There are so many concepts in the Russian language that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between two very similar, but still different definitions. But there are terms that do not carry additional meanings, but have a clear and understandable interpretation. For example, the concept of “electronic storage medium”. This is the definition of a tangible medium that records, stores and reproduces data that is processed thanks to computer technology.
Where did it all start?
The more general meaning of this term is “information carrier” or “information carrier”. It defines a material object or environment that is used by a person. Moreover, such an item stores data for a long time without using additional equipment.
If a source of energy is needed to store information on electronic media, then a simple data carrier can be stone, wood, paper, metal and other materials.
Any object that displays data printed on it can be called an information carrier. It is believed that information media are needed for recording, storing, reading, and transmitting materials.
Peculiarities
It is not difficult to guess that an electronic storage medium is a type of information storage medium. It also has its own classification, which, although not officially established, is used by many specialists.
For example, electronic media may be write-once or write-once. Here we mean devices:
- optical;
- semiconductor;
- magnetic.
Each of these mechanisms has several types of equipment.
Electronic storage media has, first of all, a number of advantages over paper versions. First, thanks to technology, the amount of data archived can be virtually unlimited. Secondly, the collection and presentation of relevant information is ergonomic and fast. Thirdly, digital data is presented in a convenient form.
But electronic media also has its drawbacks. For example, this includes the unreliability of equipment, in some cases the size of the device, dependence on electricity, as well as the requirements for the constant availability of a device that could read files from such a digital drive.
Type: optical discs
An electronic storage medium is a device that can be optical, semiconductor, or magnetic. This is the only classification of such equipment.
In turn, optical devices are also divided into types. This includes laser disc, CD, mini-disc, Blu-ray, HD-DVD and so on. The optical disk is so named due to the technology for reading information. Reading from the disk occurs using optical radiation.
The idea of this electronic medium originated a long time ago. The scientists who developed the technology were awarded the Nobel Prize. The method of reproducing information from an optical disc appeared back in 1958.
Now optical electronic media has 4 generations. The first generation had: laser disc, compact disc and mini disc. In the second generation, DVDs and CD-ROMs became popular. In the third generation, Blu-ray and HD-DVD stood out. In the fourth generation, Holographic Versatile Disc and SuperRens Disc are actively developing.
Semiconductor media
The next type of electronic storage medium is semiconductor. This includes flash drives and SSD drives.
Flash memory is the most popular electronic storage medium that uses semiconductor technology and programmable memory. It is in demand due to its small size, low price, mechanical strength, acceptable volume, speed of operation and low energy consumption.
The disadvantages of this option are the limited service life and dependence on electrostatic discharge. People first started talking about a flash drive in 1984.
An SSD is a semiconductor electronic storage device, also called a solid state drive. It replaced the hard drive, although this moment did not completely replace it, but only became an addition to home systems. Unlike a hard drive, a solid-state drive is based on memory chips.
The main advantages of such a carrier are its compact size, high speed, and wear resistance. But at the same time it has a high cost.
Magnetic disks
And the last type of electronic media are magnetic devices. These include magnetic tapes, floppy disks and hard drives. Since the first and second equipment are not currently in use, we will talk about the railway.
A hard disk is a random access device based on magnetic recording technology. At the moment, it is the main storage device of most modern computer systems.
Its main difference from the previous type, floppy disk, is that recording is carried out on aluminum or glass plates, which are covered with a layer of ferromagnetic material.
Other options
Despite the fact that, when talking about electronic media, we often think of devices connected to a computer, this does not mean that this concept is applied only in computer technology.
The spread of electronic media is associated with its ease of use, high speed of writing and reading. Therefore, this equipment is replacing paper media.
Documentation
What is a passport with an electronic storage medium? At first, this question can drive a person into a dead end. But if you think about it carefully, you will remember such a concept as a “biometric passport”.
This is a state document that certifies the identity and citizenship of the traveler at the time of his move abroad and stay in another country. Essentially, we have the same passport, but with some nuances.
The difference between a biometric document and a traditional passport is that the first one carries a specially mounted microcircuit that stores the owner’s photo card and his personal data.
Thanks to a small microcircuit, you can obtain the last name, first name and patronymic of the document owner, his date of birth, passport number, time of issue and end of the validity period. According to the model, the microcircuit should contain a person’s biometric data. This includes a pattern of the iris or a fingerprint.
Introduction of the document: advantages and disadvantages
Despite the fact that the biometric passport has long been introduced by many states, some citizens have a negative attitude towards it. But this document has both advantages and disadvantages.
The advantages include the fact that passing the border checkpoint now does not take much time. If in such places there is special equipment that can read a microchip, then crossing the border becomes safe and fast.
But not all citizens like a biometric passport. Many believe that the introduction of such a document is a manifestation of total control, behind which is the US government.
Criminal case
The development of electronic storage media has affected many areas. This also includes a criminal case. In 2012, the term electronic storage medium was introduced into the Criminal Procedure Code of the Russian Federation. Thus, such devices could become material evidence.
Electronic storage media have become important detail when investigating a criminal case, subject to certain conditions. For example, data from the media must have direct relation to the investigation. In addition, they must be transmitted by a reliable source that can be verified. Data must have special kind, for example, represented by video recordings, photographs, screenshots, and so on. Upon withdrawal digital information must be observed established laws.
During the investigation of a criminal case, it is necessary to keep records of electronic storage media. In this case, a log is created in which all devices are registered. Each one is assigned an identification number.
The importance of electronic media in the investigation of a criminal case is controversial issue to this day. Legislatively, such devices are not classified as any source of evidence. This is where disagreements can arise.
conclusions
Electronic storage media for modern people are a real godsend. With the development of technology, the volume of archives that store data is becoming larger. Every year new possibilities for transmitting and reading information appear.
Hepatitis is an infection of liver cells, followed by intoxication of the entire body. Initially, it was believed that this disease came from bats, which are carriers of the hepatitis C virus. Today, many reject this theory, but this is of no use. After all, hepatitis is one of the most terrible diseases humanity. The number of infected people is growing every year. If left completely untreated, it can lead to a chronic stage or even death. According to statistics, about 400,000 people die from it every year. And this is only official data.
Causes of hepatitis C
Humans are the main carrier of hepatitis C. What does this mean? Without knowing it, he can infect people around him. This happens because at the very beginning of its development the disease is asymptomatic, which is why it often develops into chronic form. Infection can occur through blood or fluids. More than half of the cases are reported from repeated use of syringes and instruments. Frequent carriers of hepatitis C are drug addicts. Slightly less often, infection can occur in a nail salon or hairdresser, due to poor handling of special devices. Therefore, you should be careful when visiting these types of establishments. Even less often, infection occurs when going to the dentist. Not all clinics, especially private ones, comply with established standards. The risk of contracting hepatitis C is present through unprotected sexual intercourse or frequent changes of partners, as well as through blood transfusions. From this it follows that even a completely decent and neat person can suffer from this disease. Therefore, you can never relax.
Stages of development of hepatitis C
In the first stages of hepatitis C development, a person does not feel any changes in his body. Can a carrier of hepatitis infect other people? This is a question many people ask. Hepatitis C is a contagious disease throughout, which is a very dangerous factor, because in the first stages a person cannot understand that he can pose a threat to life and health for others.
After this there is acute stage, in which a person begins to feel some In rare cases, its appearance is not felt at all. It becomes more difficult to get rid of it.
The chronic degree of hepatitis C manifests itself in the absence of necessary treatment, as well as worsening lifestyle. Drinking alcohol in large quantities has a detrimental effect on the liver and also helps hepatitis become an incurable disease.
Further, the carrier of chronic hepatitis will experience serious liver damage, which is called cirrhosis. This is a serious disease that turns liver cells into connective tissue and often leads to death as the liver stops working.
Symptoms of hepatitis C
- Feverish condition. Appears heat, chills or fever. The person may begin to delusion or hallucinate.
- Unpleasant sensations in muscles and bones. The exact same condition occurs with the flu, so you should not rely on this symptom. A person cannot work as before.
- Loss of appetite. Nausea and vomiting occur, and the body rejects all food and water.
- Painful sensations in the liver. The pain is cramping and cutting in nature. The liver also enlarges. This can be felt when examining a person.
- Yellowness of the skin. This symptom is one of the main ones to confirm the disease for a carrier of hepatitis C. First, the skin acquires a yellowish tint, then eyeballs. They are affected in severe cases of the disease.
- Dark colored urine and light colored stool. Constipation or diarrhea may occur. Periodic aching pains appear in the abdomen.
- Spider veins. They appear on the legs and stomach.
- Sudden change of mood. The person becomes irritable and is periodically capable of falling into depression.
- Bad feeling. A person constantly begins to feel drowsy, severe weakness and fatigue appear, even in the absence of physical activity.
Can a child get hepatitis C?
Unfortunately, the answer to this question is yes. A child is a carrier of hepatitis when his mother is sick. This disease is transmitted during pregnancy, and there is no way to protect the baby from it.
After birth, a child may immediately be diagnosed with a chronic form of hepatitis C. He may immediately develop yellowing of the skin and eyes. It will not be possible to completely cure the baby, but you can maintain the condition of the body and prevent deterioration. If you leave everything to chance, then most likely the child will soon die.
Treatment of hepatitis C
Hepatitis must be treated in a hospital. The doctor's prescription will depend on the degree of damage to the body. To begin with, all tests are taken and an examination is carried out that will show whether a person is a carrier of hepatitis C antibodies. During treatment, strict adherence must be observed. In order to maintain liver function, enzyme preparations are prescribed. Medicines that can restore liver cells are also used. If a person is diagnosed with this disease, they should never drink alcohol again. You should avoid spicy, salty and unhealthy foods. It is beneficial to eat fruits and vegetables, as well as take vitamins and minerals.
In case of exacerbation of chronic hepatitis C, a person is temporarily transferred to a hospital. Treatment is prescribed exactly the same as at the onset of the disease.
Treatment with folk remedies
Under no circumstances should you decide on treatment with folk remedies on your own, as this can significantly worsen a person’s condition. Therefore, you should consult your doctor and use this method only with his permission.
It is believed that daily consumption of carrot juice will benefit the liver. A carrier of hepatitis C can use mumiyo. It must be mixed with milk and drunk twice a day, before meals. A decoction of blueberry leaves is beneficial for the liver. It should not be cooked for a long time, as you can lose all the useful elements.
In order to gradually relieve intoxication from the body, you can make a decoction of oatmeal. To do this, pour a handful of cereal with one liter of water, boil for about 30 minutes and take several times a day, after filtering through cheesecloth or a sieve.
Prevention of hepatitis C
In order not to provoke the occurrence of hepatitis C, you need to carefully monitor your lifestyle. It is worth giving up bad habits. You should not contact people who have wounds on their skin. Before going to the dentist or manicurist, you need to check everything carefully, and even better, visit only familiar masters and medical professionals. You should not have unprotected sex. Every six months you need to take tests and be examined in order to identify the disease for early stage and cure him.
Hepatitis is a fatal disease that affects not only the lower strata of the population, but also completely normal people. Therefore, you need to be careful, follow certain rules, and then this disease can be avoided!
Information carrier (information carrier) – any material object used by a person to store information. This can be, for example, stone, wood, paper, metal, plastics, silicon (and other types of semiconductors), tape with a magnetized layer (in reels and cassettes), photographic material, plastic with special properties (for example, in optical disks) and etc., etc.
An information carrier can be any object from which it is possible to read (read) the information on it.
Storage media are used for:
- records;
- storage;
- reading;
- transmission (distribution) of information.
Often the storage medium itself is placed in a protective shell, which increases its safety and, accordingly, the reliability of storing information (for example, paper sheets are placed in a cover, a memory chip is placed in plastic (smart card), magnetic tape is placed in a case, etc.) .
Electronic media include media for single or multiple recording (usually digital) electrically:
- optical discs (CD-ROM, DVD-ROM, Blu-ray Disc);
- semiconductor (flash memory, floppy disks, etc.);
- CDs (CD – Compact Disk, CD), on which up to 700 MB of information can be recorded;
- DVDs (DVD - Digital Versatile Disk, digital universal disk), which have a significantly larger information capacity (4.7 GB), since the optical tracks on them are thinner and placed more densely;
- HR DVD and Blu-ray discs, the information capacity of which is 3–5 times greater than the information capacity of DVDs due to the use of a blue laser with a wavelength of 405 nanometers.
Electronic media have significant advantages over paper media (paper sheets, newspapers, magazines):
- by volume (size) of stored information;
- by unit cost of storage;
- on the efficiency and efficiency of providing relevant (intended for short-term storage) information;
- whenever possible, providing information in a form convenient for the consumer (formatting, sorting).
There are also disadvantages:
- fragility of reading devices;
- weight (mass) (in some cases);
- dependence on power sources;
- the need for a reader/writer for each media type and format.
Hard magnetic disk drive or HDD (hard (magnetic) disk drive, HDD, HMDD), hard disk is a storage device (information storage device) based on the principle of magnetic recording. It is the main data storage device in most computers.
Unlike a “floppy” disk (floppy disk), information in a hard disk drive is recorded on rigid plates coated with a layer of ferromagnetic material – magnetic disks. HDD uses one or more plates on one axis. In operating mode, the reading heads do not touch the surface of the plates due to the layer of incoming air flow that forms near the surface during rapid rotation. The distance between the head and the disk is several nanometers (about 10 nm in modern disks), and the absence of mechanical contact ensures a long service life of the device. When the disks do not rotate, the heads are located at the spindle or outside the disk in a safe (“parking”) zone, where their abnormal contact with the surface of the disks is excluded.
Also, unlike a floppy disk, the storage medium is usually combined with a storage device, a drive and an electronics unit. Such hard drives are often used as non-removable storage media.
Optical (laser) discs are currently the most popular storage media. They use the optical principle of recording and reading information using a laser beam.
DVDs can be double-layered (8.5 GB capacity), with both layers having a reflective surface that carries information. In addition, the information capacity of DVDs can be further doubled (up to 17 GB), since information can be recorded on two sides.
Optical disk drives are divided into three types:
- without recording capability - CD-ROM and DVD-ROM (ROM - Read Only Memory, read-only memory). On CD-R discs OM and DVD-ROM stores information that was recorded on them during the manufacturing process. It is impossible to write new information to them;
- with write once and read many times – CD-R and DVD±R (R – recordable, writable). On CD-R and DVD±R discs, information can be written, but only once;
- rewritable – CD-RW and DVD±RW (RW – Rewritable, rewritable). On CD-RW and DVD±RW discs, information can be written and erased many times.
Key characteristics of optical drives:
- disk capacity (CD – up to 700 MB, DVD – up to 17 GB)
- data transfer speed from the media to RAM - measured in fractions of the speed of 150 KB/sec for CD drives;
- access time – the time required to search for information on a disk, measured in milliseconds (for CD 80–400 ms).
Currently, 52-speed CD drives are widely used - up to 7.8 MB/sec. CD-RW discs are written at a lower speed (for example, 32x). Therefore, CD drives are marked with three numbers “read speed x CD-R write speed x CD-RW write speed” (for example, “52x52x32”).
DVD drives are also marked with three numbers (for example, “16x8x6”).
If the storage rules are observed (stored in cases in an upright position) and used (without causing scratches or contamination), optical media can retain information for decades.
Flash memory refers to electrically reprogrammable memory (EEPROM) semiconductors. Thanks to technical solutions, low cost, large volume, low power consumption, high speed, compactness and mechanical strength, flash memory is built into digital portable devices and storage media. The main advantage of this device is that it is non-volatile and does not require electricity to store data. All information stored in flash memory can be read an infinite number of times, but the number of complete write cycles, unfortunately, is limited.
Flash memory has its advantages before other storage devices (hard drives and optical drives), as well as its shortcomings, which you can familiarize yourself with from the table below.
| Drive type | Advantages | Flaws |
| HDD | Large amount of stored information. High speed. Cheap data storage (per 1 MB) | Large dimensions. Sensitivity to vibration. Noise. Heat dissipation |
| Optical disc | Ease of transportation. Cheap information storage. Possibility of replication | Small volume. You need a reader. Restrictions on operations (read, write). Low operating speed. Sensitivity to vibration. Noise |
| Flash memory | High speed data access. Economical energy consumption. Vibration resistance. Ease of connection to a computer. Compact dimensions | Limited number of write cycles |
Hundreds of suppliers bring hepatitis C medications from India to Russia, but only M-PHARMA will help you buy sofosbuvir and daclatasvir, and professional consultants will answer any of your questions throughout the entire treatment.
Hepatitis is called acute and chronic inflammatory diseases liver, which are not focal, but widespread. Different hepatitises have different methods of infection; they also differ in the rate of disease progression, clinical manifestations, methods and prognosis of therapy. Even the symptoms of different types of hepatitis are different. Moreover, some symptoms are stronger than others, which is determined by the type of hepatitis.Main symptoms
- Jaundice. The symptom occurs frequently and is due to the fact that bilirubin enters the patient’s blood when the liver is damaged. Blood, circulating throughout the body, carries it to organs and tissues, coloring them yellow.
- The appearance of pain in the area of the right hypochondrium. It occurs due to an increase in the size of the liver, leading to pain that can be dull and prolonged or of a paroxysmal nature.
- Deterioration in health, accompanied by fever, headaches, dizziness, indigestion, drowsiness and lethargy. All this is a consequence of the effect of bilirubin on the body.
Hepatitis acute and chronic
Hepatitis in patients has acute and chronic forms. In acute form, they appear in the case of viral liver damage, as well as if there has been poisoning with various types of poisons. In acute forms of the disease, the condition of patients quickly deteriorates, which contributes to the accelerated development of symptoms.
With this form of the disease, favorable prognosis is quite possible. Except for its transformation into chronic. In its acute form, the disease is easily diagnosed and easier to treat. Untreated acute hepatitis easily develops into a chronic form. Sometimes when severe poisoning(for example, alcohol) the chronic form occurs independently. In the chronic form of hepatitis, the process of replacement of liver cells with connective tissue occurs. It is weakly expressed, progresses slowly, and therefore sometimes remains undiagnosed until cirrhosis of the liver occurs. Chronic hepatitis it is treated worse, and the prognosis for its cure is less favorable. In the acute course of the disease, health deteriorates significantly, jaundice develops, intoxication appears, the functional functioning of the liver decreases, and the bilirubin content in the blood increases. With timely detection and effective treatment of acute hepatitis, the patient most often recovers. When the disease lasts more than six months, hepatitis becomes chronic. The chronic form of the disease leads to serious disorders in the body - the spleen and liver enlarge, metabolism is disrupted, complications arise in the form of cirrhosis of the liver and cancer. If the patient has reduced immunity, the treatment regimen is chosen incorrectly, or there is alcohol dependence, then the transition of hepatitis to a chronic form threatens the patient’s life.
Types of hepatitis
Hepatitis has several types: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, they are also called viral hepatitis, since they are caused by a virus.Hepatitis A
This type of hepatitis is also called Botkin's disease. It has an incubation period lasting from 7 days to 2 months. Its causative agent, an RNA virus, can be transmitted from a sick person to a healthy person through poor-quality food and water, or contact with household items used by the sick person. Hepatitis A is possible in three forms, they are divided according to the severity of the disease:- in the acute form with jaundice, the liver is seriously damaged;
- with subacute without jaundice, we can talk about a milder version of the disease;
- in the subclinical form, you may not even notice symptoms, although the infected person is the source of the virus and is capable of infecting others.
Hepatitis B
This disease is also called serum hepatitis. Accompanied by an enlarged liver and spleen, joint pain, vomiting, fever, and liver damage. It occurs either in acute or chronic forms, which is determined by the state of the patient’s immunity. Routes of infection: during injections in violation of sanitary rules, sexual contact, during blood transfusions, and the use of poorly disinfected medical instruments. The duration of the incubation period is 50 ÷ 180 days. The incidence of hepatitis B decreases with vaccination.Hepatitis C
This type of disease is one of the most serious diseases, as it is often accompanied by cirrhosis or liver cancer, which subsequently leads to death. The disease is difficult to treat, and moreover, having had hepatitis C once, a person can be infected with the same disease again. It is not easy to cure HCV: after contracting hepatitis C in an acute form, 20% of patients recover, but in 70% of patients the body is not able to recover from the virus on its own, and the disease becomes chronic. It has not yet been possible to establish the reason why some heal on their own and others do not. The chronic form of hepatitis C will not disappear on its own and therefore requires therapy. Diagnosis and treatment acute form HCV is carried out by an infectious disease specialist, chronic forms of the disease are carried out by a hepatologist or gastroenterologist. You can become infected during a plasma or blood transfusion from an infected donor, through the use of poorly processed medical instruments, through sexual contact, and a sick mother transmits the infection to her child. The hepatitis C virus (HCV) is rapidly spreading throughout the world; the number of patients has long exceeded one and a half hundred million people. Previously, HCV was difficult to treat, but now the disease can be cured using modern direct-acting antivirals. But this therapy is quite expensive, and therefore not everyone can afford it.Hepatitis D
This type of hepatitis D is possible only with coinfection with the hepatitis B virus (coinfection is the case of infection of one cell with viruses of different types). It is accompanied by massive liver damage and an acute course of the disease. Routes of infection - entry of the disease virus into the blood healthy person from a virus carrier or a sick person. The incubation period lasts 20 ÷ 50 days. Externally, the course of the disease resembles hepatitis B, but its form is more severe. It can become chronic, later turning into cirrhosis. It is possible to carry out vaccination similar to that used for hepatitis B.Hepatitis E
It is slightly reminiscent of hepatitis A in its course and transmission mechanism, since it is also transmitted through the blood. Its peculiarity is the occurrence of lightning-fast forms that cause death in a period not exceeding 10 days. In other cases, it can be effectively cured, and the prognosis for recovery is most often favorable. An exception may be pregnancy, since the risk of losing a child is close to 100%.Hepatitis F
This type of hepatitis has not yet been studied enough. It is only known that the disease is caused by two different viruses: one was isolated from the blood of donors, the second was found in the feces of a patient who received hepatitis after a blood transfusion. Signs: the appearance of jaundice, fever, ascites (accumulation of fluid in abdominal cavity), an increase in the size of the liver and spleen, an increase in the levels of bilirubin and liver enzymes, the occurrence of changes in urine and feces, as well as general intoxication of the body. Effective methods of treating hepatitis F have not yet been developed.Hepatitis G
This type of hepatitis is similar to hepatitis C, but is not as dangerous because it does not contribute to the development of cirrhosis and liver cancer. Cirrhosis can only appear in cases of co-infection with hepatitis G and C.Diagnostics
Viral hepatitis is similar in its symptoms to one another, just like some others viral infections. For this reason, it can be difficult to accurately diagnose a sick person. Accordingly, to clarify the type of hepatitis and the correct prescription of therapy, laboratory blood tests are required to identify markers - indicators individual for each type of virus. By identifying the presence of such markers and their ratio, it is possible to determine the stage of the disease, its activity and possible outcome. In order to track the dynamics of the process, the examinations are repeated after a period of time.How is hepatitis C treated?
Modern treatment regimens for chronic forms of HCV are reduced to combination antiviral therapy, including direct-acting antivirals such as sofosbuvir, velpatasvir, daclatasvir, ledipasvir in various combinations. Sometimes ribavirin and interferons are added to enhance effectiveness. This combination of active ingredients stops the replication of viruses, saving the liver from their destructive effects. This type of therapy has a number of disadvantages:- The cost of drugs to combat the hepatitis virus is high; not everyone can buy them.
- Taking certain medications is accompanied by unpleasant side effects, including fever, nausea, and diarrhea.
Features of HCV genotypes
Hepatitis C is one of the most dangerous viral hepatitis. The disease is caused by an RNA virus called Flaviviridae. The hepatitis C virus is also called the “gentle killer.” He received such an unflattering epithet due to the fact that at the initial stage the disease is not accompanied by any symptoms at all. There are no signs of classic jaundice, and there is no pain in the area of the right hypochondrium. The presence of the virus can be detected no earlier than a couple of months after infection. Before this, the reaction of the immune system is completely absent and markers cannot be detected in the blood, and therefore genotyping is not possible. Another feature of HCV is that after entering the bloodstream during the process of reproduction, the virus begins to rapidly mutate. Such mutations prevent the infected person’s immune system from adapting and fighting the disease. As a result, the disease can proceed for several years without any symptoms, after which cirrhosis or a malignant tumor appears almost immediately. Moreover, in 85% of cases, the disease goes from an acute form to a chronic one. The hepatitis C virus has an important feature - a variety of genetic structure. In fact, hepatitis C is a collection of viruses, classified depending on their structural variants and divided into genotypes and subtypes. The genotype is the sum of genes encoding hereditary traits. So far, medicine knows 11 genotypes of the hepatitis C virus, which have their own subtypes. The genotype is designated by numbers from 1 to 11 (although genotypes 1 ÷ 6 are mainly used in clinical studies), and subtypes are designated using letters of the Latin alphabet:- 1a, 1b and 1c;
- 2a, 2b, 2c and 2d;
- 3a, 3b, 3c, 3d, 3e and 3f;
- 4a, 4b, 4c, 4d, 4e, 4f, 4h, 4i and 4j;
How are HCV strains distributed across the planet?
Hepatitis C genotypes are distributed heterogeneously across the globe, and genotypes 1, 2, 3 can most often be found, and in certain areas it looks like this:
- V Western Europe and in its eastern regions genotypes 1 and 2 are most common;
- in the USA - subtypes 1a and 1b;
- in northern Africa, genotype 4 is the most common.
- genotype 1b accounts for ~50% of cases;
- for genotype 3a ~20%,
- ~10% of patients are infected with hepatitis 1a;
- hepatitis with genotype 2 was found in ~5% of infected people.
- age of patients. The chance of cure is much higher in young people;
- It is easier for women to recover than for men;
- the degree of liver damage is important - the favorable outcome is higher with less damage;
- the magnitude of the viral load - the fewer viruses in the body at the time of treatment, the more effective the therapy;
- the patient’s weight: the higher it is, the more complicated the treatment becomes.
Who is at risk for HCV infection?
As you know, the hepatitis C virus is transmitted through blood, and therefore the following are most likely to become infected:- patients receiving blood transfusions;
- patients and clients in dental offices and medical institutions where medical instruments are improperly sterilized;
- visiting nail and beauty salons can be dangerous due to unsterile instruments;
- piercing and tattoo enthusiasts can also suffer from poorly processed tools,
- there is a high risk of infection for those who use drugs due to repeated use of unsterile needles;
- the fetus can become infected from a mother infected with hepatitis C;
- During sexual intercourse, the infection can also enter the body of a healthy person.
How is hepatitis C treated?
It was not for nothing that the hepatitis C virus was considered a “gentle” killer virus. It can remain silent for years, and then suddenly appear in the form of complications accompanied by cirrhosis or liver cancer. But more than 177 million people in the world have been diagnosed with HCV. The treatment that was used until 2013, combining injections of interferon and ribavirin, gave patients a chance of healing that did not exceed 40-50%. Moreover, it was accompanied by serious and painful side effects. The situation changed in the summer of 2013 after the US pharmaceutical giant Gilead Sciences patented the substance sofosbuvir, produced in the form of a drug under the Sovaldi brand, which included 400 mg of the drug. It was the first direct-acting antiviral drug (DAA) to combat HCV. The results of clinical trials of sofosbuvir pleased doctors with the effectiveness, which reached 85 ÷ 95% depending on the genotype, while the duration of the course of therapy was more than halved compared to treatment with interferons and ribavirin. And, although the pharmaceutical company Gilead patented sofosbuvir, it was synthesized in 2007 by Michael Sophia, an employee of Pharmasett, which was later acquired by Gilead Sciences. From Michael’s last name, the substance he synthesized was named sofosbuvir. Michael Sofia himself, together with a group of scientists who made a number of discoveries that revealed the nature of HCV, which made it possible to create an effective drug for its treatment, received the Lasker-DeBakey Award for Clinical Medical Research. Well, almost all of the profit from the sale of the new effective product went to Gilead, which set monopoly high prices for Sovaldi. Moreover, the company protected its development with a special patent, according to which Gilead and some of its partner companies became the owners of the exclusive right to manufacture the original DPP. As a result, Gilead's profits in just the first two years of sales of the drug many times covered all the costs that the company incurred to acquire Pharmasett, obtain a patent and subsequent clinical trials.What is Sofosbuvir?
The effectiveness of this drug in the fight against HCV has proven to be so high that now almost no treatment regimen can do without its use. Sofosbuvir is not recommended for use as monotherapy, but when used in combination it shows exceptionally good results. Initially, the drug was used in combination with ribavirin and interferon, which made it possible to achieve a cure in just 12 weeks in uncomplicated cases. And this despite the fact that therapy with interferon and ribavirin alone was half as effective, and its duration sometimes exceeded 40 weeks. After 2013, each subsequent year brought news of the emergence of more and more new drugs that successfully fight the hepatitis C virus:
- daclatasvir appeared in 2014;
- 2015 was the year of birth of ledipasvir;
- 2016 pleased with the creation of velpatasvir.
- Harvoni, combining sofosbuvir 400 mg and ledipasvir 90 mg;
- Epclusa, which included sofosbuvir 400 mg and velpatasvir 100 mg.
The emergence of generics
Clinical trials confirmed the effectiveness of the treatment, but all these highly effective drugs had one significant drawback - too high prices, which prevented the majority of patients from purchasing them. Monopoly high prices for products set by Gilead caused outrage and scandals, which forced patent holders to make certain concessions, granting some companies from India, Egypt and Pakistan licenses to produce analogues (generics) of such effective and popular drugs. Moreover, the fight against patent holders offering drugs for treatment at biasedly inflated prices was led by India, as a country where millions of chronic hepatitis C patients live. As a result of this struggle, Gilead issued licenses and patent developments to 11 Indian companies to independently produce first sofosbuvir, and then its other new drugs. Having received licenses, Indian manufacturers quickly began producing generics, assigning their own names to the drugs they produced. trade names. This is how generics Sovaldi first appeared, then Daklinza, Harvoni, Epclusa, and India became the world leader in their production. Indian manufacturers, under a licensing agreement, pay 7% of earnings to patent holders. But even with these payments, the cost of generics produced in India turned out to be tens of times less than the originals.Mechanisms of action
As already reported above, the new HCV therapy products that have emerged are classified as DAAs and act directly on the virus. Whereas interferon with ribavirin, previously used for treatment, strengthened the human immune system, helping the body resist the disease. Each substance acts on the virus in its own way:- Sofosbuvir blocks RNA polymerase, thereby inhibiting viral replication.
- Daclatasvir, ledipasvir and velpatasvir are NS5A inhibitors that interfere with the spread of viruses and their entry into healthy cells.
Manufacturers of generics from India
Pharmaceutical companies in the country have taken advantage of the licenses granted to them, and now India produces the following generic Sovaldi:- Hepcvir - manufactured by Cipla Ltd.;
- Hepcinat - Natco Pharma Ltd.;
- Cimivir - Biocon ltd. & Hetero Drugs Ltd.;
- MyHep is manufactured by Mylan Pharmaceuticals Private Ltd.;
- SoviHep - Zydus Heptiza Ltd.;
- Sofovir - manufactured by Hetero Drugs Ltd.;
- Resof - produced by Dr Reddy's Laboratories;
- Virso - produced by Strides Arcolab.
- Natdac from Natco Pharma;
- Dacihep by Zydus Heptiza;
- Daclahep from Hetero Drugs;
- Dactovin by Strides Arcolab;
- Daclawin from Biocon ltd. & Hetero Drugs Ltd.;
- Mydacla from Mylan Pharmaceuticals.
- Ledifos - released by Hetero;
- Hepcinat LP - Natco;
- Myhep LVIR - Mylan;
- Hepcvir L - Cipla Ltd.;
- Cimivir L - Biocon ltd. & Hetero Drugs Ltd.;
- LadyHep - Zydus.
- Velpanat was released by the pharmaceutical company Natco Pharma;
- the release of Velasof was mastered by Hetero Drugs;
- SoviHep V was launched by Zydus Heptiza.
Requirements for generics
A generic is a drug that is capable of pharmacological properties replace treatment with expensive original medicines with a patent. They can be produced either with or without a license; only its presence makes the produced analogue licensed. In case of issuing a license to Indian pharmaceutical companies, Gilead also provided the production technology for them, giving the license holders the right to independently pricing policy. In order for a drug analogue to be considered a generic, it must meet a number of parameters:- It is necessary to observe the ratio of the most important pharmaceutical components in the drug according to qualitative as well as quantitative standards.
- Compliance with relevant international standards should be adhered to.
- Proper production conditions are required.
- The preparations should maintain the appropriate equivalent absorption parameters.
Egyptian generics of sofosbuvir
Unlike India, Egyptian pharmaceutical companies have not become world leaders in the production of generic drugs for hepatitis C, although they have also mastered the production of sofosbuvir analogues. True, the bulk of the analogues they produce are unlicensed:- MPI Viropack, produces the drug Marcyrl Pharmaceutical Industries - one of the very first Egyptian generics;
- Heterosofir, produced by Pharmed Healthcare. Is the only licensed generic in Egypt. There is a code hidden on the packaging under the hologram that allows you to check the originality of the drug on the manufacturer’s website, thereby eliminating its counterfeit;
- Grateziano, manufactured by Pharco Pharmaceuticals;
- Sofolanork produced by Vimeo;
- Sofocivir, manufactured by ZetaPhar.
Generics to fight hepatitis from Bangladesh
Another country producing large volumes of generic anti-HCV drugs is Bangladesh. Moreover, this country does not even require licenses for the production of analogues of branded medicines, since until 2030 its pharmaceutical companies are allowed to produce such medications without having the appropriate licensing documents. The most famous and equipped last word technology is the pharmaceutical company Beacon Pharmaceuticals Ltd. Project production capacity it was created by European specialists and meets international standards. Beacon produces the following generics for the treatment of hepatitis C virus:- Soforal is a generic version of sofosbuvir, containing 400 mg of active substance. Unlike traditional packaging in bottles of 28 pieces, Soforal is produced in the form of blisters of 8 tablets in one plate;
- Daclavir is a generic version of daclatasvir, one tablet of the drug contains 60 mg of the active substance. It is also produced in the form of blisters, but each plate contains 10 tablets;
- Sofosvel is a generic version of Epclusa, containing sofosbuvir 400 mg and velpatasvir 100 mg. A pangenotypic (universal) drug, effective in the treatment of HCV genotypes 1 ÷ 6. And in this case, there is no usual packaging in bottles, the tablets are packaged in blisters of 6 pieces in each plate.
- Darvoni is a complex drug that combines sofosbuvir 400 mg and daclatasvir 60 mg. If it is necessary to combine sofosbuvir therapy with daklatasvir, using drugs from other manufacturers, you must take a tablet of each type. And Beacon combined them into one pill. Darvoni is packaged in blisters of 6 tablets in one plate and sent for export only.
Natco Pharma Ltd.
The most popular pharmaceutical company is Natco Pharma Ltd., whose drugs have saved the lives of several tens of thousands of people with chronic hepatitis C. It has mastered the production of almost the entire line of direct-acting antiviral drugs, including sofosbuvir with daclatasvir and ledipasvir with velpatasvir. Natco Pharma appeared in 1981 in Hyderabad with an initial capital of 3.3 million rupees, then the number of employees was 20 people. Now in India, 3.5 thousand people work at five Natco enterprises, and there are also branches in other countries. In addition to production units, the company has well-equipped laboratories that allow it to develop modern medications. Among her own developments, it is worth noting drugs to combat cancer. One of the most well-known drugs in this area is Veenat, produced since 2003 and used for leukemia. And the production of generics for the treatment of hepatitis C virus is a priority area of activity for Natco.Hetero Drugs Ltd.
This company has set its goal to produce generics, subordinating its own network of production facilities, including factories with branches and offices with laboratories. Hetero's production network is designed to produce medicines under licenses received by the company. One of its areas of activity is medications that help fight serious viral diseases, the treatment of which has become impossible for many patients due to the high cost of original drugs. The acquired license allows Hetero to quickly begin producing generics, which are then sold at a price affordable for patients. The creation of Hetero Drugs dates back to 1993. Over the past 24 years, a dozen factories and several dozen production units have appeared in India. The presence of its own laboratories allows the company to carry out experimental work on the synthesis of substances, which contributed to the expansion of the production base and the active export of drugs to foreign countries.Zydus Heptiza
Zydus is an Indian company that has set as its goal the creation of a healthy society, which, according to its owners, will be followed by a positive change in the quality of life of people. The goal is noble, and therefore, to achieve it, the company conducts active educational activities that affect the poorest segments of the country's population. Including through free vaccination of the population against hepatitis B. Zidus is in fourth place in terms of production volumes on the Indian pharmaceutical market. In addition, 16 of its drugs were included in the list of 300 most important drugs of the Indian pharmaceutical industry. Zydus products are in demand not only on the domestic market; they can be found in pharmacies in 43 countries on our planet. And the range of drugs produced at 7 enterprises exceeds 850 drugs. One of its most powerful production facilities is located in the state of Gujarat and is one of the largest not only in India, but also in Asia.HCV therapy 2017
Hepatitis C treatment regimens for each patient are selected by the doctor individually. To correctly, effectively and safely select a regimen, the doctor needs to know:- virus genotype;
- duration of illness;
- degree of liver damage;
- presence/absence of cirrhosis, concomitant infection (for example, HIV or other hepatitis), negative experience of previous treatment.
- Possible treatment regimens proposed by EASL in case of hepatitis C monoinfection or concomitant HIV+HCV infection in patients who do not have cirrhosis and have not previously been treated:
- for treatment genotypes 1a and 1b can be used:
- during therapy genotype 2 used without ribavirin for 12 weeks:
- during treatment genotype 3 without the use of ribavirin for a period of therapy of 12 weeks, use:
- during therapy genotype 4 You can use without ribavirin for 12 weeks:
- EASL recommended treatment regimens for hepatitis C monoinfection or concomitant HIV/HCV infection in patients with compensated cirrhosis who have not previously been treated:
- for treatment genotypes 1a and 1b can be used:
- during therapy genotype 2 apply:
- during treatment genotype 3 use:
- during therapy genotype 4 apply the same schemes as for genotypes 1a and 1b.
Treatment with modern drugs for HCV
Take tablets of direct antiviral drugs as prescribed by a doctor orally once a day. They are not divided into parts, not chewed, but washed down with plain water. It is best to do this at the same time, this way a constant concentration in the body is maintained. active substances. There is no need to be tied to the timing of meals, the main thing is not to do it on an empty stomach. When you start taking medications, pay attention to how you feel, since during this period it is easiest to notice possible side effects. DAAs themselves do not have very many of them, but drugs prescribed in combination have much less. Most often, side effects appear as:- headaches;
- vomiting and dizziness;
- general weakness;
- loss of appetite;
- joint pain;
- changes in biochemical blood parameters, expressed in low hemoglobin levels, a decrease in platelets and lymphocytes.
Contraindications
In some cases, taking DAAs is excluded, this applies to:- individual hypersensitivity of patients to certain drug ingredients;
- patients under 18 years of age, since there is no accurate data on their effect on the body;
- women carrying a fetus and breastfeeding babies;
- Women should use reliable methods of contraception to avoid conception during therapy. Moreover, this requirement also applies to women whose partners are also undergoing DAA therapy.
Storage
Store direct-acting antiviral drugs in places inaccessible to children and direct action sun rays. Storage temperature should be in the range of 15 ÷ 30ºС. When starting to take medications, check their production and storage dates indicated on the packaging. Expired medications should not be taken. How to purchase DAAs for residents of Russia Unfortunately, it will not be possible to find Indian generics in Russian pharmacies. The pharmaceutical company Gilead, having granted licenses to produce drugs, prudently banned their export to many countries. Including all European countries. Those wishing to purchase budget Indian generics to combat hepatitis C can use several options:- order them through Russian online pharmacies and receive the goods in a few hours (or days) depending on the delivery location. Moreover, in most cases, even an advance payment is not required;
- order them through Indian online stores with home delivery. Here you will need an advance payment in foreign currency, and the waiting time will last from three weeks to a month. Plus there will be the need to communicate with the seller on English language;
- go to India and bring the drug yourself. This will also take time, plus the language barrier, plus the difficulty of checking the originality of the product purchased at the pharmacy. Added to this is the problem of self-export, which requires a thermal container, a doctor’s report and a prescription in English, as well as a copy of the receipt.
A carrier of hepatitis C, after being diagnosed, tends to panic, believing that such a sentence is inevitable and that his whole life will now go downhill. But such people can live a full life if they follow certain rules. Many people wonder whether such a phenomenon is really dangerous for the wearer himself or for the people around him. It is worth understanding this concept, as well as various nuances that may arise in the life of the carrier.
The meaning of the term “carrier of Hepatitis C”
In medical and research practice, two types of carriage of hepatitis virus group “C” are noted:
- A carrier of antibodies that are stably resistant to the virus.
- The carrier of the bodies of the virus itself.
People of the first group have already suffered a dangerous liver disease, their body was able to overcome immune system virus cells. Antibodies that are resistant to the disease are precisely the components of human immunity. Therefore, these people cannot infect others with hepatitis. But people who have been diagnosed as carriers of the virus are dangerous to society - they can transmit the virus to others. But you shouldn’t think that their mere presence is dangerous; hepatitis is transmitted under certain conditions.
Carrier of hepatitis C - what does it mean? This means that a person has such virus bodies in himself, which in other people, when transferred to them from a carrier, provokes the onset and development of such a dangerous disease as Hepatitis C. Clinical picture disease may be absent. If it exists, then they are already talking about a patient with hepatitis, and not just a carrier. Thus, it can be argued that carriage is a kind of disease that may not manifest itself externally, but there is a danger of transmitting the pathogen to other people.
Asymptomatic or symptomatic carrier
Carriage of hepatitis C is a process within a person, which most often occurs in a latent (hidden) manner. not visible, the person feels fine (if he is not sick with anything else). Therefore, there is difficulty in identifying the pathogen. Then doctors, to remove their suspicions or confirm the alleged carrier state, prescribe special tests.
Lifespan of carriers
It should be understood that the liver disease virus is quite dynamic - it is constantly changing, including over time:
- 20-150 days - this is the fluctuation in the incubation period of the disease noted by doctors;
- 40-50 days – this incubation period is observed most often;
- 14 years after the discovery of a dormant virus, its cells can be activated;
- after 18 years, if the liver is not treated, cirrhosis occurs;
- after 23-38 carcinoma formation occurs and the liver may fail, leading to the death of the patient.
If a person is a carrier of the hepatitis C virus, then this does not affect his life expectancy until the virus is activated. And to prevent this from happening, a person needs to undergo a course of antivirological treatment, despite the fact that he is not yet considered a patient. Carriage should also be treated!
Is hepatitis C carriage a pathology, a disease?
Viral bodies are found in the blood of a human carrier in the following cases:
- during a medical examination;
- upon delivery;
- before surgery, when checking the blood;
- during pregnancy - when registering at the antenatal clinic, pregnant women undergo an ELISA test;
- as well as during routine examinations of sick or healthy people.
After the presence of viral cells in the blood is detected, specialists check their viability - the so-called state of the virus. The test allows doctors to understand to what extent the virus is in relapse, progression, or in remission, dormant, or preserved. Then, the presence of antibodies to such a virus is determined - the body’s ability to resist and gradually displace the virus. And only then will it be determined whether a person is a carrier of the hepatitis C virus, or whether he is already sick with this disease.
A complete examination of a patient or suspected carrier includes the following diagnostic procedures:
- taking a polymerase test chain reaction(PCR);
- biochemical analysis;
- carrying out a biopsy procedure - analysis at the cellular level with the collection of biological material for research;
- undergoing an ultrasound scan – examination, visualization of the liver;
- fibroscan.
The collection of biomaterial to study the condition of the liver is called a disposable probe. The most important analysis that directly detects the presence of virus bodies is PCR. The more particles found, the greater the risk that a person is contagious.
Is this type of carriage treatable?
To exclude the presence of a dangerous microbiological pathogen in yourself, you should undergo a whole course of antiviral therapy. If someone says: “I am a carrier of hepatitis C, and my chances of getting rid of it are zero!”, then he is deeply mistaken. To have a positive outlook. First you need to define - because, in fact, there are different genotypes of hepatitis C:
- Difficult to treat. The chances of eliminating the pathogen are 50%.
- Moderately curable. The ability to remove the virus from the body increases to 60-70%.
- Easily curable. You can free yourself from a terrible scourge in 90% of cases through qualified therapy.
To successfully cure hepatitis C, the patient has exactly 6 months. This is the time that is noted by doctors as the period when the infected person’s body has a better chance of fighting the virus. After six months, the body weakens in relation to virological attacks, so the disease has a risk of developing into chronic stage. If the question arises about whether a carrier of the hepatitis C virus can infect another person after treatment, then it all depends on whether the body has developed antibodies that can overcome the pathogen.
During treatment, doctors prescribe various antiviral drugs belonging to the liver group. For example, medications – Ribavirin, or – interferons. Antiviral therapy lasts 24-72 weeks. The doctor prescribes a set of medications and the intensity of use strictly in accordance with the genotype found in the virus.
Rules of caution for hepatitis C carriers
Each carrier must remember that there are some ways of infection, infecting other people with the virus. If a carrier diagnosis has already been made, then a person has responsibility to others, when interacting with people in society. The following precautions must be observed by the carrier of the virus:
- Others should not come into contact with his blood. This is especially true for the transfer of infected blood from a host’s wound to the wound of an uninfected person.
- Sex with a carrier of hepatitis C is also dangerous. You should use closed type– condoms.
- Personal belongings of an infected person cannot be carried. Particles of dead skin or sweat may contain cells of a dangerous pathogen.
- You cannot use personal items - toothbrush, razor, scissors, comb, knives, etc.
- Hugs, kisses and other close contacts cause infection. The mucosal substance also contains pathogenic bacteria.
- If you need to undergo dental treatment, then you should warn the doctor every time that the person is a carrier of the virus. The same goes for manicures, pedicures, and so on.
- Use only disposable instruments for examination by doctors.
Note! In addition to these rules, you should also inform all relatives and friends about your condition so that they understand the precautions that the carrier will have to take.
If the carrier is a pregnant woman
When the carrier is a pregnant woman, then she should also take care in order to protect her child as much as possible from infection. The danger is obvious - the hepatitis C virus is quite capable of penetrating the placenta and then being transmitted to the child. If a woman is only a carrier of the virus, then pathogenic cells can also be transmitted through the placenta to the fetus, and then it turns out that the child is also a carrier of hepatitis C. If carrier status is detected after the birth of the child, the woman, when breastfeeding, should ensure that there are no marks on the nipples. cracks
In approximately 80% of patients, hepatitis can become chronic if not treated correctly. untimely treatment, or lack thereof. A person’s danger to others arises when the presence of virological particles in the blood is detected as actively circulating along with the blood, not dormant. If antibodies are detected along with the presence of the virus, this does not mean that the danger has passed. You should calm down only when there are more antibodies than the presence of “dormant” virus bodies, or their absence.
