Introduction
1. Thinkers of Ancient China
The Three Greatest Thinkers of Ancient China
2.1 Lao Tzu
2 Confucius
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
China is a country of ancient history, culture, philosophy.
Ancient China arose on the basis of Neolithic cultures that developed in the 5-3 millennia BC. in the middle reaches of the Yellow River. The Yellow River basin became the main territory for the formation of the ancient civilization of China, which for a long time developed in conditions of relative isolation. Only from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. NS. the process of expansion of the territory begins, in a southern direction, first to the area of the Yangtze basin, and then further south.
On the verge of our era, the state of Ancient China extends far beyond the Yellow He basin, although the northern border of the ethnic territory of the ancient Chinese remains almost unchanged.
Ancient Chinese class society and statehood was formed somewhat later than the ancient civilizations of Ancient Western Asia, but nevertheless, after their emergence, they begin to develop at a fairly rapid pace and high forms of economic, political and cultural life are created in Ancient China, which lead to the formation of the original socio-political and cultural system.
Chinese philosophy is part of Eastern philosophy. Its influence on the cultures of China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam and Taiwan is tantamount to the influence of ancient Greek philosophy on Europe. Thus, the relevance of the topic lies in the fact that the thinkers of Ancient China left their mark on history, whose experience is being used today.
The purpose of this work: to study the greatest thinkers of Ancient China and describe the main provisions of their teachings.
... Thinkers of Ancient China
The religions of China have never existed in the form of a rigidly centralized “church”. The traditional religion of ancient China was a mixture of local beliefs and ceremonies, united into a single whole by the universal theoretical constructions of pundits.
Nevertheless, both among the educated strata of the population and among the peasants, three great schools of thought We are often referred to as the three religions of China: Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism. All these teachings are more philosophical than religious, in contrast to ancient Indian philosophy, which has always been closely associated with religious tradition.
Ancient Chinese philosophy arose around the middle of the 1st millennium BC. The ideas that formed the basis of philosophy were formed in the monuments of the ancient Chinese literary tradition, such as "Shu jing" ("Book of documentary scriptures"), "Shi jing" ("Book of poems"), "I ching" ("Book of changes").
Ancient Chinese philosophy is characterized by features that are not characteristic of other Eastern philosophical traditions. It must be said that the ancient Chinese had no idea about the transcendental God, about the creation of the world by God out of nothing, had no idea about the dualism of the ideal and material principles of the world. In ancient China, traditional for the West, India, and the Middle East, the concept of the soul as a kind of immaterial substance that is separated from the body after death did not take shape. Although ideas about the spirits of ancestors existed.
The Chinese worldview is based on the concept of qi. Qi is understood as a kind of vital energy that permeates absolutely everything in the world. Everything in the world is Qi transformations.
Qi is a kind of quasi-material substance that cannot be defined only as material or spiritual.
Matter and spirit are inseparable, they are consubstantial and mutually reducible, that is, spirit and matter are in a state of constant mutual transition.
At the heart of existence is the Primordial Qi (Infinite, Chaos, One), which is polarized into two parts - yang (positive) and yin (negative). Yang and Yin are interchangeable. Their passage constitutes the great Tao path.
The negative potentially contains the positive and vice versa. Thus, the Yang power reaches its limit and passes into Yin and vice versa. This position is called the Great Limit and is depicted graphically in the form of the "Monad".
Considering all that exists as a unity of opposing principles, Chinese thinkers explained the endless process of movement by their dialectical interaction. Filling the Universe, generating and preserving life, these primary substances or forces determine the essence of the Five Elements: Metal, Wood, Water, Fire and Soil.
Actually, these ideas underlie ancient Chinese philosophy and are supported by all Chinese thinkers, with some differences in interpretations.
Differences between Chinese philosophy and Western: integral (holistic) perception instead of analytical and cyclical processes instead of their static, linearity. The three greatest thinkers of ancient China, whom we will focus on in the next chapter:
Lao Tzu- covered with a halo of mystery;
Confucius- revered by all;
Mo-tzu- now little known, who, however, more than four centuries before the birth of Christ, formulated the concept of universal love.
Acquaintance with the views of these thinkers is facilitated by the fact that there are three texts directly associated with their names.
2. The Three Greatest Thinkers of Ancient China
.1 Lao Tzu
Lao Tzu is a nickname meaning "old teacher" - the great sage of Ancient China, who laid the foundations of Taoism - the direction of Chinese thought that has survived to this day. Approximately the time of Lao Tzu's life is attributed to the 7th-6th centuries BC. He is considered the author of the main treatise of Taoism "Tao Te Ching", which became the most popular test of ancient Chinese philosophy in the West.
Little is known about the life of this sage and the authenticity of the available information is often criticized by scientists. But it is known that he was the keeper of the imperial archive of the Zhou court - the greatest book depository of ancient China. Therefore, Lao Tzu had free access to various ancient and contemporary texts, which allowed him to develop his own teaching.
The fame of this sage went all over the Celestial Empire, so when he decided to leave the kingdom of Zhou, he was stopped at the outpost and asked to leave his teaching in written form for his kingdom. Lao Tzu compiled a treatise "Tao Te Ching", which translates as "The Canon of the Way and Grace." The entire treatise talks about the category of Tao.
Tao translated from Chinese means "Way". According to Lao Tzu, the Tao is the foundation of the world and the world realizes the Tao. Everything in the world is Tao. Tao is inexpressible, it can be comprehensible, but not verbally. Lao Tzu wrote: "The Tao that can be expressed by a word is not a permanent Tao." The teaching about Tao is closely related to the teaching about the mutual transition of opposites.
Lao Tzu, who lived earlier than two other great Chinese thinkers (VI-V centuries BC), is not easy to understand, not only because his basic concept of "Tao" is very ambiguous: it is both "the main thing over many things" and "mother earth and sky "," the first principle of the world ", and" root "and" path "; but also because in comprehending this concept we do not have the opportunity (as, for example, in ancient Indian and other cultures) to rely on any mythological images that would facilitate assimilation. Tao is as vague in Lao Tzu as the concept of Heaven is throughout Chinese culture.
Tao is the source of all things and the basis for the functioning of being. One of the definitions of Tao is "root." The root is underground, it is not visible, but it exists before the plant that emerges from it. The invisible Tao, from which the whole world is produced, is also primary.
Tao is also understood as a natural law of the development of nature. The main meaning of the hieroglyph "Tao" is "the road on which people walk." Tao is the path that people follow in this life, and not just something outside of it. A person who does not know the path is doomed to delusion, he is deluded.
Tao can also be interpreted as unity with nature through subordination to the same laws. "The path of a noble husband begins among men and women, but his deepest principles exist in nature." As long as this universal law exists, there is no need for any moral law - both in the natural law of karma and in the artificial law of human society.
Ecologists point to the proximity of Taoism to the emerging new understanding of nature. Lao Tzu advises to adapt to natural cycles, points to self-movement in nature and the importance of balance, and, perhaps, the concept of "Tao" is the prototype of modern ideas about cosmic information belts.
Tao is sought in itself. "He who knows himself will be able to find out [the essence of things], and who knows people, he is able to do things." To know Tao, one must free oneself from one's own passions. The one who has cognized Tao achieves "natural balance", because all opposites harmonize and attain self-satisfaction.
Tao desires nothing and strives for nothing. People should do the same. Everything natural happens as if by itself, without special efforts of the individual. The natural course is contrasted with the artificial activity of a person pursuing his own selfish, selfish goals. Such activity is reprehensible, therefore the main principle of Lao-tzu is not action (wuwei) - "non-interference", "non-resistance." Wuwei is not passivity, but rather non-resistance to the natural course of events and acting in accordance with it. This is a principle, following which, a person maintains his own integrity, while at the same time gaining unity with existence. This is the way of realizing one's own Tao, which cannot be distinguished from the universal Tao. Finding your own Tao is the goal of every Taoist and should become the goal of every person, but this is difficult to achieve and requires a lot of effort, although at the same time it takes away from all tension of forces.
For a better understanding of Lao Tzu's teachings, it is necessary to immerse oneself in reading his treatise and try to understand it at the inner intuitive level, and not at the level of logical-discursive thinking, to which our Western mind always turns.
.2 Confucius
Taoism philosophical thinker Confucius
Lao Tzu's younger contemporary Confucius or Kun Tzu "Teacher Kun" (c. 551 - c. 479 BC) pays tribute, traditional for Chinese culture, to Heaven as the creator of all things and urges to unquestioningly follow fate, but pays the main attention to conscious construction social ties necessary for the normal functioning of society. Confucius is the founder of the doctrine known as Confucianism.
The "teacher Kun" was born into a poor family, he was left an orphan early and knew the need, although, according to legend, his family was aristocratic. The men of this family were either officials or the military. His father was already at an old age (70 years old) when he married a young girl (16 years old), so it is not surprising that when Confucius, or as he was called in the family, Qiu was 3 years old, his father passed away.
From a young age, Qiu was distinguished by his prudence and desire to study. When he was seven years old, his mother sent him to a public school, where he already amazed teachers with his intelligence and wisdom. After training, Qiu entered the civil service. At first, he was a trade bailiff, overseeing the freshness of market products. His next job was the service of an inspector of arable fields, forests and herds. At this time, the future teacher Kun is also engaged in science and is improving in the ability to read and interpret ancient tests. Also at the age of 19, Qiu marries a girl of noble family. He has a son and a daughter, but family life did not bring Confucius happiness. The service began to bring popularity to Confucius among officials and they began to talk about him as a very capable young man and it seemed he was waiting for a new promotion, but his mother suddenly dies. Confucius, as if following the traditions, was forced to leave the service and observe a three-year mourning.
After he returns to work as a serviceman, but he already has students who have learned about the wisdom and knowledge of the great traditions, Confucius. At 44, he took high post Governor of Chzhong-du city. The number of students grew. He traveled a lot and everywhere found people willing to join his wisdom. After long travels, Confucius returns to his homeland, and last years he spends his life at home, surrounded by numerous students.
The main work of Confucius "Lunyu" ("Conversations and Sayings") was recorded by his students and enjoyed such popularity throughout the subsequent history of China that he was even forced to memorize in schools. It begins with a phrase that almost literally coincides with the well-known to us: "Learn and from time to time repeat what you have learned."
The activity of Confucius falls on a difficult period for Chinese society, the transition from one formation - slave, to another - feudal, and at this time it was especially important to prevent the collapse of social foundations. To this goal, Confucius and Lao Tzu followed different paths.
The primacy of morality preached by Confucius was determined by the desire of the Chinese spirit for stability, tranquility and peace. The teachings of Confucius are devoted to how to make the state happy through the growth of morality, first of all, of the upper strata of society, and then of the lower ones. “If you govern the people through laws and maintain order through punishments, the people will seek to evade punishment and will not feel ashamed. If you lead the people through virtue and maintain order through rituals, the people will know shame, and they will correct themselves. " The moral model for Confucius is a noble man: devoted, sincere, faithful, just. The opposite of a noble husband is a low man.
Striving for realism led Confucius to follow the rule “ golden mean»- avoidance of extremes in activity and behavior. "A principle like the golden mean is the highest principle." The concept of the middle is closely related to the concept of harmony. The noble husband “... strictly adheres to the middle and does not lean in either direction. This is where true strength lies! When order reigns in the state, he does not abandon the behavior that he had before ... When there is no order in the state, he does not betray his principles until his death. " The Greek philosophers responded in the same way. But a noble husband is not reckless. When order reigns in a state, his words contribute to prosperity; when there is no order in the state, his silence helps him to preserve himself.
Of great importance both in the history of China and in the teachings of Confucius is the adherence to certain rules and ceremonies established once and for all. “The use of ritual is valuable because it brings people to agreement. The ritual recognizes only those actions that are sanctified and verified by tradition. Devotion without ritual leads to fussiness; caution without ritual leads to fearfulness; courage without ritual leads to turmoil; straightforwardness without ritual leads to rudeness. " The purpose of the ritual is to achieve not only social harmony within, but also harmony with nature. “The ritual is based on the constancy of the movement of the sky, the order of phenomena on earth and the behavior of the people. Since celestial and earthly phenomena occur regularly, then the people take them as a model, imitating the clarity of heavenly phenomena, and is consistent with the nature of earthly phenomena ... But if this is misused, then everything will get confused and the people will lose their natural qualities. Therefore, a ritual was created to support these natural qualities. "
The ritual, in a pictorial expression, "is the brilliance of duty." What is a person's duty? The father should show parental feelings, and the son should be reverent; the elder brother is kindness, and the younger is friendliness, the husband is justice, and the wife is obedience, the elders are mercy, the younger ones are humility, the sovereign is philanthropy, and the subjects are loyalty. These ten qualities are called human duty.
Confucius proclaimed the principle that runs throughout the history of ethics like a red thread: "Do not do to people what you do not wish for yourself." He was not the first to formulate this moral maxim, later called the "golden rule of ethics." It is found in many more ancient cultures, and then among the philosophers of modern times. But this saying expresses the essence of the basic concepts of Confucius - philanthropy, humanity.
We meet with Confucius and many other thoughts regarding the rules of community. Do not be sad that people do not know you, but be sad that you do not know people. " "Do not enter into the affairs of another when you are not in his place." "I listen to the words of people and watch their actions."
Realizing the meaning of knowledge, Confucius warned against an exaggerated idea of his own knowledge: “Knowing something, consider that you know; not knowing, consider that you do not know - this is the correct attitude to knowledge. " He emphasized the importance of combining learning with reflection: "Learning without thought is in vain, thought without learning is dangerous."
The similarity between Lao Tzu and Confucius is that both of them, in accordance with the archetype of Chinese thought, sought constancy, but Lao Tzu found it not in action, but Confucius in constancy of activity — in ritual. The call for limiting needs was also common.
The difference between them is in what they considered more important. But Lao Tzu also wrote about philanthropy, and Confucius said: "If you learn the right way in the morning, you can die in the evening."
.3 Mo-tzu
Mo-tzu (Mo Di) - the founder of the doctrine and school of Moists, identified wisdom and virtue, and by his preaching of love was close to Christ.
The years of Mo-tzu's life are approximately 479 - 381 years. BC. He was born in the kingdom of Lu and belonged to "Xia", that is, itinerant warriors or knights. "Xia" were often recruited not only from the impoverished houses of the nobility, but also from the lower strata of the population. Mo-tzu was originally an admirer of Confucianism, but later departed from it and created the first oppositional teaching. The critical attitude towards Confucianism was due to dissatisfaction with the existing traditional and rather burdensome system of rules of behavior and ritual. Compliance with all the rules of the ritual often required not only internal efforts, but also external ones. The ritual took up a lot of time and sometimes forced a lot of money to be spent on its exact observance. As a result, Mo-tzu comes to the conclusion that ritual and music are a luxury that is inaccessible to the lower strata or the impoverished nobility, and therefore requires abolition.
Mo Tzu and his followers organized a strictly disciplined organization that was even capable of conducting military operations. Mo Tzu was "perfectly wise" in the eyes of his disciples.
Mo Dee preached the principle of universal love and the principle of mutual benefit. The principle of universal love Mo-tzu formulated in a clear form, opposing love "not knowing differences but the degree of kinship", separate, egoistic love, that each person should love the other as the closest, for example, as his father or mother. Note that love (in the understanding of Mo-tzu) concerns relations between people, and not to God, as in Christianity.
The principle of mutual benefit assumed that everyone should share their sorrows and joys, as well as poverty and wealth with everyone, then all people will be equal. These principles were implemented within the framework of the organization created by Mo Dee.
Lao Tzu and Confucius emphasized the importance of the will of Heaven as the highest power. According to Mo-tzu, the events of our life do not depend on the zero of Heaven, but on the efforts made by a person. However, Heaven has thoughts and desires. “Following the thoughts of Heaven means following universal mutual love, the mutual benefit of people, and this will certainly be rewarded. Speeches against the thoughts of Heaven sow mutual hatred, induce harm to each other, and this will certainly entail punishment. " The authors of The History of Chinese Philosophy correctly write that Mo Tzu used the authority of Heaven as an ideological weapon to substantiate the truth of his views. Later, Marx also used the concept of objective laws social development.
Like all the great utopians, Mo Tzu created his own concept of an ideal state and even the idea of three successive phases of social development: from the era of "disorder and disorder" through the era of "great prosperity" to the society of "great unity". But not all people want the transition from disorder and disorder to prosperity and unity.
Mo-tzu's views were very popular in IV-III. centuries BC, but then the realism of Confucius won out in the practical soul of the Chinese. After the death of Mo Dee, at the end of the 4th century BC. Mo Dee's school is in the process of breaking up into two or three organizations. In the second half of the 3rd century BC. there was a practical and theoretical disintegration of the organization and teachings of Mo Di, after which she could no longer recover and later this teaching existed only as a spiritual heritage of Ancient China.
The teachings of Confucius are also striving towards the ideal, but the ideal of moral self-improvement. Mo Tzu was a social utopian and wanted to enforce universal equality. Confucius took a place between Lao-tzu, with his non-deed, and Mo-tzu, with his violence; and his concept turned out to be a "golden mean" between passivity and extremism.
Conclusion
The most prominent philosophers of Ancient China, who largely determined its problems and development for centuries to come, are Lao Tzu (second half of the 6th - first half of the 5th century BC) and Confucius (Kun Fu-tzu, 551-479 BC. BC), as well as other thinkers, and primarily the philosophical heritage of Mo-tzu. These teachings give a fairly objective idea of philosophical quest ancient Chinese thinkers.
Lao Tzu - ancient Chinese philosopher VI-IV centuries BC, one of the founders of the teachings of Taoism, the author of the treatise "Tao Te Ching" ("Canon of the Way and Grace"). The central idea of the philosophy of Lao Tzu was the idea of two principles - Tao and Te. The word "Tao" literally means "the way"; in this philosophical system, it received a much broader metaphysical content. "Tao" means both the essence of things and the total existence of the universe. The very concept of "Tao" can be interpreted materialistically: Tao is nature, the objective world.
Confucius is an ancient thinker and philosopher of China. His teachings had a profound impact on the life of China and East Asia, becoming the basis of the philosophical system known as Confucianism. Although Confucianism is often called a religion, it does not have the institution of the church, and theological issues are not important for it. Confucian ethics are not religious. Confucius's teachings dealt mainly with social and ethical issues. The ideal of Confucianism is the creation of a harmonious society according to the ancient model, in which every personality has its own function. A harmonious society is built on the idea of devotion, aimed at preserving harmony and this society itself. Confucius formulated the golden rule of ethics: "Do not do to a person what you do not wish for yourself."
Mo-tzu is an ancient Chinese philosopher who developed the doctrine of universal love. The religious form of this teaching, Moism, has competed in popularity with Confucianism for several centuries.
So, we can say with good reason that Laozi, Confucius and Mo-Tzu, with their philosophical creativity, laid a solid foundation for the development of Chinese philosophy for many centuries to come.
Bibliography
1.A.A. Gorelov Fundamentals of philosophy: textbook. allowance. - M .: Academy, 2008 .-- 256 p.
2.History of Chinese Philosophy / Ed. M.L. Titarenko. - M .: Progress, 1989. - 552 p.
3.Lukyanov A.E. Lao Tzu and Confucius: The Philosophy of Tao. - M .: Vostochnaya literatura, 2001 .-- 384 p.
.Rykov S. Yu. The doctrine of knowledge among the late Moists // Society and state in China: XXXIX scientific conference / Institute of Oriental Studies RAS. - M. - 2009. - p. 237-255.
.Shevchuk D.A. Philosophy: lecture notes. - M .: Eksmo, 2008 .-- 344 p.
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There are the following main stages in the development of philosophical thought in ancient China:
- - the stage of the birth of philosophical views (the beginning of philosophical thinking), which covers the period of the VIII-VI centuries. BC.
- - the stage of the flourishing of philosophical thought (rivalry of the "hundred schools"), which belongs to the VI-III centuries. And the registration of ownership of land plot in St. Petersburg BC;
- - philosophy in the era of the Han dynasty (II century BC - I-II centuries AD), Confucianism becomes a state ideology;
- - philosophy in the III-X centuries, the strengthening of the influence of Taoism and Buddhism, neo-Confucianism (Confucius + some provisions of Taoism).
Ancient Chinese philosophy emerged during the Zhangguo period - the "golden age of Chinese philosophy." The early (pre-Han) period was characterized by the pluralism of schools, the struggle of opinions, the non-interference of the authorities in the field of philosophy. Philosophical schools in China were formed in the 6th century. BC. Moreover, the philosophy that developed anonymously becomes the author's, being associated with the names of specific sages.
There were 6 main schools of ancient Chinese philosophy: Confucianism, Moism, Legism, Taoism, the yin-yang school (natural philosophers) and the school of names (sophists). Most of these schools are ethical-political, a minority are metaphysical. In the late (post-Han) period, the first group is decisively prevailing, Taoists and Buddhists are viewed as unorthodox mystics. In China, practical philosophy prevailed, the problems of managing people and the country.
Numerous schools in China correlated with Confucianism, which achieved in the II century. BC. the official status of state ideology and who managed to preserve it until the New Time (XVII century).
The founder of ancient Chinese philosophy and the "creator" of the spiritual image of the Chinese was Kun Fuzi, who became known in Europe two millennia after his death as Confucius (Russian - Confucius), years 551-479. BC.
Taoism (founded by Lao Tzu - a sage child), Confucianism, Moism (Mo-Tzu), the school of the legalists (Shang-Yang, Han-Fai-tzu), natural philosophy, the school of name correction (comes from Confucius). Chinese philosophy was much less interested in the question of the structure of the world. Only Taoism has more or less solved this issue.
Taoism
The focus is on nature, space and man. The world is in constant motion and change, develops, lives and acts spontaneously, without any reason. Space man- Ponga. The world emerged from its parts. Philosophy: impersonal principles belong to the Universe. Tao is the path, the road, the reason, the goal of the development of the world. Two Tao: an unshakable, constant beginning, a kind of black hole, emptiness. It is unknowable, we only guess that it is. Second: the real Tao is the direction of a person's path by his fate, the natural nature of things. Two more principles appear - heaven and earth. Ponga is born, pushing apart the void, forming heaven and earth. Impersonal principles: two Tao: Yang - some masculinity(light, active), Yin - some feminine(dark, passive). Yang rushes to the sky, Yin to the ground. There is one more element - Zi, which acts as a bonding principle between Yang and Yin. Tao is poured everywhere - the idea of the pantheistic principle (the divine principle is poured everywhere, it can be found everywhere). What do you need to know? The principle of non-action - Ovey. Nothing can be changed in this world; one must adhere to Tao. He who is wise does not speak. Confucius also has ideas about Tao in other schools.
Moism
The main attention is paid to the problems of social ethics, which is associated through strict organization with the despotic power of the head. The whole point lies in the ideas of universal love and prosperity, mutual benefit. School of Moism (Men-tzu). There is no destiny as such, all people are equal - everyone needs to be educated. Everyone controls their own destiny. The biggest Democrats in Ancient China. There should be state principles of education.
Legism. Shang Yang (human nature is evil). Almost exclusively a teaching that focused primarily on issues of socio-political change. Its representatives dealt with problems of social theory and problems related to public administration. Legalists are not obedience and respect, but the law, the most severe legal regulations. Nobody is obliged to love, but everyone is obliged to obey the law. For violation - punishment; the less the offense, the greater the punishment. If you stop at the very beginning, then there will be no further crimes. How to monitor the implementation of laws, how to control? Han Fang-tzu: it is necessary that everyone follows everyone and informs. Punishment for non-reporting. System of total surveillance and denunciation to the chief.
Confucianism
According to the teachings of CONFUCIANCE, wisdom comes from the past, and the one who rejects tradition fails.
The main principle of social organization is “he” (harmony, unity), which is reached by overcoming polar interests and opinions. The fusion of opposites is at the core of all things.
CONFUSIONALITY formulates the concepts of "ren" (humanity, philanthropy) and "li" (rules, ethics).
In CONFUSION, society was divided into two categories - noble and common people.
A noble husband strives for philanthropy and justice, a "little" person strives for wealth and profit.
A noble person cares about the observance of morality, a "little" one thinks about the earth.
The noble one takes care of the observance of the law, and the "little one" - about receiving benefits.
Eclectics
Striving to combine the views and concepts of various schools in one system. They argued that each of the schools comprehends reality in its own way and it is necessary to combine these methods into such an integrity that would be new. universal system interpretation of the world.
1. General characteristics of Chinese philosophy.
Chinese philosophy is something special, difficult to explain for a European, since its essence consists in the consonance, conjugation and integrity of man and the world. The roots of Chinese philosophy go deeply into mythological thinking, in which we meet with the deification of heaven and earth, the animation of all objects, the worship of the cult of the dead, ancestors, magic, communication with spirits, etc. The first ideas about the world and man are contained in one of the most important classical books of ancient China.
School of the path and strength of the Taoists;
School of Moists;
School of names;
School of legists.
At the same time, these schools had a lot in common and reflected the essence of the world outlook and assessment of their era.
Common features characteristic of the schools of thought in China are:
The idea of the inseparability of man and nature, all parts of the universe;
Animation of nature, deification of the sky, parts of the surrounding world;
High value of life (in physical and spiritual aspects);
Increased attention to the issues of the structure of society, management and state organization;
Anthropological, imperative (the focus is always on the problem of a person, issues of ethics, moral improvement);
The internal stability of Chinese philosophy, the idea of superiority and intolerance in relation to other teachings and cultures;
Interest in matters of magic as a practical side philosophy.
Let's consider the most important schools of thought for the history of China.
2. Taoism.
Taoism is the most important tradition in China, united in two levels - religious and philosophical. The main directions and objects of philosophy of Taoism are ontology (nature, space), anthropology (man as a bodily and spiritual being), ethics (search for an ideal form of behavior), political philosophy (the doctrine of an ideal ruler).
According to experts, the Taoist worldview is based on three ideas:
1) all phenomena (including man) are woven into a single essence of mutually influencing forces, both visible and invisible. Associated with this is the Taoist idea of "flow" - universal becoming and change;
2) primitivism, that is, the idea that a person and society will improve if we return to primordial simplicity with its minimum of differentiation, learning, activity;
3) the belief that people through various methods - mystical contemplation, diet, various practices, alchemy - can achieve perfection, which manifests itself in longevity (immortality), supernatural abilities, the ability to cognize the forces of nature and master them.
Taoism is based on the doctrine of Tao and the concept of immortality (xian), which are distinguished by a pronounced practical orientation. Following the path of world harmony - great Tao in the limit contributes to the acquisition of immortality (xian) or longevity without death, which is the highest goal of numerous spiritual and physical practices.
But if in most religious teachings of the world it is about the immortality of the soul, then in Taoism the task is bodily immortality, since the soul and body, understood as manifestations of yin and yang, are seen as inseparable and do not exist separately. This also defines a completely different than, for example, in India, attitude to life, which is considered in Taoism as an unconditional value and good.
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The founder of Taoism is considered Lao Tzu(IV-V centuries BC), which, according to legend, was born old (his mother wore it for several decades). his name is translated as "Old Child", although the same sign "tzu" meant at the same time the concept of "philosopher", so that it can be interpreted as "Old Philosopher". Legend also speaks of Lao Tzu's departure from China, when, going west, he kindly agreed to leave the the frontier post his work - "Tao Te Ching". Other outstanding treatises of Taoism, rightfully included in the treasury of the best works of world spiritual literature, belong to Chuang Tzu and Le Tzu. |
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The central concepts of the treatise are Tao and Te. Tao in Taoism is understood in two main meanings:
1) the eternal, nameless essence of nature, the world, enclosed in the natural harmony of all elements (nameless Tao);
2) the beginning, "the mother of all things", "the root of the earth and the sky", the source of the development of the world (called Tao).
The properties of Tao are nonexistence, inactivity, emptiness, spontaneity, naturalness, inexhaustibility, incomprehensibility, omnipresence, perfection, tranquility, etc. Tao is dark and unconscious, rationally indefinable and incomprehensible. All attempts to name it, see it, grasp it lead to illusions and "is not the real Tao." Tao creates the world not purposefully, but spontaneously, fills everything that exists with power - inactive. Therefore, the movement of a person in the direction of Tao is also associated with a calm, abstinent, harmonious adherence to natural nature, which does not require additions, multiplication, transformations, and is perfection without efforts.
Tao is the basis of the harmony of the world, it is emptiness, inexpressible in form. Tao has its own creative power - te, through which it manifests itself in the world. Te - individual concretization of things, the good power of Tao, manifested in the world of objects. The world, according to Tao, is in a spontaneous indefinite movement of numerous particles, or "grains" of being. Everything in the world changes due to the interaction of two eternal principles - yin and yang.
They permeate each other and constantly merge into each other. “When people learned what beauty is, ugliness also appeared. When everyone knew that good is good, evil appeared. Therefore, being and non-being give rise to each other, difficult and easy create each other, low and high incline towards each other, "says the Tao Te Ching. Life and death are seen as natural components of the cycle of change. Death acts not as a negation, but as a source of life, as a potential, unformed being.
The soul and body are considered in the Taoist tradition as the embodiment of yin and yang, which do not exist without each other. A person has a whole complex of souls (there are seven of them), which, after the death of the body, dissolve in heavenly pneuma. Rejecting the possibility of the immortality of the soul after death, Taoism asserts the unique idea of attaining the immortality of a person (xian) through connection with Tao, the substantial basis of the cosmos. Space can be compared to a huge furnace that melts everything that exists, and death is only one of these “melting downs”.
And since the world and man are a single system, therefore, since the world is eternal, then its diminished analogue, man, can also be eternal. The attainment of immortality is the path of following the Tao, the path of the chosen, exceptional personalities. For this, it is necessary to have the ability of a special non-rational comprehension of the world through direct penetration into the nature of things and to observe the main principle of behavior - non-action ( u ve j) or action without violating the measure of things ( cit).
To achieve the highest goal - familiarizing with Tao - the mystics of Taoism in ancient and medieval China served the principles of theoretical and practical alchemy, the purpose of which is to create an elixir of immortality and develop "psycho-training" to create an immortal body and the corresponding enlightened consciousness. One of the famous theorists of internal alchemy was the Chinese philosopher Zhong Yuan.
At the same time, any rational knowledge in Taoism is considered evil, like any interference with the natural course of things. Hence - the rejection of the benefits of civilization, the ideal of simplicity and naturalness, primitiveness and primitiveness. The main virtue of the Taoist is peace and abstinence.
Taoist ethics states the following rules:
Spend life sparingly;
To follow life path animals;
Perform 1200 good deeds in a row;
Refrain from violence, lies, evil, theft, excesses, alcohol.
Those who achieved the ideal in Taoism were called the perfect wise elders, or shen ren. According to legends, they conquered time and gained infinite longevity.
Taoist virtue is distinguished by a paradoxical combination of egoism and altruism, where, on the one hand, the main thing is the attitude to detachment from any activity, struggle for the sake of one's own peace and independence, and on the other, the idea of doing secret good is affirmed. This doctrine opposes the Confucian principle of reciprocity and encourages the adept to act for the benefit of the other, not in expectation of gratitude or reciprocal action, but absolutely disinterestedly and preferably in secret for him and everyone else.
At the same time, Taoism proceeds from the fact that every action has two sides, and absolute good is impossible, therefore the highest state is not the path of good, but the ability to rise above good and evil, connection with Tao, which existed even before the separation into yin and yang , dark and light, high and low. This path can be called the path of harmony, which inevitably includes all the elements, but makes them non-hostile to each other.
Wisdom in Taoism is knowledge of Tao, that is, the knowledge that things are essentially one, the same. They are the offspring of the Great Void, they are temporary, fluid, impermanent. For a sage, all things are equal, he "does not care", things do not bother him, because they are emptiness. At the same time, cognition of Tao gives true liberation, a return to one's original nature and unification with the main force that directs the flow of becoming. This wisdom gives peace and inner harmony, and before the inner gaze of the sage, the world appears as a single, integral one.
The well-known aphorism of the follower of Taoism Chuang Tzu says: "He who knows does not speak, and the speaker does not know." The "ignorance" of the sage is, as it were, the limit of knowledge, since the limit of all things is the Great Emptiness, about which nothing can be said. Tao has no image, taste, color or smell, but thanks to it everything is born and everything moves. Non-action of a sage means following world harmony, not violating it.
According to the doctrine of Tao, the best ruler is the one whose presence is not noticed, who rules without interfering in the course of events. But non-action does not mean that it is easy to follow the Tao. Only a sage can cognize Tao, the laws of world harmony and follow them. To follow Tao is to follow "naturalness", one's own "nature." This means to discard artificiality and everything that is contrary to "nature." This ideal is radically opposed to the principles of another great teaching in China - Confucianism.
3. Confucianism.
A crisis ancient religion was in full swing when one of Lao Tzu's disciples began to preach - Kun-tzu ( Confucius) ... He was very concerned about what was happening and therefore focused on studying the "golden ages" of Chinese history, when order reigned in the empire and everyone was happy with their position. Already at the age of 30, the philosopher created his own school, in which he began to preach a "return to antiquity."
The shortest formulation of Confucius's teachings is contained in the words: "The sovereign should be the sovereign, the dignitary - the dignitary, the father - the father, the son - the son." His thought boiled down to the fact that everything has shifted from its traditional places and now must return to its previous state. But how to do that? Confucius has developed a whole set of rules of conduct that must be adhered to by every person striving for virtue. The ideal virtuous person, or noble man (juan tzu), was supposed, according to the teachings, to govern the entire society.
The basic virtues of the ideal personality included the following:
The most important quality that a person should have is ren, that is, philanthropy, humanity.
Another virtue called whether, meant following order, etiquette, ritual, respecting delicacy, poise, complete obedience. This category regulated relations between people in various spheres of life.
The most important for Confucianism was the principle xiao- filial and brotherly piety. He strictly regulated the relationship between fathers and children, bosses and subordinates.
To comply with the subordination, the principle of justice and serviceability was developed - and .
A noble man had to have wisdom and knowledge, which had to be combined with virtue. This quality was called zhi(mind, knowledge, learning).
If we expand the basic list, then the following qualities must be added to this image:
Modesty ("A person remains in the unknown, but does not feel resentment, isn't this a noble husband?");
Sincerity (“People with nice words and feigned manners little philanthropy ");
Simplicity of life ("a noble husband is moderate in food, does not strive for comfort in housing, is quick in business");
Reciprocity (“Tzu-gong asked:“ Is it possible to be guided by one word all my life? ”The teacher replied:“ This word is reciprocity.
Strength and endurance when enduring difficulties ("A noble man, falling into need, endures it firmly. A low man, falling into need, dissolves");
Harmony in interaction with people ("A noble man ... knows how to be in agreement with everyone, but does not collude with anyone");
Unselfishness, selflessness ("Whoever acts, striving for profit for himself, causes great hostility"; "A noble person knows only duty, a low person only benefits");
Caring for people, not for “spirits” (“To serve the people properly, honor the spirits and stay away from them - this is wisdom”);
Sociability, "sociality", the ability to harmoniously fit into society; devotion to the sovereign; truthfulness; love of learning, etc.
As you can see, the "noble man" is morally and intellectually highly developed personality outwardly oriented towards the fulfillment of the duty to the state. Given that we are dealing not only with philosophy, but also with religious doctrine, such attitudes acquire the status of "sacred duty", the will of Heaven, fate, etc. Failure to comply with ethical precepts does not lead to the loss of paradise, but to oblivion on earth - the most terrible punishment for a follower of Confucianism (a noble husband is upset that after death "his name will not be mentioned").
As you can see, the goal of this teaching is immortality, but in the form of immortalization in the good memory of descendants and children. Another important goal of Confucianism is the harmonization of relations in the system of society, where social inequality objectively contributes to the formation of contradictions, enmity, and unrest. To normalize life in society and achieve the most difficult state of unity of submission and dignity (equally important in Confucianism), it is proposed to use a ritual that allows everyone, fulfilling this or that role, to “obey without humiliation”, to maintain inner dignity and high status in their own family.
The teachings of Confucius were brilliantly supplemented by Mencius, who, trying to understand human nature, came to the conclusion that it does not have a definite predestination, an orientation toward good or evil. The Mencius treatise says: “Human nature is like a seething stream of water: if you open the way to the east, it will flow to the east, if you open the way to the west, it will flow to the west. Human nature is not divided into good and bad, just as water in its course does not distinguish between east and west. " A person, according to Mencius, has various abilities that can develop into both vices and virtues.
This development depends on what is "prescribed by fate" for a person. It follows from this that all the highest virtues are contained in the very nature of man, and the process of self-development turns out to be a variant of self-knowledge, and not a transformation of its essence: “All things are in us. There is no greater joy than to discover sincerity in self-comprehension ... ”From the perspective of Confucianism, moral virtues flow from the natural nature of man, and do not contradict it. At the same time as the earth grows cultivated plants and weeds, so nature can give rise to evil tendencies. The ability of the "perfectly wise" is that "he has previously grasped what our hearts have in common."
The cognition of one's nature, as well as the cognition of one's mental faculties, says Mencius, is the way of serving Heaven. On this path, a person “is not worried about either premature death or longevity, and he, perfecting himself, expects the command of heaven - this is the way of finding his own destiny”. Thus, the goal of Confucianism lies not in the search for physical or mental immortality, but in achieving immortality in the good memory of descendants, for which it is necessary to be in harmony with one's nature and social duty.
The fate of Confucianism turned out to be significant for the history of China. Already during the life of Confucius, it was widely known, he himself was invited by Emperor Lu to serve and practically led the state. But then Confucius broke with public service and left to wander. After his death, Confucianism became the official religion of China and remained it until the socialist revolution at the beginning of the 20th century.
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3. Moism. After the death of Confucius, his ideological opponents became more active in China. among the concepts that opposed Confucianism, the most prominent place was occupied by the doctrine Mo-tzu(479-400 BC). Mo Tzu was a native of artisans, his closeness to the social lower classes was the reason that he was especially acutely aware of the growing social crisis that began during the time of Confucius. Large states attack small, large families overpower small ones, the strong oppress the weak, the noble boast of their superiority - all this, according to Mo Tzu, is unnatural, because it contradicts the will of Heaven. Heaven wants people to help each other, he taught, for the strong to help the weak, for the knowledgeable to teach the ignorant, so that people share property with each other. |
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To achieve these goals, it is necessary, first of all, to abandon the unquestioning adherence to the customs of antiquity, which Confucius demanded. Mo-tzu proclaimed a new principle in relationships between people: their basis should not be family ties, as taught by Confucius, but "universal love."
All people in the country should love each other regardless of family ties, and then, he believed, social harmony would come. In order for the people to accept the new principle of "universal love", Mo-tzu proposed two methods: persuasion (to inspire people that their love for the near and far will be compensated by the return love for themselves) and coercion (it is necessary to develop a system of rewards and punishments in order to love people became profitable, and harm - unprofitable).
Further, in his opinion, it was necessary to introduce the strictest cost savings, withdraw luxury goods, eliminate expensive rituals and ceremonies and, most importantly, put an end to the wars that were tearing the country apart. But Mo Tzu's teaching never spread to China. The concept of "universal love", refusal of luxury and war did not find support from the authorities.
5. Legism.
Another notable school in China during that crisis period was the school of legists (legalists), or fang-jia. It got its name because it was based on a written, one-size-fits-all law, as opposed to traditional customary law. According to this oral law, aristocrats could not be judged by the same standards as commoners. The Legists proclaimed the principle "The law is the father and mother of the people." One of the founders of legalism, Guan Zhong, argued that the ruler and officials, high and low, noble and vile, should all follow the law.
This he called the great art of government. His ideas were developed by Shang Yang, who managed to interest the ruler of the Qin kingdom, Xiao Gong, with his teachings, and he entrusted him with political reforms... This was another case when a new philosophical doctrine in ancient China was implemented, and at the same time, at first glance, with great success. Thanks to the reforms of Shang Yang, the Qin state became the most influential in the country and, after a series of wars, united China into a powerful empire. What was Shang Yang's teaching?
First of all, he strongly rejected Confucius's concept of leadership by example. A humane person can be humane towards other people, Shang Yang believed, but he cannot force people to be humane. Philanthropy alone is not enough to achieve good governance in the Middle Kingdom. If Confucius believed that the main engine of a person is conscience, then Shang Yang, following Mo-tzu, believed them to strive for profit and fear punishment. The system of rewards and punishments becomes for Shang Yang the only means of putting things in order, while the role of the latter is immeasurably higher than the role of the former.
In a country that achieved dominion in the Celestial Empire, there is 1 reward for every 9 punishments, Shan Yang taught, while in a country doomed to death, there are 5 awards for every 5 punishments. Moreover, the amount of punishment did not depend on the crime. Punishments should be severe even for the smallest offense. Laws must be communicated to everyone and set out so clearly that they can be understood by anyone. Discussion of laws was prohibited. Even those who praised his laws, Shang Yang exiled to the distant outskirts of the empire. Laws were not written for one monarch; he was their only source and could change them at any time.
In addition, the ideal of Shang Yang's teachings was a state that constantly wages wars and gains victories. Shang Yang expressed the general meaning of the reforms in a short formulation: if the people are exhausted, the state is powerful, when the people are powerful, the state is powerless. Shang Yang's reforms contributed to the unification of China, the strengthening of state power, and the revitalization of the economy, but this was achieved at an unreasonably high cost - the lives and suffering of many people.
In general, the philosophy of Ancient China strongly influenced the fate of the state, the mentality of its peoples, a unique culture that became famous throughout the world. Most of the philosophical theories turned out to be not only logical constructions, but programs for the transformation of society, partly embodied in reality. And this is also the originality of the Chinese philosophical tradition.
At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. in China, one of the oldest civilizations in the world, a natural-philosophical doctrine of the "will of Heaven" is being formed. It was argued that everything in the world depends on the predestination of heaven. Sovereign (Wang) He appeared before his subjects as the "Son of Heaven", and the country itself was called "Celestial Empire". The mythological worldview of ancient China assumed that in ancient times the world was a formless chaos. Then two spirits appeared in him - Yin(feminine) and Yang(masculine) that shaped the earth and the sky. Yang, the light beginning, expressed the properties of the sky, south, sun, day, life, strength. Yin personified north, darkness, death, earth, moon, weakness, even numbers... Yin and Yang oppose each other, but at the same time also depend on each other, interpenetrate each other, being the beginning of being, which is expressed in the well-known emblem.
In the VI century. BC. in China, philosophy flourishes, thinkers, who are called "perfectly wise", begin to play a large role in society. The main topics in the philosophy of China were the issues of governing the country, relations between various groups in society, philosophy was used to develop recommendations for the organization public life... The struggle of various philosophical, political and ethical directions, which are called "One hundred schools", although in reality there were significantly fewer main currents.
Consider some of the schools of thought that have had the greatest impact on the culture and political life of China.
Taoism- management on the basis of non-action. The founder of Taoism - Lao Tzu("Old thinker" or " old child"). According to legend, his mother wore him in the womb for 81 years, and he was born from her thigh in 604 BC. The newborn had gray hair, which made him look like an old man. Most during his lifetime he served as curator of the imperial archives and librarian. In old age, he went west from the country. When he reached the border post, its chief asked Lao Tzu to tell him about his teachings. The sage fulfilled the request by writing the text "Tao Te Chip"("The Book of the Way of Life"), after which he left China for good.
The central concept of this teaching is "Tao"- the universal regularity of the world, the fundamental principle of all that exists, the universal Law and the Absolute, in accordance with which the development of the Universe takes place. Taoism has repeatedly emphasized the difficulty of comprehending Tao. Tao is incorporeal and formless, inexhaustible in action. Inexpressible in words, Tao is understood as non-being, which gives rise to being.
Besides Tao, there is "De". It is a kind of universal force, a principle with the help of which Tao as a way of things can take place. It is also a method by which one can conform to the Tao. Te is a principle, a way of being. If Tao is the primary cause, then it is concretized and materialized through de.
The cause of all hardships and calamities is that the action of Tao is violated in society; Instead of the natural Tao, people created the Human Tao, which serves the interests of the rich and harms the poor. We must return to the natural Tao, to the patriarchal community, where there were no rich and poor, exploitation and oppression.
The main idea of Lao Tzu is the creation of such a system of public administration, which is based on inaction (the principle of "wu-wei»), the best way realizing the Tao. The "perfectly wise" ruler allows everything to follow its own natural path. He does not interfere in anything, does not interfere with Tao. Therefore, "the best ruler is the one about whom they only know that he exists." The most reasonable behavior is the pursuit of calmness, moderation.
Taoism gradually degenerated into a religious system that presupposed the presence of superstition and magic, which had little in common with philosophical Taoism. And Lao Tzu himself was deified.
Confucianism - ritual-based management. Confucius, or Kunzi, i.e. “A teacher from the Kun clan” (551-479 BC) was born into the family of the third wife of a noble but impoverished military leader in the kingdom of Lu. When the future philosopher was only one and a half years old, his father died, and the mother, oppressed by older wives, was forced to return to her homeland in Qufu, where the family lived in poverty. Thanks to hard work and diligent study, Confucius was appointed manager of barns and only at the age of 50 was able to get involved in state activities, occupying the position of chief of the court order. After leaving the service due to intrigue, for 13 years he traveled to other Chinese states, trying to convey his ideas to the rulers who were engaged in internecine strife and plunged the people into the abyss of misery and suffering. After returning home, he continued to teach, collect and edit the literary legacy of the past, including the first weather chronicle in Chinese history, and the Book of Changes. Disciples of Confucius wrote down his thoughts and teachings - an essay "Lun Yu"("Conversations and Judgments").
Unlike Lao Tzu, Confucius was not interested in the irrational: "I am not talking about the supernatural, about violence, about turmoil and about spirits."
The main idea of Confucius is “ correction of names "- under the influence of time, people change, their relationships, but at the same time old words are used, although the content of these names has already changed. So, they call a person a ruler, although he is no longer the ruler that was in the past; they call a man a son, although he no longer fully fulfills filial duties. The discrepancy between the old and the new content of the names must be eliminated, the names must be "correct", which in fact meant a call to return to the past. The ideal of Confucianism is the creation of a harmonious society according to the ancient model, in which every personality has its own function.
Confucius paints the image " noble husband "(tszyun-tzu), opposing a commoner to him. A noble man is afraid of three things: he is afraid of the command of heaven, great people and the words of the perfectly wise.
Confucius named five virtues of a "noble man", bringing up which a person achieves harmony with the external and internal world. They are reflected in the form of five sacred hieroglyphs.
- Hieroglyph " Ren "(tree) - humanity, following it means leadership with love, mercy, humanity and compassion for people.
- Hieroglyph "AND"(metal) - justice, following it means the principle of reciprocity, which balances humanity. So, you need to respect your parents in gratitude for the fact that they raised you.
- Hieroglyph " Zhi "(water) - common sense, following it means balancing justice, preventing stubbornness and stupidity.
- Hieroglyph "Lee"(fire) is a ritual, following it means observing the necessary ceremonies, rituals, dignity and respect for oneself - this allows people to better feel life itself, its spirit.
- Hieroglyph "Xin"(earth or heart) - sincerity, following it means balancing the ritual, preventing hypocrisy is the main Confucian virtue, without which everyone else will have no power.
« Short person"(xiao-zhen) does not know the command of heaven and is not afraid of it, he despises tall people in high positions and ignores the words of a wise man.
Governance based on rules of conduct is at the heart of Confucius' ethical and political ideas. The basis of order in the country is "Whether"
(ritual, ceremonial, reverence). Lee includes rules of conduct, moral imperatives, respect, and strict adherence to the division of social roles. The ritual is all-encompassing. Plays an important role devotion(zhong) - the idea of obedience and respect for the ruler, parents, elder brothers by younger ones. The importance of honoring parents is emphasized.
In Confucianism, much attention is paid to the issues of political life and government. The relationship between the ruler and the people is likened to the relationship between the rider and the horse. The "rider" is a ruler endowed with great wisdom, and the "horse" is a people incapable of independent actions. The ruler ruled over the people with the help of "bridle" and "reins" - officials and laws. For the existence of a normal state and for the maintenance of order in the state, first of all, a certain prosperity is necessary. Confucius said that people must first "be made rich" and then "educated."
Confucius pointed out the need to eliminate four evils: cruelty, rudeness, robbery and greed. Actions opposite to these four types of evil are to educate the people, to warn them, to sacredly observe reasonable orders, to be generous.
Confucius spoke about the power and significance of the moral example of the superior for the inferior. "If the personal behavior of those (who are at the top) is correct, things go on, although they do not give orders."
Confucius' views strongly influenced the subsequent spiritual culture and political practice of China.
Moism - governance based on virtue. The founder of the school - Mo-tzu, or Mo Di (c. 475-395 BC), who came from a family of small owners, was a fellow countryman of Confucius. Having studied Confucianism, Mo-tzu became his opponent in a number of positions. In his opinion, people may not follow the desires of heaven, in people's lives there is no fatal predestination, there is no destiny.
Mo-tzu speaks of seven troubles in the state:
- 1) squandering of the ruler, sometimes it comes to the point that there are no funds for the fortress wall, and at the same time palaces are being built;
- 2) lack of mutual assistance between separate possessions;
- 3) the impoverishment of commoners due to the waste of dignitaries;
- 4) the unrighteousness of the ruler's servants;
- 5) self-confidence of the ruler, lack of interest in the opinion of those close to him;
- 6) lack of loyalty and trust between the ruler and the servants;
- 7) lack of zeal on the part of servants and dignitaries, fear of punishment.
At the heart of all disasters is "mutual disunity," in which different interests give rise to "mutual hatred." Mo Tzu proposed a program of relationships between people, contributing to the improvement of society. The central idea of his teaching is the call to seek the establishment of relations between all people on the principles of "universal love and mutual benefit." This thesis of the Moists, as opposed to the Confucian principles of dividing society into "commoners" and "noble men", "ruling" and "ruled", was an attempt at a kind of ethical substantiation of the idea of equality of people and reflected the desire to involve broad strata of the population in the political life of the state. ...
Mo-tzu believed that to govern the state it is necessary to "nominate the wise" regardless of their social status. “Officials do not have permanent prominence; the people should not be constantly in a low position. " He believed that the disorder in society arises from the absence of "universal love."
Fazia (school of legists)- rule of law, was created Han Feiyem(c. 280-233 BC). The Legists generally rejected ritual and tradition-based governance. Speaking out against the Confucians, they ridiculed their arguments about philanthropy, duty, justice, brotherly love, calling them "word games" and comparing them with children's games "preparing elegant dishes from the sand." In contrast to ritualistic rule, the virtues of the Legists advocated rule of law.
In the book Shang Yang"Shang jun shu" ("Book of the ruler of the Shang region" - a treatise of the 4th-3rd centuries) the need for management on the basis of the law is justified by the fact that a person is by nature evil. The animal principle inherent in a person cannot be changed by education, but its manifestations can be prevented by strict laws, a system of punishments and rewards. A person must be approached as a vicious being. “Where (people are treated) as virtuous, wrongdoings are hidden; where (people are treated) as vicious, crimes are severely punished ... If people are ruled as virtuous, then turmoil is inevitable and the country will perish; if you manage people as vicious, then an exemplary order is always established and the country achieves power. "
Peace and order in a country can only be based on laws. The laws must be tough. Harsh punishments are necessary to make people afraid of the law. Laws should be uniform, binding on everyone.
When selecting people for service, it is not necessary to evaluate their appearance, clothing or speech, but to check them in the performance of their duties. Legislation, a well-thought-out system of awards and punishments, a system of mutual guarantee and general surveillance were supposed to ensure the unity of the state and the strength of the ruler's power. This concept played a large role in the creation of a single centralized state.
The philosophy of ancient China did not have any serious impact on the development of philosophy in Europe. However, it had a great influence on the countries neighboring China. Thus, Confucianism has become one of the main ideological teachings in Japan, along with Shinto and Buddhism.
- The "Book of Changes" ("I Ching") is intended for fortune-telling, the purpose of which is to understand whether a person's activity runs counter to the course of world achievement, or is harmoniously included in the world, that is, whether she brings him unhappiness or happiness. The book contains 64 symbols (hexagrams), each of which expresses a particular life situation in time from the point of view of all gradual development. Each hexagram is accompanied by a set of phorisms, which should give advice to the fortuneteller.
- Confucius. Lunyu. Vii. 21/22.
The formation of ancient Chinese philosophy, like that of ancient Indian, is associated with the breakdown of traditional communal relations caused by economic progress, the emergence of money and private property, the growth of scientific knowledge, primarily in the field of astronomy, mathematics and medicine, which created a fertile ground for spiritual
change. It is noteworthy that in China the first "oppositionists" were the ascetic wandering sages who prepared in the era of "Zhan Guo" ("warring kingdoms") the onset of the "golden age" of Chinese philosophy. Although it is fashionable to find individual philosophical ideas in even more ancient cultural monuments, which in India were the Upanishads and partly the Rig Veda, and in China - "Shi Jing" ("Canon of Verses") and "I Ching" ("Book of Changes"), philosophical schools here they are added at the same time - approximately in the VI century. BC. Moreover, in both regions, philosophy, it is enough long time which developed anonymously, henceforth becomes the author's, associated with the names of Gautama-Buddha, the founder of Jainism, Mahavira, the first Chinese philosopher - Confucius, the Taoist sage - Lao Tzu, etc.
If in India numerous schools of thought were in one way or another correlated with Vedism, then in China - with Confucian orthodoxy. True, in India, as noted above, the delimitation into separate schools did not lead to the official recognition of the priority of any one of the philosophical trends, while in China, Confucianism in the II century. BC. achieved the state status of ideology, having managed to preserve it until modern times. Along with Confucianism, Taoism, Moism, and Legalism were the most influential in the rivalry of the "hundred schools".
Ancient Chinese philosophy has other distinctive features:
A specific feature of Chinese philosophy was the principle of considering the world (nature, man and his society) as a single universe, all of whose elements are interconnected and are in dynamic equilibrium.
Practicality, focus not on finding and developing an ideal, in accordance with which reality should be changed, but on maintaining reality as it is. Hence the absence of any serious appeals (from Latin appeal - appeal) to the supernatural, based on a completely achievable ideal of social, ethical and political system... This ideal, of course, is illuminated by the blessing of Heaven, but nothing impossible was required to bring it to life. All theories should simply orient the people towards maintaining order. Therefore, in Chinese written monuments, the methods of government and the methods of human self-improvement are considered in great detail.
The specificity of ancient Chinese philosophical thought is also due to the use in written speech figurative and symbolic signs - hieroglyphs. Pictographic (from Latin pictus - drawn and Greek grapho - I write; drawing) writing developed an aesthetic and philological attitude to the text. This inevitably affected the substantive features of the ideas about the world and man, and the culture of thinking of ancient Chinese philosophers in general.
Lack of a conceptual apparatus, abstract speculations of a naturalistic and worldview order. Hence the weak connection with science, the underdevelopment of logic.
Internally, Chinese philosophy is unusually stable. The basis for this stability was the constant emphasis on the exclusivity of the Chinese way of thinking. Its consequence was the gradual emergence and consolidation of a sense of the superiority of the Chinese national speculation, its intolerance to all other philosophical views.
The philosophical views of the above-mentioned ancient Chinese schools can serve as an excellent illustration of what has been said.
CONFUSION. Founder of the Confucius scale (Chinese - Kun Qiu, Latinized version of the name Kun Fu-tzu-teacher Kun; 551-479 BC). He is considered the first Chinese philosopher, and his life story over the centuries of history, naturally, was enriched by later legends. It is known that at first he was the lowest official in the state of Lu, then for a number of years. wandered across Eastern China, and devoted the end of his life exclusively to his disciples. The main reliable source for the study of his views are the preserved records of the sayings of Confucius and his students in the book "Conversations and Judgments" (Lunyu).
The starting point for Confucius can be considered the concept of "heaven" and "heavenly command" (command, ie fate). "Heaven" is both a part of nature and a higher spiritual force that determines nature and man ("Life and death are determined by fate, wealth and nobility depend on heaven"). A person endowed with the sky with certain ethical qualities must act in accordance with them, with the moral law (Tao) and improve them through training. The goal of cultivation is to achieve the level of a "noble man" (tszun-tzu), observing li-etiquette, kind and fair in relation to the people, respectful to elders and supreme.
Central to the teachings of Confucius is the concept of ren (humanity) - the law of ideal relationships between people in the family, society and state. It includes two basic principles governing human existence: a) help others achieve what you yourself would like to achieve; b) what you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others.
To maintain the subordination and order, Confucius developed the principle of justice and serviceability (and). A person must act as his position and order tells him to. Good behavior is behavior with the observance of order and humanity, for "a noble husband understands what is good, just as little people understand what is beneficial." This is the way (Tao) of all educated people who have moral strength (de) and who should be entrusted with the management of society.
These ethical principles underlie Confucius's political views. He advocated a strict, clear, hierarchical division of responsibilities between members of society, the model for which should be the family ("The ruler should be the ruler, and the subject should be the subject, the father should be the father, and the son should be the son").
The main method of managing the people is the power of example and persuasion. A “noble husband,” a member of the ruling elite, should not be angry, greedy, proud, or cruel. Confucius condemned the persecution and murder of dissidents and disobedient ones. If the upper classes follow the right path "(Tao), he taught, then" people with children behind their backs will go to them from all sides. "
After the death of Confucius, his teaching split into eight schools, of which only two are important: the idealistic school of Mencius (372-289 BC) and the materialistic school of Xun-tzu in 298-238. BC.). According to the teachings of Mencius, the life of people is subject to the law of heaven, which is fulfilled by a wise ruler - the son of heaven. He must love the people as children, and the people honor him as a father. Man is naturally good, he has four qualities: compassion, shame, modesty, the ability to distinguish truth from falsehood. Unkindness of a person is unnatural, it is a consequence of want and underdevelopment.
Philanthropy (ren), justice (i), good nature (li) and knowledge (chji), according to Mencius, are also innate in man. Ren and and are the basis of Mencius' developed concept of "humane government" (ren zheng) by the state, in which the main role was assigned to the people ("The people are the main in the state, followed by the spirits of the earth and grain, and the sovereign takes the last place"). If the sovereign ignores the principle of humanity, and replaces the personal power emanating from knowledge with tyranny (ba), the people have the right to overthrow him.
In the teachings of Mencius, for the first time there was a formulation of the question of the relationship between the ideal (xin - heart, soul, mind, or zhi - will) and material (qi) principles in human nature, and he assigned the primary role to will (zhi).
Xun Tzu proceeded from the concept of qi - primary matter, or material force, which has two forms: yin and yang. The world exists and develops in accordance with natural cognizable laws. The sky is an active natural element of the world; it does not control a person, but, on the contrary, can be subordinated to them and used in the interests of people. Happiness and unhappiness, wealth and poverty, health and illness, order and turmoil depend on man as a part of nature. Man by nature is evil (criticism of Mencius). He is born envious and spiteful, with an instinctive sense of profit. It is necessary to influence him with the help of education (li-etiquette) and the law (Confucius rejected the law), to force him to observe the ritual, to fulfill the duty, and then he will have virtue and culture. Perfection is achieved through a teaching that lasts a lifetime.
Xun-tzu believed that the main links of governing the country were fair orders and love for the people, reverence for ritual 1 and respect for scientists, reverence for the wise and attracting capable people to state affairs, and the measure of government was justice and peace.
DAOSISM. Along with Confucianism, one of the two main currents of Chinese philosophy. The legendary founder is Lao-tzu (bit., Lit. - an old teacher; proper name - Li Er; VI century BC). He is credited with compiling the book "Tao de dzin" ("The Book of Tao and Te"). In Taoism, unlike other schools, ontological problems are in the foreground. Tao is the natural way of the emergence, development and disappearance of all things and at the same time their material origin. Tao is infinite, it cannot be grasped either by the mind or by the feeling. Tao precedes God and dictates laws to heaven, heaven to earth, earth to man. Te is an indefinite, secondary principle, thanks to which Tao manifests itself in the world of things and fills them with energy.
The ethical ideal of Taoism is expressed in the concept of wu-wei (literally, inaction, inaction) and is directed against legalists and Confucians. Wu-wei meant submission to the natural process, harmony with Tao, the absence of any action that runs counter to it and leads to freedom and happiness. The goal of behavior is to become like the Tao, which does not fight, but knows how to win; victorious inaction, the rest is vanity.
The universe cannot be put in order artificially, for its accession it is necessary to give freedom to its innate qualities. Therefore, the best ruler is the one who does not interfere in anything and follows Tao, governing the country, and then it flourishes, being in tranquility and harmony; the people know only the fact of its existence. The social ideal of the Taoists is a patriarchal, unenlightened life, since it is difficult to govern a knowledgeable people; lack of external contacts, peace with neighbors.
MOISM. The school was named after the founder Mo Di (Mo Tzu; 5th century BC) and was a clearly built paramilitary organization that strictly followed the orders of its head. The main idea of the philosophy of Moism is "universal love", i.e. the abstract love of everyone for everyone, in contrast to Confucian reciprocity, interpreted as love for relatives. The absence of universal love is the cause of disorder, and "separate" love is the cause of "mutual hatred." The Moists also denied the Confucian doctrine of fate. The life of a person, they argued, is determined by his free actions, and not by the orders of heaven, which only wants people to help each other, so that the strong does not oppress the weak, and the noble does not boast in front of the ignorant. Mo-tzu strongly condemned "wars of aggression", declaring them the greatest and most brutal crime. The highest value, according to the teachings of Moism, is the people, which the rulers should love. Recognizing the existence of "spirits and ghosts" (punishing evil and rewarding good), "the will of heaven" (a guideline for human behavior) Mo-tzu introduced a religious stream into his teaching.
LEGISM (from Lat. Legis - law). THE SCHOOL OF LAWS (2nd name for legism) arose and took shape in the 6th-3rd centuries. BC. Guan Zhong, Shang Yang, Han Fei and other philosophers took an active part in the development of the teachings.
Legism developed in a tense struggle against early Confucianism, together with which it strove to create a powerful, well-governed state, but diverged, however, in the philosophical rationale and methods of its construction. If Confucianism brought to the fore the moral qualities of people, then Legism proceeded from the laws and argued that politics is incompatible with morality. The ruler needs to be well versed in the psychology of people in order to successfully manage them. The main method of influence is rewards and punishments, and the latter should prevail over the former. The state should be strengthened through the development of agriculture, the creation of a strong army capable of expanding the borders of the country, and the stupidity of the people.
The Legists created the concept of a despotic state in which everyone is equal before the law, with the exception of the ruler himself - the only creator of these laws. This doctrine played a decisive role in the formation of the imperial-bureaucratic system of government. His main ideas: state regulation of economic processes in the country; systematic renewal of the state apparatus by appointing officials (instead of the traditional principle of inheritance of posts); the introduction of a unified principle for the assignment of ranks of nobility, positions, privileges and salaries for military service and military merit; equal opportunities for promotion to administrative posts; clear gradation within the ruling class; unification (from Lat. unus - one and facio - I do; bringing to uniformity) thinking of bureaucracy; personal responsibility of an official; censorship over the activities of employees of the state apparatus.
In the Han era (206 BC - 220 AD), Confucianism assimilated (from Latin assimilation - assimilation, fusion, assimilation) of the idea of legism, became the official ideology, and legism ceased to exist as an independent doctrine ...
