The first discoveries related to the work of electricity began in the 7th century BC. Philosopher Ancient Greece Thales of Miletus discovered that when amber is rubbed on wool, it is subsequently able to attract lightweight objects. “Electricity” is translated from Greek as “amber.” In 1820, André-Marie Ampère established the law of direct current. In the future, the magnitude of the current or what is measured electricity, began to be denoted in amperes.
Meaning of the term
The concept of electric current can be found in any physics textbook. Electric current- this is the ordered movement of electrically charged particles in a direction. To understand to the common man what electric current is, you should use an electrician’s dictionary. In it, the term stands for the movement of electrons through a conductor or ions through an electrolyte.
Depending on the movement of electrons or ions inside a conductor, the following are distinguished: 
types of currents:
- constant;
- variable;
- periodic or pulsating.
Basic measurement quantities
Electric current strength- the main indicator that electricians use in their work. The strength of the electric current depends on the amount of charge that flows through the electrical circuit over a set period of time. The greater the number of electrons flowing from one beginning of the source to the end, the greater the charge transferred by the electrons will be.
A quantity that is measured by the ratio of the electric charge flowing through the cross-section of particles in a conductor to the time of its passage. Charge is measured in coulombs, time is measured in seconds, and one unit of electrical flow is determined by the ratio of charge to time (coulomb to second) or amperes. Determination of the electric current (its strength) occurs by sequentially connecting two terminals in the electrical circuit.
When an electric current operates, the movement of charged particles is accomplished using an electric field and depends on the force of electron movement. The value on which the work of an electric current depends is called voltage and is determined by the ratio of the work of the current in a particular part of the circuit and the charge passing through the same part. The unit of measurement volts is measured by a voltmeter when two terminals of the device are connected to a circuit in parallel.
Magnitude electrical resistance has a direct dependence on the type of conductor used, its length and cross-section. It is measured in ohms.
Power is determined by the ratio of the work done by the movement of currents to the time when this work occurred. Power is measured in watts.
Such physical quantity, as capacitance, is determined by the ratio of the charge of one conductor to the potential difference between the same conductor and the neighboring one. The lower the voltage when conductors receive an electrical charge, the greater their capacity. It is measured in farads.
The amount of work done by electricity at a certain interval in the chain is found using the product of current, voltage and the time period during which the work was carried out. The latter is measured in joules. The operation of electric current is determined using a meter that connects the readings of all quantities, namely voltage, force and time.
Electrical Safety Techniques
Knowledge of electrical safety rules will help prevent emergency situation and protect human health and life. Since electricity tends to heat the conductor, there is always the possibility of a situation dangerous to health and life. To ensure safety at home must be adhered to the following simple but important rules:
- Network insulation must always be in good condition to avoid overloads or the possibility of short circuits.
- Moisture should not get on electrical appliances, wires, panels, etc. Also, a humid environment provokes short circuits.
- Be sure to ground all electrical devices.
- Avoid overloading electrical wiring as there is a risk of the wires catching fire.
Safety precautions when working with electricity involve the use of rubberized gloves, mittens, mats, discharge devices, grounding devices for work areas, circuit breakers or fuses with thermal and current protection.
Experienced electricians, when there is a possibility of electric shock, work with one hand, and the other is in their pocket. In this way, the hand-to-hand circuit is interrupted in the event of an involuntary touch to the shield or other grounded equipment. If equipment connected to the network catches fire, extinguish the fire exclusively with powder or carbon dioxide extinguishers.
Application of electric current
Electric current has many properties that allow it to be used in almost all areas of human activity. Ways to use electric current:
Electricity today is the most environmentally friendly clean look energy. In conditions modern economy the development of the electric power industry has planetary significance. In the future, if there is a shortage of raw materials, electricity will take a leading position as an inexhaustible source of energy.
Electrical and electromagnetic phenomena.
Option 1.Mandatory part.
1. How is electric charge designated? A)t; b)q; V)I; G)s;
2. A piece of silk was rubbed against the glass. Did one or both bodies become electrified? What charges appeared on the piece of silk and on the glass? A) Both, on silk - negative, and on glass - positive; b) both, on a piece of silk - positive. On the glass - negative; c) A piece of silk acquires a negative charge, but glass does not; d) only glass acquires a positive charge.
3. Determine the charge of the second body. A) negative; b) positive; c) 0
4. An atom consists of: a) protons and neutrons; b) electrons, protons c) neutrons and electrons; d) electrons and nuclei.
5 . What particles does the nucleus consist of? a) electrons and protons; b) protons and neutrons; c) electrons and neutrons;
c) molecules and electrons.
6. What electric charges do an electron and a proton have? a) electron - negative, proton - positive; b) electron - positive, proton - negative; c) electron and proton – positive; d) electron and proton - negative;
7. How many electrons are there in a neutral hydrogen atom? a)1; b) 2; at 3; d) 0;
8.What is electric current? a) Directed movement of charged particles; b) random movement of charged particles; c) directed movement of atoms; d) directed movement of molecules;
9. The current passing through the lamp filament is 0.3A, the voltage to the lamps is 6 V. What is the electrical resistance of the lamp filament? a) 2 Ohm; b) 1.8 Ohm; c) 20 Ohm; d) 0.5 Ohm;
10. How long should you take copper wire with a cross-sectional area of 0.5 mm 2 so that the resistance is 34 ohms?
11.What is the power of the electric current in an electric stove at a voltage of 200 V and a current of 2A?
a) 100 W; b) 400W; c) 0.01 W; d) 1 kW;
12. What physical quantity is calculated by the formula Q=I 2 R t? a) electric current power; b) the amount of heat released in a section of the electrical circuit; c) electric charge flowing in a circuit during timet; d) the amount of heat released per unit time.
13. Determine the cost of energy consumed when using the TV for 2 hours. The power of the TV is 100 W, and the cost of 1 kWh is 80 kopecks.
14. There is a steel magnet. If you cut in half between A and B, what magnetic property will end B have?
N A B S a) will be the north magnetic pole; b) will be the south magnetic pole;
c) will not have a magnetic field; d) first it will be northern, and then
south magnetic pole.
15. The figure shows a diagram of an electrical circuit. What is the total resistance of the circuit?
16. The length of the conductor was reduced by 2 times. How will the resistance change?
2 ohm conductor? a) will increase by 2 times; b) will decrease by 2 times; c) will not change
d) will decrease by 4 times;
17. Aluminum and copper wires have equal lengths and the same
cross-sectional area. Which wire has the greater resistance?
2 ohm a) aluminum conductor; b) copper; c) identical resistances;
G ) insufficient data, impossible to know
18. How will the current strength change in a section of the circuit if, with a constant resistance,
2 Ohm is it possible to increase the voltage at its ends by 2 times?
a) will decrease by 2 times; b) will increase by 2 times; c) will not change;
d) will decrease by 4 times;
. Additional part.
19. How are fuses switched on that turn off the apartment’s electrical network during overloads, in series or in parallel with electrical appliances switched on in the apartment? Justify the answer.
20. The total resistance of two lamps connected in series with a resistance of 15 Ohms each and a rheostat is 54 Ohms. Determine the resistance of the rheostat.
21.Calculate the current passing through a copper wire 100 m long and with a cross-sectional area of 0.5 mm 2 at a voltage of 6.8 V.
Electrical and electromagnetic phenomena. Option 11.
Mandatory part.1. In what units is charge (amount of electricity) measured? a) in Amperes; b) in Omakh;
B) in Volts; d) in Coulombs;
2 . Determine the charge of the second body. a) only positive;
b) only negative;
G ) may be negative or
+ ? positive; Nothing from it
Will not change.
3.An atom of which chemical element contains 15 electrons? a) oxygen; b) phosphorus; c) carbon; d) fluorine;
Which atom has a total charge of all electrons equal to q= - 1.6 10 -19 C? a) oxygen; b) nitrogen; c) hydrogen; d) iodine;
5..What electric charges do electrons and neutrons have? a) electron - negative, neutron - positive; b) electron - positive, neutron - negative; c) electron and neutron - negative; d) electron – negative, neutron has no charge.
6. What is the charge of the nucleus of a helium atom? a) +4; b) -4; c) +2; d) -2;
7. One electron was separated from the helium atom. What is the name of the resulting particle? What is its charge?
a) positive ion; b) negative ion; c) proton; d) neutron;
8. The direction of the current is taken to be: 1) the direction in which positive charges should move; 2) the direction in which negatively charged particles should move; 3) direction of electron movement; 4) direction from the positive pole of the source to the negative. a) 1; b) 2; at 3; d) 1 and 4;
9. What is the voltage in a section of an electrical circuit with a resistance of 20 Ohms when the current in the circuit is 2 A?
A) 40 V; b) 4 V; c) 10 V; d) 0.01 V;
10 .What is the resistance of an aluminum wire with a length of 80 cm and a cross-sectional area of 0.2 mm 2?
11. Two conductors made of copper have the same lengths, and the cross-sectional area of the first conductor is 2 times larger. Which conductor has more resistance? a) the resistances are the same; b) the first one has 2 times more; c) the first has 2 times less; d) the second has 4 times more;
12 . The voltage at the ends of the section was reduced by 4 times. How will the current change in this area? ? A) will not change;
b) will increase 4 times; c) will decrease by 4 times; d) will decrease by 2 times;
13. What formula is used to calculate the power of electric current? A) A = IU t;b) P =I t;V) Q =I 2
Rt;G)I = 
;
14. What amount of heat is released in a conductor with a resistance of 20 Ohms in 10 minutes when the current in the circuit is 2 A?
a) 480 kJ; b) 48 kJ; c) 24 kJ; d) 400 J;
15 . What is the unit of measurement for voltage called? A) Watt; b) Ampere; c) Volt; d) Joule;
16. The electrical circuit includes 4 electric lamps. 1
Which ones are included in series?
a) only 1 and 2; b) only 1 and 4; c) everything;
d) there are no lamps connected in series;
17. To one a needle was brought closer from the poles of the magnetic needle. 2
The pole of the arrow was attracted to the needle. Can this serve
proof that the needle was magnetized?
a) yes; b) no; 3
18. The rheostat is connected to the circuit as shown in the diagram. How will they
Ammeter readings change when the rheostat slider is moved
V 
right?
a) will increase;
b) will decrease;
c) will not change;
d) become equal to 0;
Additional part. 19. Aluminum and copper wires have equal masses and equal cross-sectional areas. Which wire has the greater resistance?
20. In a spiral of an electric heater made of nickel wire with a cross-sectional area of 0.1 mm 2, at a voltage of 220 V, the current is 4 A. What is the length of the wire that makes up the spiral? 
21. Why can’t you insert a metal object, such as a nail, into the cartridge instead of a blown fuse plug?
Electricity. (test No. 1)
1.
13 What is binding energy?
15 Law of conservation of charge.
28. What does resistivity show? Designation. Unit of measurement.
29. What is a resistor? Designation. What is a rheostat? What is the difference?
30 Formulate Ohm's law.
31 What is a short circuit?
Electricity. (test No. 1)
1. Are one or both bodies electrified by friction?
2. What two types of electric charges exist in nature?
3. What is the name of the unit of charge?
4. What substances are called conductors? Dielectrics? What is grounding? What property is it based on?
5. Is it possible to reduce the charge indefinitely?
6. What charge is called elementary?
7. Who discovered the electron and when? How is an electron charged?
8 Who discovered the structure of the atom and when? How is an atom structured?
9.What is the difference between alpha rays, beta rays, and gamma rays?
10. How do different atoms differ from each other? chemical elements?
11. What are positive and negative ions?
12.What particles does the atomic nucleus consist of?
13 What is binding energy?
14.What charged particles carry charge along a conductor? (metal)
15 Law of conservation of charge.
16. What is an electric field?
17. List the main properties of the electric field.
18. In what case does an electric field increase the speed of a particle and in what case does it decrease it?
19. What is electric current? What conditions are necessary for the existence of current?
20 List the effects of electric current.
21. Current source. Who and when invented the first current source?
22. What does an electrical circuit consist of?
23. Which direction is chosen as the direction of the current?
24.What is current strength? Formula. Unit of measurement. What is the name of the device for measuring current? How is an ammeter connected to a circuit?
25. What is electrical voltage? Designation. Unit of measurement. Formula.
26.What is the name of the device for measuring voltage? How is a voltmeter connected to a circuit?
27. What characterizes and how is electrical resistance designated? Formula. Unit of measurement?
Represents an electrical installation. What it is the source current, A What ...
What is electric current
Directed movement of electrically charged particles under the influence of . Such particles can be: in conductors – electrons, in electrolytes – ions (cations and anions), in semiconductors – electrons and so-called “holes” (“electron-hole conductivity”). There is also a “bias current”, the flow of which is due to the process of charging the capacitance, i.e. changing the potential difference between the plates. There is no movement of particles between the plates, but current flows through the capacitor.
In theory electrical circuits Current is considered to be the directional movement of charge carriers in a conducting medium under the influence of an electric field.
Conduction current (simply current) in the theory of electrical circuits is the amount of electricity flowing per unit time through the cross section of a conductor: i=q/t, where i is current. A; q = 1.6·10 9 - electron charge, C; t - time, s.
This expression is valid for DC circuits. For alternating current circuits, the so-called instantaneous current value is used, equal to the rate of change of charge over time: i(t)= dq/dt.
Electric current occurs when an electric field, or potential difference, appears in a section of an electrical circuit between two points of a conductor. The potential difference between two points is called voltage or voltage drop in this section of the circuit.
Instead of the term “current” (“current magnitude”), the term “current strength” is often used. However, the latter cannot be called successful, since the current strength is not any force in the literal sense of the word, but only the intensity of the movement of electrical charges in the conductor, the amount of electricity passing per unit time through the cross-sectional area of the conductor.
Current is characterized by , which in the SI system is measured in amperes (A), and by current density, which in the SI system is measured in amperes per square meter.
One ampere corresponds to the movement of a charge of electricity equal to one coulomb (C) through the cross-section of a conductor for one second (s):
1A = 1C/s.
In the general case, denoting the current by the letter i and the charge by q, we obtain:
i = dq / dt.
The unit of current is called ampere (A). The current in a conductor is 1 A if an electric charge equal to 1 coulomb passes through the cross-section of the conductor in 1 second.
If a voltage is applied along a conductor, an electric field arises inside the conductor. At field strength E, electrons with charge e are acted upon by a force f = Ee. The quantities f and E are vector. During the free path time, electrons acquire directional motion along with chaotic motion. Each electron has negative charge and receives a velocity component directed opposite to vector E (Fig. 1). Ordered motion, characterized by a certain average electron speed vcp, determines the flow of electric current.
Electrons can have directed motion in rarefied gases. In electrolytes and ionized gases, the flow of current is mainly due to the movement of ions. In accordance with the fact that in electrolytes positively charged ions move from the positive pole to the negative, historically the direction of current was taken to be opposite to the direction of electron movement.
The direction of the current is taken to be the direction in which positively charged particles move, i.e. the direction opposite to the movement of electrons.
In the theory of electrical circuits, the direction of current in a passive circuit (outside energy sources) is taken to be the direction of movement of positively charged particles from a higher potential to a lower one. This direction was adopted at the very beginning of the development of electrical engineering and contradicts the true direction of movement of charge carriers - electrons moving in conducting media from minus to plus.
The value equal to the ratio of the current to the cross-sectional area S is called the current density (denoted by δ): δ= I/S
It is assumed that the current is evenly distributed over the cross-section of the conductor. Current density in wires is usually measured in A/mm2.
According to the type of electric charge carriers and the medium of their movement, they are distinguished conduction currents and displacement currents. Conductivity is divided into electronic and ionic. For steady-state conditions, two types of currents are distinguished: direct and alternating.
Electric current transfer call the phenomenon of transfer of electric charges by charged particles or bodies moving in free space. The main type of electric transfer current is the movement in the void of elementary particles with a charge (the movement of free electrons in electron tubes), the movement of free ions in gas-discharge devices.
Electric displacement current (polarization current) called the ordered movement of bound carriers of electric charges. This type of current can be observed in dielectrics.
Total electric current- scalar quantity, equal to the sum electric conduction current, electric transfer current and electric displacement current through the surface in question.
Constant is a current that can vary in magnitude, but does not change its sign arbitrarily. for a long time. Read more about this here:
An alternating current is a current that periodically changes both in magnitude and sign.The quantity characterizing alternating current is frequency (measured in hertz in the SI system), in the case when its strength changes periodically. High frequency alternating current is forced onto the surface of the conductor. High frequency currents are used in mechanical engineering for heat treatment of surfaces of parts and welding, and in metallurgy for melting metals.Alternating currents are divided into sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal. A current that varies according to a harmonic law is called sinusoidal:
i = Im sin ωt,
The rate of change of alternating current is characterized by it, defined as the number of complete repeating oscillations per unit time. Frequency is designated by the letter f and is measured in hertz (Hz). Thus, a current frequency in a network of 50 Hz corresponds to 50 complete oscillations per second. Angular frequency ω is the rate of change of current in radians per second and is related to frequency by a simple relation:
ω = 2πf
Steady (fixed) values of direct and alternating currents denote by the capital letter I unsteady (instantaneous) values - the letter i. Conventionally, the positive direction of current is considered to be the direction of movement of positive charges.
This is a current that changes according to the sine law over time.
Alternating current also refers to current in conventional single- and three-phase networks. In this case, the alternating current parameters change according to a harmonic law.
Since alternating current varies over time, simple ways solutions to problems suitable for DC circuits are not directly applicable here. At very high frequencies, charges can undergo oscillatory motion - flow from one place in the circuit to another and back. In this case, unlike direct current circuits, the currents in series-connected conductors may not be the same. Capacitances present in AC circuits enhance this effect. In addition, when the current changes, self-induction effects occur, which become significant even at low frequencies if coils with high inductance are used. At relatively low frequencies, AC circuits can still be calculated using , which, however, must be modified accordingly.
A circuit that includes various resistors, inductors, and capacitors can be treated as if it consists of a generalized resistor, capacitor, and inductor connected in series.
Let's consider the properties of such a circuit connected to a sinusoidal alternating current generator. To formulate rules for calculating AC circuits, you need to find the relationship between voltage drop and current for each of the components of such a circuit.
Plays completely different roles in AC and DC circuits. If, for example, an electrochemical element is connected to the circuit, the capacitor will begin to charge until the voltage across it becomes equal to EMF element. Then charging will stop and the current will drop to zero. If the circuit is connected to an alternating current generator, then in one half-cycle electrons will flow out of the left plate of the capacitor and accumulate on the right, and in the other - vice versa. These moving electrons represent alternating current, the strength of which is the same on both sides of the capacitor. As long as the frequency of the alternating current is not very high, the current through the resistor and inductor is also the same.
In AC consuming devices, AC current is often rectified by rectifiers to produce DC current.
Conductors of electric current
The material in which current flows is called. Some materials low temperatures go into a state of superconductivity. In this state, they offer almost no resistance to current; their resistance tends to zero. In all other cases, the conductor resists the flow of current and, as a result, part of the energy of the electrical particles is converted into heat. The current strength can be calculated using the circuit section and Ohm's law for the complete circuit.
The speed of movement of particles in conductors depends on the material of the conductor, the mass and charge of the particle, the surrounding temperature, the applied potential difference and is much less than the speed of light. Despite this, the speed of propagation of the electric current itself is equal to the speed of light in a given medium, that is, the speed of propagation of the electromagnetic wave front.
How does current affect the human body?
Current passed through the body of a person or animal can cause electrical burns, fibrillation or death. On the other hand, electric current is used in intensive care, for treatment mental illness, especially depression, electrical stimulation of certain areas of the brain is used to treat diseases such as Parkinson's disease and epilepsy, a pacemaker that stimulates the heart muscle with a pulsed current is used for bradycardia. In humans and animals, current is used to transmit nerve impulses.
According to safety regulations, the minimum human-perceivable current is 1 mA. The current becomes dangerous to human life starting from a force of approximately 0.01 A. The current becomes fatal to a person starting from a force of approximately 0.1 A. A voltage of less than 42 V is considered safe.
What do we really know about electricity today? According to modern views a lot, but if we delve into the essence of this issue in more detail, it turns out that humanity widely uses electricity without understanding the true nature of this important physical phenomenon.
The purpose of this article is not to refute the achieved scientific and technical applied results of research in the field of electrical phenomena, which are widely used in everyday life and industry of modern society. But humanity is constantly faced with a number of phenomena and paradoxes that do not fit into the framework of modern theoretical concepts regarding electrical phenomena - this indicates a lack of complete understanding of the physics of this phenomenon.
Also, today science knows facts when seemingly studied substances and materials exhibit anomalous conductivity properties ( ) .
The phenomenon of superconductivity of materials also does not have a completely satisfactory theory at present. There is only an assumption that superconductivity is quantum phenomenon , which is studied by quantum mechanics. Upon careful study of the basic equations of quantum mechanics: the Schrödinger equation, the von Neumann equation, the Lindblad equation, the Heisenberg equation and the Pauli equation, their inconsistency will become obvious. The fact is that the Schrödinger equation is not derived, but is postulated by the method of analogy with classical optics, based on a generalization of experimental data. The Pauli equation describes the motion of a charged particle with spin 1/2 (for example, an electron) in an external electromagnetic field, but the concept of spin is not associated with the real rotation of an elementary particle, and with respect to spin it is postulated that there is a space of states that are in no way related to the movement of an elementary particle particles in ordinary space.
In Anastasia Novykh’s book “Ezoosmos” there is a mention of the inconsistency of quantum theory: “But the quantum mechanical theory of the structure of the atom, which considers the atom as a system of microparticles that do not obey the laws of classical mechanics, absolutely not relevant . At first glance, the arguments of the German physicist Heisenberg and the Austrian physicist Schrödinger seem convincing to people, but if all this is considered from a different point of view, then their conclusions are only partly correct, and in general, both are completely wrong. The fact is that the first described the electron as a particle, and the other as a wave. By the way, the principle of wave-particle duality is also irrelevant, since it does not reveal the transition of a particle into a wave and vice versa. That is, the learned gentlemen turn out to be somewhat skimpy. In fact, everything is very simple. In general, I want to say that the physics of the future is very simple and understandable. The main thing is to live to see this future. As for the electron, it becomes a wave only in two cases. The first is when the external charge is lost, that is, when the electron does not interact with other material objects, say with the same atom. The second, in a pre-osmic state, that is, when its internal potential decreases."
The same electrical impulses generated by neurons nervous system human, support the active complex diverse functioning of the body. It is interesting to note that the cell's action potential (an excitation wave moving along the membrane of a living cell in the form of a short-term change in the membrane potential in a small area of the excitable cell) is in a certain range (Fig. 1).
The lower limit of the action potential of a neuron is at the level of -75 mV, which is very close to the value of the redox potential of human blood. If we analyze the maximum and minimum value of the action potential relative to zero, then it is very close to the rounded percentage meaning golden ratio , i.e. division of the interval in the ratio of 62% and 38%:
\(\Delta = 75 mV+40 mV = 115 mV\)
115 mV / 100% = 75 mV / x 1 or 115 mV / 100% = 40 mV / x 2
x 1 = 65.2%, x 2 = 34.8%
Everyone, famous modern science, substances and materials conduct electricity to one degree or another, since they contain electrons consisting of 13 phantom Po particles, which, in turn, are septonic bunches (“PRIMORDIAL ALLATRA PHYSICS” p. 61). The only question is the voltage of the electric current that is necessary to overcome the electrical resistance.
Since electrical phenomena are closely related to the electron, the report “PRIMODIUM ALLATRA PHYSICS” provides the following information regarding this important elementary particle: “The electron is an integral part of the atom, one of the main structural elements of matter. Electrons form the electron shells of the atoms of all chemical elements known today. They participate in almost all electrical phenomena that scientists are aware of today. But what electricity actually is, official science still cannot explain, limiting itself to general phrases that it is, for example, “a set of phenomena caused by the existence, movement and interaction of charged bodies or particles of electrical charge carriers.” It is known that electricity is not a continuous flow, but is transferred in portions - discretely».
According to modern ideas: “ electricity “is a set of phenomena caused by the existence, interaction and movement of electric charges.” But what is electric charge?
Electric charge (amount of electricity) is a physical scalar quantity (a quantity, each value of which can be expressed by one real number) that determines the ability of bodies to be a source of electromagnetic fields and to take part in electromagnetic interaction. Electric charges are divided into positive and negative (this choice is considered purely arbitrary in science and a very specific sign is assigned to each charge). Bodies charged with a charge of the same sign repel, and those with opposite charges attract. When charged bodies move (both macroscopic bodies and microscopic charged particles carrying electric current in conductors), a magnetic field arises and phenomena occur that make it possible to establish the relationship between electricity and magnetism (electromagnetism).
Electrodynamics studies the electromagnetic field in the most general case (that is, it considers variable fields, depending on time) and its interaction with bodies having an electric charge. Classical electrodynamics takes into account only the continuous properties of electrodynamics. magnetic field.
Quantum electrodynamics studies electromagnetic fields, which have discontinuous (discrete) properties, the carriers of which are field quanta - photons. Interaction electromagnetic radiation with charged particles is considered in quantum electrodynamics as the absorption and emission of photons by particles.
It is worth thinking about why a magnetic field appears around a conductor with current, or around an atom in whose orbits electrons move? The fact is that " what is called electricity today is actually a special state of the septon field , in the processes of which the electron in most cases takes part along with its other additional “components” "("PRIMODIUM ALLATRA PHYSICS" p. 90).
And the toroidal shape of the magnetic field is determined by the nature of its origin. As the article says: “Taking into account the fractal patterns in the Universe, as well as the fact that the septon field in the material world within 6 dimensions is the fundamental, unified field on which all interactions known to modern science are based, it can be argued that they all also have the form Torah. And this statement may be of particular scientific interest to modern researchers.". Therefore, the electromagnetic field will always take the form of a torus, like the torus of a septon.
Let's consider a spiral through which electric current flows and how exactly its electromagnetic field is formed ( https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0BgV-ST478M).
Rice. 2. Field lines of a rectangular magnet
Rice. 3. Field lines of a spiral with current
Rice. 4. Field lines of individual sections of the spiral
Rice. 5. Analogy between the field lines of a spiral and atoms with orbital electrons
Rice. 6. A separate fragment of a spiral and an atom with lines of force
CONCLUSION: humanity has yet to learn the secrets of the mysterious phenomenon of electricity.
Peter Totov
Keywords: PRIMORDIAL ALLATRA PHYSICS, electric current, electricity, nature of electricity, electric charge, electromagnetic field, quantum mechanics, electron.
Literature:
New ones. A., Ezoosmos, K.: LOTOS, 2013. - 312 p. http://schambala.com.ua/book/ezoosmos
Report “PRIMODIUM ALLATRA PHYSICS” by an international group of scientists of the International Social Movement “ALLATRA”, ed. Anastasia Novykh, 2015;
This article shows that in modern physics the idea of electric current is mythologized and has no evidence of its modern interpretation.
From the standpoint of etherodynamics, the concept of electric current as a flow of photon gas and the conditions for its existence are substantiated.
Introduction. In the history of science, the 19th century was called the century of electricity. The amazing 19th century, which laid the foundations for the scientific and technological revolution that so changed the world, began with a galvanic cell - the first battery, a chemical source of current (voltaic column) and the discovery of electric current. Electric current research was carried out on a large scale in the early years of the 19th century. gave impetus to the penetration of electricity into all spheres of human life. Modern life is unthinkable without radio and television, telephone, smartphone and computer, all kinds of lighting and heating devices, machines and devices based on the possibility of using electric current.
However, the widespread use of electricity from the first days of the discovery of electric current is in deep contradiction with its theoretical justification. Neither 19th century nor modern physics can answer the question: what is electric current? For example, in the following statement from Encyclopedia Britannica:
“The question: “What is electricity?”, like the question: “What is matter?”, lies outside the sphere of physics and belongs to the sphere of metaphysics.”
The first widely known experiments with electric current were carried out by the Italian physicist Galvani at the end of the 18th century. Another Italian physicist Volta created the first device capable of producing a long-term electric current - a galvanic cell. Volta showed that the contact of dissimilar metals leads them to an electrical state and that from the addition of a liquid that conducts electricity to them, a direct flow of electricity is formed. The current resulting in this case is called galvanic current and the phenomenon itself is called galvanism. At the same time, current in Volta’s view is the movement of electrical fluids - fluids.
A significant shift in understanding the essence of electric current was made
M. Faraday. They proved the identity individual species electricity coming from various sources. The most important works were experiments in electrolysis. The discovery was taken as one proof that moving electricity is virtually identical to electricity caused by friction, i.e. static electricity. His series of ingenious experiments on electrolysis served as convincing confirmation of the idea, the essence of which boils down to the following: if a substance by its nature has an atomic structure, then in the process of electrolysis each atom receives a certain amount of electricity.
In 1874, the Irish physicist J. Stoney (Stoney) gave a talk in Belfast in which he used Faraday's laws of electrolysis as the basis for the atomic theory of electricity. Based on the total charge passing through the electrolyte and a rather rough estimate of the number of hydrogen atoms released at the cathode, Stoney obtained for elementary charge a number of the order of 10 -20 C (in modern units). This report was not fully published until 1881, when a German scientist
G. Helmholtz noted in one of his lectures in London that if one accepts the hypothesis of the atomic structure of elements, one cannot help but come to the conclusion that electricity is also divided into elementary portions or “atoms of electricity.” This conclusion of Helmholtz essentially followed from Faraday's results on electrolysis and was reminiscent of Faraday's own statement. Faraday's studies of electrolysis played a fundamental role in the development of electronic theory.
In 1891, Stoney, who supported the idea that Faraday's laws of electrolysis meant the existence of a natural unit of charge, coined the term "electron".
However, soon the term electron, introduced by Stone, loses its original essence. In 1892 H. Lorentz forms his own theory of electrons. According to him, electricity arises from the movement of tiny charged particles - positive and negative electrons.
At the end of the 19th century. The electronic theory of conductivity began to develop. The beginning of the theory was given in 1900 by the German physicist Paul Drude. Drude's theory was included in physics courses under the name of the classical theory of electrical conductivity of metals. In this theory, electrons are likened to atoms of an ideal gas that fills crystal lattice metal, and the electric current is represented as a flow of this electron gas.
After the presentation of Rutherford's model of the atom, a series of measurements of the value of the elementary charge in the 20s of the twentieth century. In physics, the idea of electric current as a flow of free electrons, the structural elements of an atom of matter, was finally formed.
However, the free electron model turned out to be untenable in explaining the essence of electric current in liquid electrolytes, gases and semiconductors. To support the existing theory of electric current, new electric charge carriers were introduced - ions and holes.
Based on the above, a concept that is final by modern standards has been formed in modern physics: electric current is the directed movement of electric charge carriers (electrons, ions, holes, etc.).
The direction of the electric current is taken to be the direction of movement of positive charges; if the current is created by negatively charged particles (for example, electrons), then the direction of the current is considered opposite to the movement of the particles.
Electric current is called constant if the strength of the current and its direction do not change over time. For the occurrence and maintenance of current in any medium, two conditions must be met: - the presence of free electric charges in the medium; — creation of an electric field in the medium.
However, this representation of electric current turned out to be untenable in describing the phenomenon of superconductivity. In addition, as it turned out, there are many contradictions in the specified representation of electric current when describing the functioning of almost all types of electronic devices. The need to interpret the concept of electric current in different conditions and in different types electronic devices on the one hand, as well as a lack of understanding of the essence of electric current on the other, forced modern physics to make an electron, the carrier of an electric charge, a “figaro” (“free”, “fast”, “knocked out”, “emitted”, “braking”, “relativistic”, “photo”, “thermal”, etc.), which finally raised the question “ what is electric current? to a dead end.
The significance of the theoretical representation of electric current in modern conditions has grown significantly not only due to the widespread use of electricity in human life, but also due to the high cost and technical feasibility, for example, scientific megaprojects implemented by all developed countries of the world, in which the concept of electric current plays a significant role.
Ethereal dynamic concept of representing electric current. From the above definition it follows that electric current is directional movement electric charge carriers. Obviously, revealing the physical essence of electric current lies in solving the problem of the physical essence of electric charge and what is the carrier of this charge.
The problem of the physical essence of electric charge is an unsolved problem, both by classical physics and modern quantum physics throughout the history of the development of electricity. The solution to this problem turned out to be possible only using the methodology of etherodynamics, a new concept in physics of the 21st century.
According to the etherodynamic definition: electric charge is a measure of the movement of the flow of ether... . Electric charge is a property inherent in all elementary particles and nothing more. Electric charge is a quantity with a definite sign, that is, it is always positive.
From the indicated physical essence of the electric charge it follows that the above definition of electric current is incorrect in terms of the fact that ions, holes, etc. cannot be the cause of electric current due to the fact that they are not carriers of electric charge, since they are not elements of the organizational level of physical matter - elementary particles (according to the definition).
Electrons, as elementary particles, have an electric charge, however, according to the definition: are one of the basic structural units of matter, formelectronic shells atoms , the structure of which determines most optical, electrical, magnetic, mechanical andchemical properties substances, cannot be mobile (free) carriers of electric charge. The free electron is a myth created by modern physics to interpret the concept of electric current, which does not have any practical or theoretical proof. It is obvious that as soon as a “free” electron leaves an atom of a substance, forming an electric current, changes must certainly occur physical and chemical properties this substance (according to definition), which is not observed in nature. This assumption was confirmed by the experiments of the German physicist Karl Viktor Eduard Rikke: “the passage of current through metals (conductors of the first kind) is not accompanied by a chemical change in them.” Currently, the dependence of the physicochemical properties of a substance on the presence of one or another electron in an atom of a substance has been well studied and confirmed experimentally, for example, in the work.
There is also a reference to experiments performed for the first time in 1912 by L. I. Mandelstam and N. D. Papaleksi, but not published by them. Four years later (1916), R. C. Tolman and T. D. Stewart published the results of their experiments, which turned out to be similar to the experiments of Mandelstam and Papaleksi. In modern physics, these experiments serve as direct confirmation that free electrons should be considered carriers of electricity in a metal.
In order to understand the incorrectness of these experiments, it is enough to consider the diagram and methodology of the experiment, in which an inductance coil was used as a conductor, which spun around its axis and stopped abruptly. The coil was connected using sliding contacts to a galvanometer, which recorded the occurrence of inertial emf. In fact, we can say that in this experiment the role of external forces creating EMF was played by the force of inertia, i.e. if there are free charge carriers in the metal that have mass, then They must obeylaw of inertia . Statement " They must obeylaw of inertia ” erroneous in the sense that, according to the level approach to the organization of physical matter, electrons, as elements of the “elementary particles” level, obey only the laws of electro- and gas dynamics, i.e., the laws of mechanics (Newton) are not applicable to them.
To make this assumption convincing, let’s consider the well-known problem 3.1: calculate the ratio of electrostatic (Fe) and gravitational (Fgr) interaction forces between two electrons and between two protons.
Solution: for electrons Fe / Fgr = 4·10 42, for protons Fe / Fgr = 1.24·10 36, i.e. the influence of gravitational forces is so small that it is not necessary to take them into account. This statement is also true for inertial forces.
This means that the expression for the emf (proposed by R. C. Tolman and T. D. Stewart), based on its definition in terms of external forces Fstore, acting on charges inside a conductor subjected to braking:
ε = 1/e ∫F store∙dl,
incorrect in its formulation, due to the fact that Fstore → 0.
However, as a result of the experiment, a short-term deviation of the galvanometer needle was observed, which requires explanation. To understand this process, you should pay attention to the galvanometer itself, for which the so-called ballistic galvanometer was used. Its instructions for use have this option.
A ballistic galvanometer can be used as a webermeter (i.e., measure magnetic flux through a closed conductor, such as a coil), to do this, an inductive coil is connected to the contacts of the ballistic galvanometer, which is placed in a magnetic field. If after this you sharply remove the coil from the magnetic field or turn it so that the axis of the coil is perpendicular to the field lines, then you can measure the charge passed through the coil due to electromagnetic induction, because the change in magnetic flux is proportional to the charge passed through; by calibrating the galvanometer accordingly, it is possible to determine the change in flux in Webers.
From the above it is obvious that the use of a ballistic galvanometer as a webermeter corresponds to the method of experiment of R. C. Tolman and T. D. Stewart in observing inertial current in metals. The question remains open about the source of the magnetic field, which, for example, could be the Earth's magnetic field. The influence of an external magnetic field was not taken into account or studied by R. C. Tolman and T. D. Stewart, which led to the mythologization of the results of the experiment.
The essence of electric current. From the above it follows that the answer to the question, what is electric current? is also a solution to the problem of electric charge carrier. Based on existing concepts of this problem, it is possible to formulate a number of requirements that the electric charge carrier must satisfy. Namely: the carrier of the electric charge must be an elementary particle; the electrical charge carrier must be a free and long-lived element; The electric charge carrier must not destroy the structure of the atom of the substance.
Not complex analysis existing facts allows us to conclude that the above requirements are satisfied by only one element of the “elementary particles” level of physical matter: an elementary particle - photon.
The combination of photons together with the medium (ether) in which they exist form a photon gas.
Taking into account the physical essence of the photon and the above information, we can give the following definition:
Electric current is a flow of photon gas designed to transfer energy.
To understand the mechanism of movement of electric current, consider the well-known model of methane gas transportation. Simply put, it includes a main pipeline that delivers methane gas from a gas field to the place of consumption. To move methane gas through the main pipeline, the following condition must be met: the pressure of methane gas at the beginning of the pipeline must be greater than the pressure of methane gas at its end.
By analogy with the transportation of methane gas, let us consider a diagram of the movement of electric current, consisting of a battery (electric current source) having two contacts “+” and “-“ and a conductor. If we connect a metal conductor to the battery contacts, we get a model of the movement of electric current, similar to the transportation of methane gas.
The condition for the existence of an electric current in a conductor, by analogy with the model of methane gas transportation, is the presence of: a source (gas) high blood pressure, i.e. a source of high concentration of electric charge carriers; pipeline - conductor; gas consumer, i.e., an element that provides a decrease in gas pressure, i.e., an element (drain) that provides a decrease in the concentration of electric charge carriers.
The difference between electrical circuits and gas, hydro, etc. is that the source and drain are structurally implemented in one unit (chemical current source - battery, electric generator, etc.). The mechanism for the flow of electric current is as follows: after connecting the conductor to a battery, for example, a chemical current source, in the “+” contact area (anode) occurs chemical reaction reduction, as a result of which photons are generated, i.e., a zone of increased concentration of electric charge carriers is formed. At the same time, in the “-“ (cathode) contact zone, under the influence of photons that find themselves in this zone as a result of flow through the conductor, an oxidation reaction (photon consumption) occurs, i.e., a zone of reduced concentration of electric charge carriers is formed. Electric charge carriers (photons) move from a zone of high concentration (source) along a conductor to a zone of low concentration (sink). Thus, the external force or electromotive force (EMF) that provides electric current in the circuit is the difference in the concentration (pressure) of electric charge carriers (photons), resulting from the operation of chemical current sources.
This circumstance once again emphasizes the validity of the main conclusion of energy dynamics, according to which force fields(including the electric field) is created not by masses, charges and currents themselves, but by their uneven distribution in space.
Based on the considered essence of electric current, the absurdity of the experiment of R. C. Tolman and T. D. Stewart in observing inertial current in metals is obvious. There is currently no method for generating photons by changing the speed of mechanical movement of any macroscopic body in nature.
An interesting aspect of the above representation of electric current is its comparison with the representation of the concept of “light”, discussed in the work: light is a stream of photon gas... . This comparison allows us to conclude: light is an electric current. The difference in these concepts lies only in the spectral composition of the photons that form light or electric current, for example, in metal conductors. For a more convincing understanding of this circumstance, consider a circuit for generating electric current using a solar battery. Flow sunlight(photons in the visible range) from the source (the sun) reaches the solar battery, which converts the incident light flux into an electric current (photon flux), which is supplied to the consumer (drain) through a metal conductor. IN in this case solar battery acts as a converter of the spectrum of the photon flux emitted by the sun into the spectrum of photons of electric current in a metal conductor.
conclusions. There is no evidence in modern physics that electric current is the directed movement of electrons or any other particles. On the contrary, modern ideas about the electron, electric charge and Riecke's experiments show the fallacy of this concept of electric current.
Justification of the set of requirements for the carrier of electric charge, taking into account its ether-dynamic essence, made it possible to establish that electric current it is a stream of photon gas designed to transfer energy.
The movement of electric current is carried out from an area of high photon concentration (source) to an area of low concentration (drain).
For the generation and maintenance of current in any medium, three conditions must be met: maintenance (generation) of a high concentration of photons in the source area, the presence of a conductor that ensures the flow of photons, and the creation of a photon consumption zone in the drain area.
Electricity Electron.
Lyamin V.S. , Lyamin D. V. Lvov
