl sulfide, etc.) - waste products of putrefactive bacteria. The second symptom of anaerobic damage is the putrefactive nature of the wound. The lesions contain dead tissue in the form of structureless detritus of gray or gray-green color, in some cases with black or brown areas. These lesions rarely have the form of cavities limited by regular outlines; more often they take on bizarre shapes or fill intertissue gaps. The color of the exudate also has some characteristics. It is usually gray-green, sometimes brown. The color of the exudate is not uniform; it contains small droplets of fat. In case of large accumulations of pus in the tissue, the exudate is usually liquid, and in case of muscle damage, it is scanty and diffusely permeates the tissue. At the same time, with aerobic infections, the pus has a thick consistency, often yellow or white, homogeneous, odorless.

At the initial stage of the addition of a putrefactive infection, during examination of the wound it is often impossible to detect the presence of edema, crepitus, gas formation, and purulent swelling. External signs of tissue damage often do not correspond to the depth of the damage. Skin hyperemia may be absent, as a result of which the surgeon does not perform timely extensive surgical treatment of the lesion.

The putrefactive infection first spreads through the subcutaneous tissue, and subsequently spreads to the interfascial space, causing necrosis of the fascia, muscles, and tendons. The development of putrefactive infection in a wound can occur in three forms:

with a predominance of shock phenomena;
with a rapidly progressing course;
with sluggish flow.

The first two forms are distinguished by the phenomena of significant general intoxication - the temperature rises, chills appear, and the temperature decreases. arterial pressure, liver and kidney failure develops.

Treatment of putrefactive infection

Treatment of putrefactive infection involves the following measures:

Creation unfavorable conditions for the development of pathological microflora - removal of dead tissue, extensive drainage of ulcers, antibacterial therapy;
detoxification therapy;
correction of homeostasis and immune status of the body.

If there is a putrefactive infection in the wound, the affected tissue is removed. Due to the anatomical localization, prevalence and other features of the course, it is not always possible to achieve a radical result. In such cases, the operation consists of a wide incision of the purulent focus, excision of necrotic tissue, drainage of the wound and local application antiseptics. To prevent the spread of the putrefactive process to healthy tissue, limiting incisions are made.

When treating anaerobic infections, irrigation or constant perfusion of the wound with solutions of hydrogen peroxide and potassium permanganate is used. The use of hydrophilic ointments based on polyethylene oxide (levosin, levomekol, etc.) is effective. These agents ensure good absorption of exudate and promote rapid wound cleansing.

Most bacteroides are resistant to antibiotics, so antibacterial therapy antibiograms are carried out under mandatory supervision. Drug treatment putrefactive infection consists in the use of effective antibiotics (thienam, lincomycin, rifampicin), antimicrobial drugs of the metronidazole series (metronidazole, metragil, tinidazole).

A set of measures to correct homeostasis and detoxification is determined individually for each case, depending on the nature of the infection. In cases of rapid septic flow, intracorporeal detoxification methods are prescribed: hemoinfusion detoxification, endolymphatic therapy. Conduct ultraviolet irradiation blood (UFOB), intravenous laser blood irradiation (ILBI), application sorption - application of sorbents, immobilized enzymes in combination with antibiotics to the wound. In case of liver failure, hemosorption and plasmapheresis are used. During development renal failure hemodialysis is prescribed.

Rotting corpse

(eng. decay rotting of corpse) - in forensic medicine, a destructive cadaveric phenomenon that develops as a result of the impact of microorganisms on the tissue of a corpse. As a result, tissue decomposes into simpler biochemical and chemical components. As a result of the formation of ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, methyl mercaptan, ethyl mercaptan and other substances, a characteristic putrefactive-cadaveric appearance appears.

Putrefactive bacteria are common inhabitants of the human intestine, where they are usually in balance with other microorganisms and vital processes of the body, and perform their functions even when normal conditions do not go beyond the boundaries of the distribution areas. After the death of a person, many types of putrefactive bacteria begin to multiply and spread in the human body, which leads to decay of the corpse.

At first G.t. develops most strongly in the large intestine, this is accompanied by the formation large quantity gases accumulating in the stomach. Intestinal bloating occurs within 6-12 hours. after the death of a person. Then signs of G.t. appear. in the form of a dirty green color, first in the right iliac region, then in the left. This coloring occurs due to the formation of sulfhemoglobin from blood hemoglobin, released hydrogen sulfide. Under room conditions, putrefactive staining appears in the iliac areas on the anterior abdominal wall by the end of the second day. Then G.t. spreads across blood vessels, mainly through the veins, to other areas of the body. This is accompanied by the appearance of the so-called. putrefactive venous network - a clearly visible dirty green pattern of veins. Signs of a putrefactive venous network are observed 3-4 days after death.

On the 3-4th day of development of G.t. There is an increase in the accumulation of putrefactive gases in the subcutaneous fat and other tissues, which leads to bloating of the corpse (so-called putrefactive emphysema). Parts of the body, the abdomen, chest, limbs, neck, nose, lips, in men, the scrotum and penis, and in women, the mammary glands, sharply increase in size. From the natural orifices of the body are marked bloody issues, they should be distinguished from manifestations of trauma. After 4-5 days, blisters appear on the surface of the skin due to its delamination, filled with a foul-smelling reddish-brown putrefactive liquid. Partially exfoliated epidermis can be displaced due to mechanical action, and the reddish dermis, the underlying layer of skin, becomes visible. Such manifestations of G.t. simulate skin burns. On days 6-10, the epidermis completely peels off and can be easily removed along with nails and hair. Subsequently, through the damaged areas of the skin, the accumulated and newly released putrefactive gases leave the corpse, the size of the corpse and its parts decreases.

Processes G.t. soften, disorganize tissues - the so-called putrid melting of a corpse. As a result, they become exposed in places, especially in those places where they are covered with a small amount of soft tissue. Complete putrefactive decay of the soft tissues of the corpse (skin, fatty tissue, muscles, some components internal organs etc.) in suitable for G.t. conditions may occur in 3-4 weeks. After this period, bones, ligaments, cartilage, formations consisting of a large number of connective tissue(see also: S.S. Samishchenko. Forensic medicine. Textbook for law schools. - M., 1996).

Large legal dictionary. Akademik.ru. 2010.

See what “Rotting Corpse” is in other dictionaries:

Rotting corpse- (English: decay rotting of corpse) in forensic medicine, a destructive cadaveric phenomenon that develops as a result of the impact of microorganisms on the tissue of a corpse. As a result, tissues decompose into simpler biochemical and chemical ones... ... Encyclopedia of Law

ROT- ROTATION, the breakdown of protein and other nitrogenous substances under the influence of putrefactive bacteria (see below), accompanied by the formation of foul-smelling products. The development of gastric processes is facilitated by: a sufficient degree of humidity, proper osmotic... ...

Rotting- This term has other meanings, see Rot. Rotting fish Rotting (ammonification) the process of decomposition of nitrogen-containing organic compounds(...Wikipedia

Embalming- ways to protect corpses from decomposition and rotting; For this purpose, the soft parts of the corpse are treated with substances that prevent decay, or so-called antiseptic substances. This kind of embalming was already known to the Assyrians... ... encyclopedic Dictionary F. Brockhaus and I.A. Ephron

Embalming- ways to protect corpses from decomposition; For this purpose, the soft parts of the corpse are treated with substances that prevent rotting or so-called antiseptic substances. This kind of embalming was already known to the Assyrians, Medes... Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron

OPENING- OPENING. Contents: Historical data...............763 The value of V. corpse................765 Pat. anatomical V. of a corpse.........765 Methodology....................76 5 Recording............ .. 768 Forensic examination of the corpse.........768 … Great Medical Encyclopedia

Cadaveric phenomena- Cadaveric phenomena of change to which the organs and tissues of a corpse are exposed after the onset of biological death. Cadaveric phenomena are divided into early and late. The early ones include cooling of the corpse, cadaveric spots, rigor mortis,... ... Wikipedia

Posthumous changes- Cadaveric phenomena are the changes that the organs and tissues of a corpse undergo after the onset of biological death. Cadaveric phenomena are divided into early and late. The early ones include cooling of the corpse, cadaveric spots, rigor mortis, drying out ... Wikipedia

Dead body- This term has other meanings, see Corpse (meanings). It is proposed to merge this page with Cadaver. Explanation of reasons and discussion on page... Wikipedia

DEAD BODY- CORPSE, dead body (lat. cadaver). Development of honey knowledge and the first ideas about anatomy and physiology owe much to the fact that researchers were able to dissect and study human T. In honey practice T. object of study patent... ... Great Medical Encyclopedia

The study of putrefactive changes begins with a general description of the manifestations of putrefaction, listing the areas of location of the dirty green color of the skin, changes in the shape, volume, size of the corpse, putrefactive vascular network, cadaveric emphysema, putrefactive blisters, their contents, damage, the presence of epidermal flaps, detachment of hair on the head .

Putrefactive gases begin to form in the large intestine 3-6 hours after death.

The first signs of decay in the form of a cadaverous odor, dirty green coloration of the skin of the iliac regions and the mucous membrane of the respiratory tract appear at a temperature of +16 ... 18 ° C and a relative humidity of 40-60% 24-36 hours after death. Under favorable conditions, corpse greens appear within 12-20 hours.

At a temperature of +20 ... 35 ° C, cadaveric greenery spreads to the torso, neck, head, and limbs. By the end of the second week, it covers the skin of the entire corpse. Against this background, a tree-like branching putrefactive venous network often appears.

In summer, corpse greens appear after 15-18 hours, in winter between one and five days.

After 3-5 days, the belly becomes a solid dirty green color, and the whole body becomes dirty green after 7-14 days.

At a temperature of +15 ... 16 ° C, greening begins on days 4-5 from the skin of the iliac regions. In the cold season, it appears within 2-3 days, and at temperatures of 0 °C greening does not appear at all.

Cadaveric emphysema is determined by examining and feeling the corpse. It appears by the end of the first day in favorable conditions, on the 3rd day it becomes clearly visible, and by the 7th day it becomes pronounced.

On the 3rd-4th day, due to the increasing pressure of putrefactive gases in abdominal cavity germs spread through the venous vessels, turning them dirty red or dirty green color. A putrefactive venous network is formed.

Due to the action of gases and the sinking of liquid, detachment of the epidermis and the appearance of blisters filled with dirty-red putrefactive, foul-smelling liquid begin within 4-6 days.

After 9-14 days, the blisters burst, exposing the actual skin.

Example. Putrefactive changes are expressed in the form of a dirty green coloring of the skin of the head and torso, putrefactive venous network on the extremities, cadaveric emphysema, putrefactive blisters filled with dirty red putrefactive fluid. Some of the blisters opened, revealing a yellow-brown surface with a translucent vascular network.

Along the edges of the opening blisters, the epidermis hangs down in the form of flaps. The hair on the head becomes detached when touched.

Putrefactive fluid from the openings of the nose and mouth begins to be released within 2 weeks.

For 3 weeks fabrics become slippery and tear easily. Pronounced putrefactive softening of the tissues of the corpse is observed after 3-4 months. After 3-6 months. there is a decrease in the size of the corpse.

Natural skeletonization with preserved ligamentous apparatus occurs no earlier than after 1 year. Complete skeletonization with the disintegration of the skeleton into fragments requires at least 5 years (Table 43).

Entomological studies have a certain significance in establishing the age of death. They are based on knowledge of the patterns of appearance of various insects on the corpse, their development cycles, the timing of egg laying, their transformation into larvae, pupae and adults, and the destruction of corpse tissue.

Knowledge of the type of insect and the conditions of its development allows us to judge the time that has passed since death.

Table 43

differ from flies in the shape of their larvae or the covering of their body with coarse hairs. When removing material for research, the areas of the body of the corpse from which it was removed are noted. Material is taken not only from the corpse, but also from the surrounding area within a radius of 1 m and from a depth of up to 30 cm.

For oviposition studies, larvae, pupae, puparia cases and adult insects are collected in glass tubes and 200 ml jars, with wet sawdust placed at the bottom. Insects are taken from different areas of the body of the corpse, from the bed of the corpse and from the soil under it from a depth of 15-20 cm, and in rooms from pieces of furniture and from cracks in the floor. Each sample is placed in separate test tubes and jars, flies are separated from beetles. In cases of large numbers of insects, half of the samples are preserved with ethyl alcohol. The investigator must expressly send the living specimens to the entomological laboratory of the sanitary-epidemiological station. After 7-10 days, it is advisable to re-examine the corpse bed together with a specialist entomologist to obtain additional information and collect samples of insects that continue their development in natural conditions in the absence of the corpse. The absence of insects and larvae on the putrefactive corpse can be explained by death in the autumn-winter period, as well as the impregnation of clothing with chemicals that repel flies.

The development cycles of the housefly are of greatest importance in determining the duration of death. The first to arrive are houseflies, corpse flies and blue blowflies, attracted by the smell of rotting meat - green and gray blowflies, which give birth to live larvae up to 1.5 mm long, and then other species of flies from the family of blowflies and flowers.

A housefly at +30 °C goes through the development stage from egg to adult in 10-12 days, and at a temperature of +18 °C - in 25-30 days. At a temperature of +30°C, the egg stage from laying to the formation of a larva requires 8-12 hours, the larval period is 5-6 days, and the pupal period is 4-5 days.

Within 1 week. The larvae are small, thin, no more than 6-7 mm long. On the 2nd week. their progressive growth begins. They become up to 3-4 mm thick, their length exceeds 1.5 cm. By the end of the 2nd week. The larvae crawl into dark places (under a corpse, clothes), lose mobility, and pupate. The pupae are initially yellow-gray, then gradually become dark brown, enclosed in dense shells, in which within 2 weeks. the adult individual develops. A fully formed insect gnaws through one of the ends of the shell and crawls out. Within 1-2 hours, the wet fly dries out, acquires the ability to fly, and within a day can lay eggs.

after 6-14 days, flies - 5-30 days. Increasing the temperature to +20- +25 °C reduces the period to 9-15 dry days. The listed periods are very arbitrary. They can shorten and lengthen depending on temperature, humidity, environment, and layer on top of each other, which sometimes does not allow any specific conclusions to be drawn.

The soft tissues of a child can be eaten by fly larvae to the bones from 6-8 days to 1.5-2 weeks, and of an adult from 3-4 weeks. up to 1.5-2 months.

The presence of eggs, larvae and adult flies on the corpse allows us to draw a conclusion about the time that has passed since the beginning of the destruction of the corpse by flies.

The duration of periods of development of flies is determined by the time of year, climatic conditions, and the environment where the corpse is located. When the corpse begins to decompose in the spring-summer months, this period ranges from 25-53 days, and in the autumn-winter months - 312 days.

The timing of the onset of complete mummification is very controversial, according to A.V. Maslova (1981) it can occur in 30-35 days, N.V. Popova (1950) - for 2-3 months, B.D. Levchenkova (1968) - for 6-12 months.

In lime pits, lime mummification forms within 1-2 years.

Manifestation of fat wax in separate parts the corpse is possible in 2-5 weeks. after death, in the whole corpse - after 3-4 months. The corpses of adults turn into fat wax after 8-12 months, and infants - after 4-6 months.

Partial exposure of the corpse to a humid environment and the influx of dry warm air cause the formation of adipose wax and island mummification on the same corpse. The absence of patterns in the rate of fat wax formation to determine the duration of death must be used cautiously and in combination with other data.

In particularly favorable conditions on the surface of the earth soft fabrics can collapse in 1.5-2 months, in the ground - 2-3 years, ligaments and cartilage - 4-6 years after death, bones and hair resist rotting for many years.

Corpses buried in the ground are destroyed by meat eaters (up to 3 months after burial), after them - skin beetles (up to 8 months) devouring sebum, mainly, then carrion eaters predominate (3-8 months), then mites appear, destroying the most resistant tissues of a corpse.

Sarcophagi eat soft tissue and fat from corpses in the ground for 1-3 months, skin beetles - for 2-4 months, sylphs - up to 8 months, and cartilage and ligaments are destroyed by mites. The dark brown hair of corpses in the ground slowly, over the course of 3 years, changes color to reddish-golden or reddish, which must be remembered when identifying exhumed corpses. Degreasing of bones in the ground occurs after 5-10 years. Ants can skeletonize a corpse in 4-8 weeks.

Favorable conditions contribute to the decomposition of a corpse within 3-4 summer months.

Fading of the color of plants under the corpse due to the loss of chlorophyll is observed 6-8 days after the corpse is in this place.

IN winter time In cold rooms, corpses can remain for several weeks without signs of rotting.

The soft tissues of a corpse in a wooden coffin are completely destroyed within 2-3 years.

INTRODUCTION

THE ESSENCE OF THE PROCESS OF WOOD ROTATION

ROOT ROT

LITERATURE
ROTT DISEASES OF WOOD SPECIES AND MEASURES TO COMBAT THEM

Root and trunk rot of growing trees constitute one of the largest and important groups forest diseases. When trees are infected with rot diseases, they may experience severe damage physiological processes, leading to a decrease in growth, general weakening and drying out of trees. In plantations affected by these diseases, windfall and windfall are often observed, which ultimately leads to the disintegration of the plantations and the loss of the forest’s most valuable properties and functions. The damage caused by rotting disease to a tree as a living organism and to a plant as a biogeocenosis can be considered biological. But rot also causes technical damage. It consists in the destruction and depreciation of the main forest product - wood, reducing the yield and quality of business assortments. In addition, the spread of rot diseases in tree stands that have not reached the age of natural ripeness leads to colossal losses (shortages) of wood due to forced premature felling.

Among the fungi that infect growing trees, there are, in turn, species that feed on the living tissue of sapwood, species that colonize only the dead (core) wood of the central part of the trunk, and species that can develop in both living and dead wood. Along with the widely specialized representatives of wood-decaying fungi, which affect many coniferous and deciduous species, there are species with a narrower specialization, up to typical monophages.

Infection of trees with stem rot pathogens in most cases occurs through various damage to the bark caused by abiotic factors(frost holes, etc.), animals (ungulates, rodents, insects) or human economic activities (mechanical damage, burns, etc.). Infection with root rot pathogens occurs through damaged roots, dead small roots, and through direct contact (or fusion) of healthy and affected roots. Infection of trees with rot diseases and their intensive development in the plantation is facilitated by any factors leading to a general weakening of the tree stand, disruption of existing ecological connections, and a decrease in the biological stability of the plantation (droughts, improper management, increased recreational loads, etc.).

THE ESSENCE OF THE PROCESS OF ROTATION

WOOD

Wood rotting is its biological decomposition. The essence of this process is the destruction of wood cell membranes by fungal enzymes. Depending on what enzymes the fungus acts on the cell walls, what components, to what extent and sequence it destroys, certain disturbances in the anatomical structure and changes in the wood occur. chemical composition And physical properties.

With the destructive type of decay, the fungus affects the entire wood mass, leaving no parts of the wood untouched by decomposition. In this case, the cellulose of the cell membranes decomposes, but the lignin remains intact. As cellulose is destroyed and lignin is released, the affected wood darkens, its volume decreases, it becomes brittle, cracks, falls into separate pieces, and in the final stage of decay is easily ground into powder. Therefore, destructive rots are characterized by a fissured, prismatic, cubic or powdery structure and brown (various shades) color - brown rot.

In the corrosion type of decay, both cellulose and lignin decompose. However, in case of defeat different types In mushrooms, this process does not proceed in the same way. In some cases, the fungus simultaneously decomposes cellulose and lignin, completely destroying cell membranes, and then entire groups of cells. Holes, pits, and voids appear in the affected wood, filled with the remains of white, undecomposed cellulose; This is how motley rot arises. During corrosive rotting, unlike destructive rotting, not all affected wood is subject to decomposition: separate groups of destroyed cells alternate with completely untouched areas of wood. Therefore, rot splits into fibers and crumbles, but retains its viscosity for a long time, and its volume does not decrease.

In other cases, the lignin is completely decomposed first, and then the cellulose is gradually destroyed. However, not all cellulose decomposes: some of it remains in the voids of the wood in the form of white accumulations (efflorescence). The affected wood brightens evenly or in stripes and acquires a white, light yellow or “marble” color (white rot). Corrosive rot at different stages of wood destruction is characterized by pitted, pitted-fibrous, fibrous and layered-fibrous structures.

In any case, biological decomposition of wood is possible only under certain conditions that allow the development of wood-decaying fungi. For example, the free water content in wood should be at least 18 - 20%, and the minimum volume of air, depending on the environmental requirements of the fungus, should be from 5 to 20%.

CLASSIFICATION AND SIGNS OF ROTS

Affected wood, losing its normal biological properties and technical qualities, acquires new characteristics characteristic of certain groups and types of rot diseases. Diagnostic signs and classification of rots are of great practical importance. To determine rot, the following main signs are taken into account: the location of the rot in the tree, the type of rot, the structure and color of the rot, the stage and speed of decay, some other features (the presence of dark lines, a protective core, mycelial films, etc.).

The location of rot in the tree can be different (Fig. 2). Depending on its placement in parts of the tree and on the longitudinal section of the trunk, rots are divided into root, butt (up to 2 m), trunk, apical, through (along the entire length of the trunk) and rot of branches and apexes. By location

And 12 13

Rice. 2. Layout of rot in wood:

/ - root rot; 2, 3 - root and butt rot; 4 - butt rot; 5 - stem rot; 6 - butt and stem rot; 7 - root, butt and table rot; 8 - rot of branches and tops; 9 - “end-to-end” rot; 10 - swamp rot; 11 - core rot; 12 - heartwood-sapwood rot; 13 - total rot

Rot on a cross section of a root, trunk or branch is distinguished between core, sapwood and core-sapwood rot.

Rots, which differ in location in the tree or in the trunk, have different effects on the vital functions and condition of the tree, as well as on the yield of industrial wood; therefore, they are characterized by varying degrees of biological and technical harm they cause. Thus, the greatest biological harm is caused by root rot and sapwood rot of trunks, the greatest technical harm is caused by heartwood and core-sapwood rot of trunks.

The type of decay (see Fig. 92) reflects the characteristics of the process of wood destruction associated with the biological properties of the fungus and the nature of its impact on cell membranes affected tissue (Fig. 3).

The color of rot depends on the stage of its development and the type of rot. With the destructive type of decay, a brown, reddish-brown or grayish-brown color usually appears; with the corrosive type, it is variegated or white (light yellow, striped, marbled).

The structure of rot indicates changes in the anatomical structure and physical properties of wood depending on the type of rot. Destructive rots are characterized by a prismatic, cubic or powdery structure; corrosive - pitted, fibrous, pitted-fibrous and layered-fibrous structure. By the structure and color of rot in the final stage of wood destruction, the type of rot can be determined. Knowing the type of rot, it is not difficult to predict what color and structure the rot will have in the final stage.

changes in color and structure of the affected

no wood. There are I (initial), II and III (final) stages of rot development. The formation of a hollow (stage IV) is a sign of the cessation of the process of rotting wood and the beginning of its mechanical decay naturally or with the participation of insects, birds, other animals or humans. Determining the stage of development of rot is of great practical importance, especially when it comes to the possibilities of technical use of affected wood.

The rate of decay characterizes the duration of individual stages of the decay process and allows us to determine the time of onset of the final stage. There are slow, fast and very fast wood rotting. Of great practical importance, especially when assessing the influence of rot on the yield of business assortments, is the speed of spread of rot in various parts wood, in logs or wooden structures of buildings and structures per unit of time (day, month, year). Thus, the rate of spread of rot caused by root fungus in the spruce trunk reaches an average of 48 cm per year.

The speed of decay and the speed of spread of rot depend on the biological characteristics of the fungus - the causative agent of rot and the conditions of its development, on the properties of the living tree, the physical condition and technical qualities of the wood.

Regardless of how quickly wood rots, the spread of rot within the tree can be either slow or fast. For example, rot from the spruce sponge spreads along the spruce trunk very quickly, and oak rot caused by the oak-loving tinder fungus spreads slowly, although in both cases rapid rotting of the wood is observed.

ROOT ROT

Root rot of tree species is one of the most common and harmful forest diseases. Pathogens of root rot infect trees with spores (mainly through damaged or dead roots) and mycelium - upon contact or fusion of healthy and damaged roots. Due to the spread of infection along the roots from tree to tree, the development of root rot in plantations is usually of a clump nature and manifests itself in group weakening and death of trees. Sometimes large lesions appear, covering large areas forests.

Damage and destruction of roots greatly affects the condition of the tree, since the flow of water into its above-ground parts is disrupted and nutrients. Therefore, root rot leads to rapid weakening and drying out of trees, windfall, colonization of trees by stem pests, thinning of the forest stand, and, in the case of a severe degree of damage to plantings, to their complete collapse.

Some types of rot from the roots move into the trunk and, affecting the butt, and sometimes most trunk, lead to significant losses of commercial wood.

Among the diseases in this group greatest danger represent rot caused by root sponge and autumn honey fungus. Less common are root rots caused by the Schweinitz polypore and the wavy rhizina. Rot caused by spruce sponge, northern, scaly and some other tinder fungi can spread from the trunk to the base of the roots.

Root sponge (Heterobasidion annosum (Ft.) Bref., (=Fomitopsis annosa Karst.) The mushroom belongs to the class of basidiomycetes, a group of aphyllophoroid hymenomycetes. Causes variegated pitted fibrous root and stem rot. Root sponge is one of the most common fungi in the world. The disease has spread to vast areas of coniferous plantations around the globe and has acquired the character of a global epiphytoty (panphytoty). In many countries, rot caused by root fungus is considered the most harmful forest disease.

Root sponge can infect many conifers and some soft-leaved trees (such as birch), but deciduous trees are rarely affected. The fungus poses a great danger only to coniferous plantations, primarily to pine, spruce, fir and, to a lesser extent, to larch.

A number of morphological forms or varieties of root sponge have been described, which differ in geographical distribution, level of pathogenicity and specialization to various tree species.

Primary infection of trees is carried out by basidiospores and conidia of the fungus. Basidiospores are formed in the fruiting bodies, and conidia are formed on the mycelium in those places where rot comes to the surface of infected stumps or roots. The root sponge is able to survive and develop not only in the wood of living trees, but also on dead roots, stumps, woody debris, in the litter, where its fruiting bodies are often formed. Fungal spores are carried by air currents, water, and various animals. When they get on the surface of the roots, especially in the presence of mechanical damage, they infect them. Then the mycelium of the fungus spreads in the roots and rot develops. When spores fall on fresh sections of stumps (for example, after thinning), they germinate on them, and the mycelium first spreads in the wood of the stumps and then moves into the roots. Further spread of infection and secondary infection of the roots of living trees is carried out by mycelium through direct contact of healthy roots with affected ones. This explains the group, or clump, damage to the tree stand. Trees can also be infected through dead small roots or dead ends of deep roots.

The nature of the development of the disease and its symptoms differ markedly in different tree species. So, when a pine tree is damaged, rot develops only in the roots. Therefore, to detect it, it is necessary to examine the root system. At the initial stage of rot development, copious discharge resin from collapsing resin passages. The wood of the roots is impregnated with resin, acquires a reddish-orange, sometimes slightly lilac tint, becomes glassy and emits a specific smell of turpentine. The resin accumulates under the bark of the affected roots, then flows out and sticks together the surrounding soil particles, forming hard nodules on the roots. As rot develops, the tar content gradually disappears, the wood takes on a lighter, uniformly yellow color, sometimes with barely noticeable white inclusions of cellulose. At the last stage of decay, numerous small voids form in the wood; the rot disintegrates into individual fibers and becomes moist and rotten.

As the roots die off, the water balance of the tree is disrupted, the intensity of transpiration, photosynthesis, and other physiological functions decreases, and a general weakening of the tree occurs, clearly manifested in a change in the state of the crown.

The first signs of weakening pine are a decrease in height growth, the presence of shortened shoots on which shortened needles are formed. A significant part of two- and three-year-old needles fall off, the crown gradually thins out, becoming, as it were, openwork. The needles remaining on the shoots are collected in the form of brushes; they are pale and dull. Such trees stand out sharply among healthy ones. Subsequently, the needles gradually turn yellow and then dry out completely.

In pine plantations, active foci of root fungus can be recognized by the presence of weakened and drying trees, fresh and old dead wood, as well as characteristic leaning trees and windfall. Group drying of trees and their increased windiness, subsequent sanitary fellings lead to the formation of “windows” and clearings. Curtains of withered trees and “windows” in pine forests have more or less clear outlines. Every year they expand, more and more drying trees appear along their edges, individual clearings merge, and eventually the planting turns into sparse land

When spruce and fir are infected, the mycelium of the fungus first spreads in the roots, then moves into the trunk, causing a core in the silt, bordered by a lilac-gray ring. It rises along the trunk to an average height of 3-4 m, sometimes up to 8-10 m or more. At the first stage of rot development, the wood acquires a grayish-purple color; then it becomes reddish-brown, and at the last stage of decay it becomes typically variegated: distinct, rather large white cellulose efflorescences and very characteristic black streaks appear in it. The rot has a pitted-fibrous structure and crumbles easily when dry. The presence of heart rot in the trunk with signs typical of root sponge can be determined using an age-related drill. Over time, a hollow forms in the lower part of the trunk. Spruce and fir trees affected by root sponge, even with significant development of rot in the roots and trunks, may not dry out for a long time, although signs of weakening are well expressed: decreased height growth, sparse crown, dull needles with a brownish tint, deformed shoots. Due to the fact that the disease in spruce is often hidden, and the mortality occurs mainly due to windfall, in spruce forests such clearly defined and uniformly increasing radius clumps of drying out and “windows” do not form as in pine plantations.

The surest sign of a tree being damaged by a root sponge is the presence of fungal fruiting bodies on the roots. They usually form in shaded places, on the lower surface of rotten roots of windfall trees, sometimes at the root collar of withered trees, on dilapidated stumps. The fruiting bodies of the root sponge have different shape and size, they are perennial, thin, prostrate, with the hymenophore facing outwards (Fig. 96). The edges of the fruiting bodies are slightly behind the root. Their surface is brown, with a lighter edge and concentric grooves. The hymenophore is initially white, later yellowish, with a silky sheen. The pores are small, round or angular, sometimes oblique.

Root sponge is found in almost all types of forest growing conditions, with the exception of wetland habitats. Sphagnum and lichen pine forests are very rarely affected. The most severe development of the disease and the greatest harm from it are observed when high quality plantings in fresh forest types are affected. Plantings are affected of different ages, and the first signs of the disease can be detected already in 15-20-year-old tree stands. Self-seeded conifers that appear in pockets of root sponge also become infected with the fungus and die. Pure coniferous plantations suffer the most, especially those created on former arable lands, wastelands or areas left after cutting down stands of trees affected by root fungus. In natural pine plantations, root sponge is less common. Spruce and fir are severely affected not only in crops, but also in natural forests. Mixed coniferous-deciduous plantings are more resistant to the disease. Excessive density of plantings in the presence of closely intertwined and fused roots in the soil contributes to the spread of the fungus and the rapid development of outbreaks.

The damage caused by root sponge is very great. The disease leads to massive drying out of trees and collapse of plantings. The defeat of spruce and fir also brings great technical harm, since in these species rot rises from the roots into the trunk; as a result, the yield of business assortments from the most valuable part of the trunk sharply decreases. The loss of industrial timber can be about 50% for spruce, and over 75% for fir. The weakening and drying out of affected trees, as a rule, entails increased reproduction of xylophagous insects. Therefore, foci of root sponge usually turn into foci of stem pests, which accelerate the process of drying out of plantings.

Control measures: a system of measures aimed at limiting the mass development of the disease and the formation of sustainable plantations using an optimal forest growing regime. This system includes an examination of plantings in order to identify and record foci of the disease, silvicultural care, reforestation and sanitary measures prescribed taking into account the forecast of the development of the disease, as well as quality control of forestry activities.

Identification and recording of foci of root fungus is carried out during forest management and forest pathological examinations. During the reconnaissance survey, an approximate assessment of the condition and degree of damage to the plantings is given, and the area of root fungus foci is determined. The entire taxation area in which clump drying or falling out of affected trees is observed is taken as the focus of the disease, i.e., the mortality is pathological and exceeds the natural norm.

Depending on how long ago the lesions developed, their structure and external signs, the following categories of lesions are distinguished: emerging, active and fading.

The emerging outbreaks are small (up to 10 trees) groups of heavily weakened and drying trees, fresh dead wood or windfall, most often in plantings of I-II age classes. In the hearths, as a rule, there are no clearings (“windows”) or stumps from sanitary fellings, since they have not yet been carried out.

Active outbreaks are characterized by the presence of well-defined clumps of drying out and clearings with stumps of varying conditions from sanitary fellings of various ages. In the surrounding “window” forest stand (which, as a rule, is already affected by root sponge) there are trees of all categories of condition: from weakened to varying degrees to fresh and old dead wood and windfall. The windows begin to change from coniferous trees to deciduous ones, usually birch or aspen.

Fading outbreaks are characterized by the absence of drying trees, fresh dead wood, and fresh windfall, which indicates the end of the active phase of development of the outbreak. There may be old dead wood that has not yet been cut down around the windows. The windows are dominated by dilapidated or rotten stumps from long-standing fellings; there is a well-developed undergrowth of deciduous trees.

The degree of damage to pine plantations is considered weak if the affected clumps or clearings total up to 5% of the area of the stand in plantations up to 20 years old, up to 10% in plantations from 21 to 50 years old, and up to 15% in plantations over 50 years old. The degree of damage is considered average if the affected clumps and clearings total, according to age groups, up to 15%, up to 25% and up to 33% of the plot area. The degree of damage to pine forests is considered severe if the damaged clumps and clearings total respectively 16% or more, 26% or more, 34% or more of the area of the stand.

The degree of damage to spruce and fir plantations is considered weak if the trees infected with root sponge account for up to 20%; medium, if there are 21-40% of such trees, and strong, if there are more than 40%.

During a detailed survey, during which trial plots are planted with a complete count of trees, data on the condition and degree of infestation of the plantings is clarified. Based on the results of reconnaissance and detailed examinations, a map of root sponge foci is drawn up, a specific plan for sanitary and health measures is developed, and their priority and volume are determined.

In affected and disease-prone plantings, thinning or sanitary felling is prescribed, depending on their origin, age, condition and level of environmental sustainability. They are carried out in accordance with the “Sanitary Rules in Forests” Russian Federation", "Basic provisions for the protection of pine, spruce and fir from root fungus" and current instructions.

Thinning in young forests should be oriented towards the formation of forest stands with a density optimal for each age group and local forest conditions. The age at which thinning should begin and its intensity depend on the composition and condition of young stands, density and planting pattern. When thinning in pure coniferous crops, it is necessary to preserve the natural admixture of deciduous species. By the age of 20-25 years, it is recommended to increase the density of plantings to 0.7-0.8 and maintain it during subsequent fellings.

During sanitary felling, the volume of the felled mass is determined by the sum of the stocks of shriveled, drying out and severely weakened trees in the trial plots.

Selective sanitary cuttings are prescribed in older plantations with a weak degree of damage. In this case, dead wood, drying out, severely weakened and windfall trees must be removed. The intensity and frequency of such cuttings depend on the intended purpose of the plantings, their completeness, age, general condition and other factors. In emerging and active foci of the disease, more intensive cuttings are recommended than in fading ones. At medium degree In case of damage to plantings with the presence of obvious small clumps of drying out, cutting of insulating strips or so-called group-selective sanitary logging is recommended. At the same time, all trees within the “window” are cut down, as well as in a 4-6-meter strip around it (in the hidden damage zone). If there are large areas in the planting with varying degrees of damage, partially clear or selective clear cutting is carried out: the most affected part of the stand is cut down completely, and in areas with a weak degree of damage, selective sanitary cutting is carried out.

Clear sanitary felling is prescribed in plantings with a severe degree of damage by root sponge. In clearing areas, it is recommended to uproot stumps, “comb out” the roots from the soil, and burn the stumps and roots.

All types of felling should be carried out in late autumn and winter - during the period of winter dormancy of trees. When cutting at other times, simultaneously with cutting or within 4-5 days after it, it is recommended to carry out chemical treatment (antiseptic) of stumps and root paws or remove them. Felled wood should be removed from the forest immediately. The remaining wood must be debarked or treated with insecticides against stem pests.

For chemical treatment of stumps, water-soluble antiseptics are recommended: 20% solution of urea (urea), 10% solution of nitrafen, 10% solution of ammonium sulfate, 5% solution of zinc chloride, 4% solution of potassium permanganate, 4 % solution of borax, etc. Treatment is carried out using backpack sprayers in such a way that the entire surface of the stumps and root paws is thoroughly covered with an antiseptic.

In order to localize emerging areas of drying out, it is recommended to treat the soil with a 1% solution of foundationazole, which is carried out simultaneously with sanitary cutting. To do this, along the periphery of the drying clumps in a zone up to 1 m wide, the soil is loosened and the drug is added to it at a consumption rate of 1-2 l/m2. The use of biological products, such as mycorrhizin, is also recommended.

Reforestation of cleared areas after clear and partially clear sanitary felling, as well as afforestation of areas that were under agricultural use, is carried out by creating pure deciduous or mixed crops, taking into account the type of forest, the nature of felling, the infectious background, the presence of undergrowth and other local conditions. In all cases, coniferous species should not occupy more than 30% of the composition, and the number of planting places should not exceed 5000 per 1 hectare. Schemes for mixing and placing rocks are selected in accordance with the growing conditions.

When creating crops, it is necessary to use high-quality planting material with a well-developed root system and mycorrhiza. In non-forested areas and poor sandy soils, organomineral fertilizers must be applied to improve growth and increase the sustainability of crops. It is also recommended to sow perennial lupine. In suburban forests, measures are taken to regulate recreational loads. In plantations with a predominance of coniferous species, grazing is prohibited.

As part of populations A. mellea They distinguish forms that differ in ecological, morphological, cultural and other characteristics.

Last time A. mellea are often considered not as one species, but as a complex of species that differ in morphological characteristics, ecological features and geographical areas. Seven of them were identified in Europe and at least three in our country.

The most important diagnostic signs of damage to trees by honey fungus are the presence of strongly branching dark brown mycelial cords (rhizomorphs) and films on the roots and trunks. On the surface of the roots, the fungus forms root-like, round rhizomorphs, which can, spreading in the forest litter and soil, transfer to the roots neighboring healthy trees and infect them through dead small roots, damaged bark, and lentils. Flat rhizomorphs, often many meters in length, develop under the bark of affected roots and trunks. It is on such rhizomorphs that the well-known fruiting bodies of the fungus are formed.

The fruiting bodies of the autumn honey fungus are formed mainly in August - October in large groups, most often on stumps (hence the name of the fungus), dead wood, dead wood, less often on the roots and bases of the trunks of affected living trees. The cap is up to 15 cm in diameter, fleshy, convex at first, then flat, with a rolled edge, often with a tubercle in the center, yellowish-brown or grayish-brown, with darker (or the same color) numerous scales. The inner fabric is white, loose, with a pleasant smell, sweetish-astringent. The hymenophore plates are slightly downward, white, darkening over time. The leg is central, cylindrical, up to 10-15 cm long, up to 1 - 1.5 cm thick (sometimes slightly swollen at the base), finely scaly, whitish or light brown, darker towards the bottom, with a white thick fluffy-silky ring under the cap.

Basidiospores that ripen in fruiting bodies are spread by wind, rainwater, animals and, falling on the stumps and roots of trees, germinate and infect them.

From sites of infection, the mycelium of the fungus grows under the bark of the roots and trunk, often rising to a height of 2 - 3 m (sometimes even higher). Under the influence of pathogen toxins, living tissues of bast, cambium and sapwood die, after which the fungal mycelium penetrates them and causes soft, fibrous white or light yellow rot with characteristic sinuous thin black lines in the peripheral layers of sapwood. From infected areas, honey fungus toxins can spread through the vessels to other parts of the tree, accelerating its weakening and death. Between the bark and wood of the affected roots and trunks, white fan-shaped films develop, which over time become denser, become leathery, turn yellow and, partially splitting, give rise to flat rhizomorphs.

The honey fungus causes the greatest damage to coniferous, oak, ash, elm, aspen, various types poplar, mulberry, fruit trees, causing root and butt white sap rot. In pure coniferous stands and oak forests, the distribution of honey mushrooms often takes on the character of epiphytoties.

Honey fungus affects plantings of various ages. The spread of the fungus from tree to tree along the roots determines the clump nature of the disease. In young trees the disease often occurs in acute form, leading to their rapid (in 1 - 2 years) drying out. When adult trees are affected, the disease develops more slowly (6-10 years), causing their gradual weakening. Drying trees are often infested with stem pests. Affected trees are characterized by a sparse crown, small leaves, short pale green or brownish needles, a sharp drop in height growth, and cracking of the bark in the lower part of the trunk. When conifers are damaged, the resin impregnates the bark; Accumulations of resin form between the root paws, at the base of the trunks and on the roots.

The intensive development of foci of autumn honey fungus is facilitated by the thickening of tree stands, the interweaving and fusion of root systems, the weakening of trees by abiotic and other factors, as well as warm, humid weather, favorable for the mass formation of fruiting bodies, the dispersal of basidiospores and their infection of fresh stumps, on which mycelium and films are again formed and, finally, rhizomorphs, which ensure further spread of the fungus.

Control measures: a set of forestry measures, chemical and biological control measures aimed at increasing the sustainability of plantations, eliminating sources of infection, preventing infections, localizing foci of disease and improving the health of plantations.

To reduce the threat of honey fungus, it is necessary to create mixed plantings from tree species that are more resistant to the disease. When selecting species, the soil and climatic conditions of the area should be taken into account. Before planting, liming of acidic soils and the application of basic fertilizers and microelements are provided to promote better growth and increase the stability of young plantings.

When creating crops in cleared areas, it is highly desirable, in order to reduce the supply of infection, to first uproot the stumps along with the roots or treat them with fungicides (10% solution of KMn0 4, foundationazol or topsin-M). It is also recommended to debark stumps and root paws or burn them.

When death occurs, the body's respiration stops, and therefore oxygen, which is involved in the formation of ATP, ceases to enter the body. ATP ceases to be hydrolyzed by the calcium pump (Ca-ATPase), and calcium ceases to return to the terminal tanks. In this regard, calcium ions diffuse from areas of high concentration (terminal cisterns and intercellular fluid) to areas of low concentration (sarcomeres), binding to troponin, which causes the connection of actin and myosin.

Unlike usual muscle contraction, the body is not able to complete the cycle (due to the lack of ATP), breaking the interaction between actin and myosin, which is why persistent muscle contracture is formed, stopping only against the background of enzymatic decomposition of muscle tissue.

Rigor mortis. This is a peculiar condition of muscle tissue that causes limited movement in the joints. The expert tries with his own hands to make this or that movement in any part of the body, limb of the corpse. When encountering resistance, the expert determines the severity of muscle rigor by its strength and limited range of motion in the joints. To the touch, stiff muscles become dense.

Immediately after death, all muscles are usually relaxed and passive movements in all joints are fully possible. Rigor rigor is noticeable 2–4 hours after death and develops from top to bottom. Facial muscles stiffen faster (opening and closing the mouth is difficult, lateral movements are limited lower jaw) and hands, then – the muscles of the neck (movements of the head and cervical spine are difficult), then the muscles of the limbs, etc. The corpse becomes completely numb in 14–24 hours. When determining the degree of rigor, it is necessary to compare its severity in the right and left parts of the body.

Rigor mortis persists for 2–3 days, after which it resolves due to the activation of the process of decay of the actomyosin protein in the muscles. This protein causes muscle contraction. Resolution of rigor mortis also occurs from top to bottom.

Rigor mortis develops not only in the skeletal muscles, but also in many internal organs (heart, gastrointestinal tract, bladder etc.) having smooth muscles. Their condition is judged during an autopsy.

The degree of rigor at the time of examination of the corpse depends on a number of reasons, which must be taken into account when determining the time of death. At low ambient temperatures, rigor mortis develops slowly and can last up to 7 days. On the contrary, at room temperature and higher, this process accelerates and complete rigor develops faster. Rigor rigor is severe if death was preceded by convulsions (tetanus, strychnine poisoning, etc.). Also, rigor develops more strongly in persons:

1) having well-developed muscles;

2) younger;

3) without diseases of the muscular system.

Muscle contraction is caused by the breakdown of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) in it. After death, some of the ATP is free from connection with carrier proteins, which is enough for complete relaxation of the muscles in the first 2–4 hours. Gradually, all ATP is utilized and rigor mortis develops. The period of complete utilization of ATP is approximately 10–12 hours. It is during this period that the state of the muscles can change under external influence; for example, you can straighten your hand and insert an object into it. After changing the position of a part of the body, rigor is restored, but to a lesser extent. The difference in the degree of rigor is established by comparing different parts bodies. The difference will be smaller the sooner after death the position of the corpse or part of its body is changed. After 12 hours from the moment of death, ATP completely disappears. If the position of the limb is disturbed after this period, then rigor in this place is not restored.

The state of rigor is judged by the results of mechanical and electrical effects on the muscles. When a muscle is struck by a hard object (stick), an idiomuscular tumor forms at the site of the impact, which is determined visually in the first 6 hours after death. In more late dates such a reaction can only be determined by palpation. When a current of a certain strength is applied to the ends of the muscle, its contraction is observed, assessed on a three-point scale: strong contraction is observed in a period of up to 2–2.5 hours, medium – up to 2–4 hours, weak – up to 4–6 hours.

Forensic significance:

rigor mortis is an undoubted sign of death;
rigor mortis records the posture that a person took after death;
by the degree of spread of rigor mortis one can get an idea of the time of death;
the severity of rigor mortis provides some assistance in recognizing the cause of death.

5. the absence of rigor in any part of the body with pronounced rigor in other areas indicates that the corpse was subjected to some kind of mechanical action

Rotting corpse. Morphological characteristics rotting corpse. The influence of environmental conditions on the process of decay. Determining the duration of death.

Rotting corpse

Rotting belongs to the group of destructive cadaveric phenomena. Rotting develops as a result of exposure to microorganisms on the tissues of a corpse. Under their influence, tissues are destroyed into simpler biochemical and chemical components. As a result of the formation of substances such as ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, methyl mercaptan, ethyl mercaptan and some others, a characteristic putrid-cadaverous odor appears.
Putrefactive bacteria are common inhabitants of the human intestine. There they are usually in balance with other microorganisms and vital processes of the body, perform their functions and, under normal conditions, do not go beyond the boundaries of their distribution areas. After the death of a person, everything changes, many types of putrefactive bacteria begin to uncontrollably multiply and spread in the human body, this leads to decay of the corpse.
Initially, putrefaction develops most strongly in the large intestine, this is accompanied by the formation of a large amount of gases, which accumulate in the abdomen. Intestinal bloating can be noted within 6-12 hours after a person’s death. Then signs of decay appear in the form of a dirty green color, first in the right iliac region, then in the left. This coloring occurs due to the formation of sulfhemoglobin from blood hemoglobin and released hydrogen sulfide. Under room conditions, putrefactive staining appears in the iliac areas on the anterior abdominal wall by the end of the second day. The rot then spreads through the blood vessels, mainly veins, to other areas of the body. This process is accompanied by the appearance of the so-called putrefactive venous network - a clearly visible dirty green pattern of veins. Signs of putrefactive venous network are observed 3-4 days after death,
On the 3-4th day of the development of putrefaction, an increase in the accumulation of putrefactive gases in the subcutaneous fatty tissue and other tissues is noted. Due to this, swelling of the corpse occurs, the so-called putrefactive emphysema. Parts of the body, the abdomen, chest, limbs, neck, nose, lips, in men, the scrotum and penis, and in women, the mammary glands, sharply increase in size. Bloody discharge is observed from the natural orifices of the body; this should be differentiated from the manifestation of injury. After 4-5 days, blisters appear on the surface of the skin due to its delamination, filled with a foul-smelling reddish-brown putrefactive liquid. Partially exfoliated epidermis can be displaced due to mechanical action, and the reddish dermis, the underlying layer of skin, becomes visible. Such manifestations of rotting mimic skin burns. On days 6-10, the epidermis completely peels off and can be easily removed along with nails and hair. Subsequently, through the damaged areas of the skin, the accumulated and newly released putrefactive gases leave the corpse, the size of the corpse and its parts decreases. The processes of decay soften and disorganize the tissues - the so-called putrefactive melting of the corpse occurs. As a result, the bones are exposed in places, especially in places where they are covered with a small amount of soft tissue. Complete putrefactive decay of the soft tissues of a corpse (skin, fatty tissue, muscles, some components of internal organs, etc.) under conditions suitable for decay can occur in 3-4 weeks. After this period, bones, ligaments, cartilage, and formations consisting of a large amount of connective tissue are preserved.
A corpse in a state of significant putrefactive changes is a very unpleasant sight. The presence of putrefactive tissue destruction, their greenish-dirty color, and fetid odor create the basis for a negative assessment of the possibilities of productive forensic research of such corpses. It seems that it is impossible to establish the cause of death, the mechanism of its occurrence and resolve other issues regarding such a corpse. However, this is not always the case. On putrefactively altered corpses, it is possible to detect and identify damage, traces of imposition, some well-defined pathological processes, for example, cardiosclerosis, atherosclerosis and others. Therefore, any degree of putrefactive decomposition of a corpse is not a basis for refusing to order and conduct a forensic medical examination of the corpse.
As already noted, the development of decay processes is greatly influenced by some internal and, to a greater extent, external factors. Rotting processes appear earlier on the corpses of people who had significant foci of infection in the body, for example, in the presence of sepsis, peritonitis, gangrene and some other infections. Conversely, the introduction of large doses of antibiotics and other drugs into the body of a sick person before death antibacterial drugs delays the development of decay. The corpses of children undergo putrefactive melting faster than the corpses of adults. The presence of elevated ambient temperatures (from +30° to +40° C), humidity and lack of ventilation create the most suitable conditions for the rapid development of putrefactive processes. Under ideal conditions for the development of decay, its signs can be noticed within 10-12 hours after death and even earlier if internal factors contribute to this. The rotting process slows down and even completely blocks when the temperature drops to negative values, dryness and good air ventilation, other natural and artificial preservative processes.

Putrid changes

Putrefactive gases begin to form in the large intestine 3-6 hours after death.

The first signs of decay in the form of a corpse odor, dirty green coloring of the skin of the iliac regions and mucous membrane of the respiratory tract appear at a temperature of +16 ... 18 ° C and a relative humidity of 40-60% 24-36 hours after death Corpse greens appear in favorable conditions in 12-20 hours

In summer, corpse greens appear after 15-18 hours, in winter between one and five days.

After 3-5 days, the stomach becomes a solid dirty green color, and the whole body becomes dirty green after 7-14 days

At a temperature of +15 .. 16 ° C, greening begins on days 4-5 from the skin of the iliac regions. In the cold season, it appears within 2-3 days, and at temperatures of 0 °C greening does not appear at all.

On the 3-4th day, due to the increasing pressure of putrefactive gases in the abdominal cavity, microbes spread through the venous vessels, coloring them dirty red or dirty green. A putrefactive venous network is formed.

Due to the action of gases and the sinking of liquid, detachment of the epidermis and the appearance of blisters filled with dirty-red putrefactive, foul-smelling liquid begin within 4-6 days.

After 9-14 days, the blisters burst, exposing the actual skin.

Example. Putrefactive changes are expressed in the form of a dirty green coloring of the skin of the head and torso, putrefactive venous network on the extremities, cadaveric emphysema, putrefactive blisters filled with dirty red putrefactive fluid. Some of the blisters opened, revealing a yellow-brown surface with a translucent vascular network. Along the edges of the opening blisters, the epidermis hangs down in the form of flaps. The hair on the head becomes detached when touched.

Putrefactive fluid from the openings of the nose and mouth begins to be released within 2 weeks.

Knowledge of the type of insect and the conditions of its development allows us to judge the time that has passed since death.

When examining a corpse at the scene of an incident or discovery, pay attention to the location of the ovipositors, larvae, and their chitinous shells (after flies and beetles emerge). Larvae are grouped according to species and development time, since in different areas of the body they may differ from flies in the shape of the larvae or the covering of their body with coarse hairs. When removing material for research, the areas of the body of the corpse from which it was removed are noted. Material is taken not only from the corpse, but also from the surrounding area within a radius of 1 m and from a depth of up to 30 cm.

Temperature +16 ... 18 °C almost triples the time. The usual development cycle of a housefly at a temperature of +18 ... 20 ° C is 3-4 weeks. The presence of only eggs on the corpse indicates the occurrence of death from 12-15 hours to 2 days ago, the presence of larvae - after 10-30 hours, detection of both eggs and larvae - from 1 to 3 days, the predominance of larvae - from 3 days to 2.5 weeks, the appearance of pupae from larvae occurs after 6-14 days, flies - 5-30 days. Increasing the temperature to +20- +25 °C reduces the period to 9-15 days. The listed periods are very arbitrary. They can shorten and lengthen depending on temperature, humidity, environment, and layer on top of each other, which sometimes does not allow any specific conclusions to be drawn.

The soft tissues of a child can be eaten by fly larvae to the bones from 6-8 days to 1.5-2 weeks, and of an adult from 3-4 weeks. up to 1.5-2 months.

The presence of eggs, larvae and adult flies on the corpse allows us to draw a conclusion about the time that has passed since the beginning of the destruction of the corpse by flies.

In lime pits, lime mummification forms within 1-2 years.

The appearance of fat wax in certain parts of the corpse is possible after 2-5 weeks. after death, in the whole corpse - after 3-4 months. The corpses of adults turn into fat wax after 8-12 months, and infants - after 4-6 months.

In particularly favorable conditions, on the surface of the earth, soft tissues can collapse in 1.5-2 months, in the ground - 2-3 years, ligaments and cartilage - 4-6 years after death, bones and hair resist rotting for many years.

Favorable conditions contribute to the decomposition of a corpse within 3-4 summer months.

Fading of the color of plants under the corpse due to the loss of chlorophyll is observed 6-8 days after the corpse is in this place.

In winter, corpses can remain in cold rooms for several weeks without signs of rotting.

The soft tissues of a corpse in a wooden coffin are completely destroyed in 2-3 years

QUESTION 74

Late cadaveric phenomena include fat wax, rotting, mummification, peat tanning, and preservation.

These changes begin to develop gradually, even during the period of early cadaveric phenomena, but outwardly appear later. As a result of the development of late changes, the corpse may be subject to destruction or conservation.

The destructive form includes decay processes, ultimately leading to the complete disappearance of organic substances. Rotting is a complex process consisting of the decomposition of organic substances (primarily proteins) in organs and tissues under the influence of various microorganisms. The intensity of decay processes depends on many reasons. Rotting develops quickly in air, more slowly in water, and even more slowly in soil. Putrefactive processes in the corpse begin to develop soon after death. Rotting usually begins in the large intestine and is expressed in the formation of putrefactive gases (hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, methane). Anatomically, the cecum and sigmoid colon are directly adjacent to the anterior wall of the abdomen. Hydrogen sulfide formed as a result of putrefaction penetrates through the intestinal wall, combines with hemoglobin in the blood of the vessels of the abdominal wall and forms sulfhemoglobin, which has a green color. This connection colors the front abdominal wall in the lower abdomen (the first signs of decay, appearing under normal room conditions on days 2-3, are corpse greens).

Then, on the 3-4th day, due to increasing gas pressure in the abdominal cavity, microorganisms spread through the venous vessels, where a putrefactive venous network is formed. Putrefactive gases permeate the subcutaneous fatty tissue and swell it, forming cadaveric emphysema. The face, lips, mammary glands, abdomen, scrotum, and limbs are especially swollen. Due to the formation of cadaveric emphysema, the body of the corpse increases in size. Under the influence of putrefactive gases, the eyelids swell, which greatly complicates the examination of the eyes, the lips turn out, and a swollen tongue protrudes into the opening of the mouth. The final result of rotting is the skeletonization of the corpse.

The dynamics of the development of the decay process can be of guiding importance for determining the duration of death. Thus, it is generally accepted that after 24-36 hours cadaveric greenery appears in the lower abdomen, after 3-5 days the entire skin of the abdomen turns greenish, and on the 8-12th day skin the entire corpse becomes dirty greenish. The pronounced putrefactive decomposition of a corpse is not an obstacle to identifying various injuries (for example, gunshot marks on the skin).

It should be borne in mind that under normal conditions, rotting is accompanied by a number of factors destroying the corpse:

1) eating animals, rodents;

2) pecking by birds;

3) damage by insects.

It has been established that insect larvae in the summer can completely destroy the soft tissue of the corpse of a newborn child in 10-12 days, and an adult in 3-4 weeks. Knowledge of the patterns of development on the corpse of various insects, individual species which are consistently involved in the destruction of corpse tissue, allows us to approximately determine the duration of death. Cockroaches and ants, eating the surface layers of the skin, leave yellow-brown marks that resemble burns.

Conservation

Preservative forms of cadaveric changes include processes that arise as a result of exposure of the corpse to certain conditions in which it finds itself. A dry environment can lead to complete drying out - natural mummification; a humid environment, without air access, promotes the formation of fat wax; specific composition aquatic environment leads to the preservation of the corpse, for example, so-called peat tanning occurs; At temperatures below 4 °C, the corpse freezes.

Fat wax, or saponification of a corpse, is a condition that develops as a result of the breakdown of fats in the absence of oxygen in conditions of high humidity without air access. Such conditions are created in water when buried in wet and clayey soils. Examination of corpses in a state of fat wax allows one to detect traces of various injuries, strangulation grooves and other changes. Corpses in a fat wax state are relatively easy to identify.

Based on the severity of the fat wax, one can roughly judge the duration of death. Thus, on the corpses of newborns, the adipose wax develops within 3-4 weeks, and after 4-5 months the corpse can completely enter this state. The same process in an adult proceeds much more slowly and ends completely no earlier than a year or more after death.

Mummification is the complete drying of a corpse and its parts, which begins shortly after death. This phenomenon develops in conditions of low air humidity and sufficient ventilation. Mummification is observed in the open air, in ventilated rooms and when burying corpses in dry coarse-grained and sandy soils. During mummification, the volume and weight of the corpse sharply decrease, the skin becomes fragile, brittle, and takes on a brownish-brown tint. Under favorable conditions, mummification of an adult corpse occurs no earlier than 6-12 months after death and persists for a long time.

The main forensic medical significance of mummification is that the preservation of the corpse allows identification of the individual; traces of previously caused damage, especially with sharp instruments, as well as traces of gunshot injuries, strangulation groove.

Peat tanning

In a peat bog, peat bog, or in soil with a high content of humic acids, the integument of the body takes on a dark brown color, becomes compacted, and becomes tanned. The salts are completely washed out of the bones, and they become so soft that they can be cut with a knife. Such a corpse can be preserved for a long time.

Internal examination of the corpse is carried out in the thanatology department of the bureau forensic medical examination. It includes opening the cavities of the skull, chest, abdominal cavity, and pelvic cavity. Spine and spinal cord are subject to mandatory examination if they are damaged. The most commonly used method is Shore's dissection, when the organ complex is isolated as a whole, and then the organs and tissues of various systems are described in detail.