Experiment

A psychological experiment is an experiment conducted under special conditions to obtain new scientific knowledge through the targeted intervention of a researcher in the life of the subject. This is an ordered study in which the researcher directly changes a certain factor (or factors), keeps the others unchanged, and observes the results of systematic changes.

Experiment as the study of variables

In a broad sense, a psychological experiment sometimes includes, in addition to the actual experiment, such research methods as observation, questioning, testing). However, in a narrow sense (and traditionally in experimental psychology), the experiment is considered an independent method.

The specifics of a psychological experiment

A psychological experiment differs in many ways from experiments in other areas of science.

In a psychological experiment it is very difficult to be sure that we are learning what we want to learn.

If a chemist studies iron, he knows what he is studying. And what does a psychologist study when he studies the psyche? The psyche as a construct cannot be objectively observed, and one can learn about its activity only based on its manifestations, for example, in the form of a certain behavior.

The experimenter wants to study how lighting conditions affect work efficiency. It changes the illumination, and people react not to the amount of light, but to the fact that such a cute experimenter is next to them ...

Water does not boil due to the fact that it is poured into another flask. An experiment conducted on a person can influence him so strongly that the results of it speak more about the reaction to the experimenter and the experiment than about the characteristics of behavior. specific person. In a psychological experiment, the personality of the experimenter turns out to be important: often people show one kind of results for one experimenter, and others for another. The subject was dictated instructions, but how? It is important for people to relate to them, people subtly react to suggestions from the experimenter, which he himself may not be aware of.

Types of experiments

Psychology uses laboratory experiments, natural experiments, and formative experiments. Depending on the stage of the study, I distinguish between a pilot study and the actual experiment. Experiments can be explicit and with a hidden purpose.

Many researchers in the process of discussion and discussion practice thought experiments. They are obviously much cheaper and faster, although not always convincing and reliable.

According to the method of conducting, experiments are distinguished:

Laboratory experiment.

This is the most common and respected experiment in scientific psychology. In it, you can control dependent and independent variables as strictly as possible.

Experiment as the study of variables

Robert Woodworth, who published his classic textbook on experimental psychology (Experimental psychology, 1938), defined an experiment as an ordered study in which the researcher directly changes some factor (or factors), keeps the others unchanged, and observes the results of systematic changes. . Distinctive feature of the experimental method, he considered the control of the experimental factor, or, in Woodworth's terminology, the "independent variable", and tracking its influence on the observed effect, or "dependent variable". The goal of the experimenter is to keep all conditions constant except for one, the independent variable.

In a simplified example, the independent variable can be considered as a relevant stimulus (St(r)), the strength of which is varied by the experimenter, while the dependent variable is the reaction (R) of the subject, his psyche (P) to the impact of this relevant stimulus. Schematically, this can be expressed as follows:

However, as a rule, it is precisely the desired stability of all conditions, except for the independent variable, that is unattainable in a psychological experiment, since in addition to these two variables, there are almost always additional variables, systematic irrelevant stimuli (St(1)) and random stimuli (St(2) ), leading to systematic and random errors, respectively. Thus, the final schematic representation of the experimental process looks like this:

Therefore, three types of variables can be distinguished in the experiment:

Independent variable

Dependent variable

Additional variables (or external variables)

So, the experimenter tries to establish a functional relationship between the dependent and independent variable, which is expressed in the function R=f(St(r)), while trying to take into account the systematic error that arose as a result of exposure to irrelevant stimuli (examples of a systematic error include the phases of the moon, the time of day and etc.). To reduce the likelihood of the impact of random errors on the result, the researcher seeks to conduct a series of experiments (an example of a random error can be, for example, fatigue or a mote that has fallen into the eye of the test subject).

The main task of the experimental study

The general task of psychological experiments is to establish the presence of a relationship R=f(S, P) and, if possible, the type of function f (there are various types of relationships - causal, functional, correlation, etc.). AT this case, R is the subject's reaction, S is the situation, and P is the subject's personality, psyche, or "internal processes". That is, roughly speaking, since it is impossible to “see” mental processes, in a psychological experiment, based on the reaction of subjects to stimulation regulated by the experimenter, some conclusion is made about the psyche, mental processes or personality of the subject.

Natural (field) experiment.

This is an experiment carried out in ordinary life, when there seems to be no experiment and no experimenter. See →

Formative (psychological and pedagogical) experiment.

The experiment consists in the fact that a person or a group of people participate in the training and formation of certain qualities and skills. And if the result is formed, we do not need to guess what led to this result: it was this technique that led to the result. See →

Depending on the stage of the study, I distinguish between a pilot study (the so-called draft, trial study) and the actual experiment.

Explicit and covert experiments

Depending on the level of awareness, experiments can also be divided into

those in which the subject is given complete information about the goals and objectives of the study,

those in which, for the purposes of the experiment, some information about him from the subject is withheld or distorted (for example, when it is necessary that the subject does not know about the true hypothesis of the study, he may be told a false one),

and those in which the subject is unaware of the purpose of the experiment or even of the very fact of the experiment (for example, experiments involving children).

Organization of a psychological experiment

Organization of a psychological experiment

A psychological experiment begins with instructions, more precisely, with the establishment of certain relationships between the subject and the experimenter. Another task facing the researcher is the formation of a sample: with whom the experiment should be conducted so that its results can be considered reliable. The end of the experiment is the processing of its results, the interpretation of the data obtained and their presentation to the psychological public.

Experimental Reliability: Validity

The validity of an experiment is the confidence that the experiment measured exactly what the researchers wanted to measure. See →

Flawless Experiment

Not a single experiment in any science is able to withstand the criticism of the supporters of the "absolute" accuracy of scientific conclusions. However, as a standard of perfection, Robert Gottsdanker introduced the concept of "perfect experiment" into experimental psychology - an unattainable ideal of an experiment that fully satisfies the three criteria (ideality, infinity, full compliance), to which researchers should strive to approach. See →

Interaction between experimenter and subject

The problem of organizing interaction between the experimenter and the subject is considered one of the main problems generated by the specifics of psychological science. The instruction is considered as the most common means of direct communication between the experimenter and the subject.

Instruction to the subject

The instruction to the subject in a psychological experiment is given in order to increase the likelihood that the subject adequately understood the requirements of the experimenter, so it gives clear information on how the subject should behave, what he is asked to do. For all subjects within the same experiment, the same (or equivalent) text with the same requirements is given. However, due to the individuality of each subject, in experiments the psychologist is faced with the task of ensuring an adequate understanding of the instruction by the person. Examples of differences between subjects that determine the appropriateness of an individual approach:

some subjects are nervous, while others remain cool,

Requirements for most instructions:

The instruction should explain the purpose and significance of the study

It clearly outlines the content, course and details of the experience.

It should be detailed and at the same time sufficiently concise.

Sampling problem

For selection, see the main article Selection.

Another task facing the researcher is the formation of a sample. The researcher first of all needs to determine its volume (number of subjects) and composition, while the sample must be representative, i.e. the researcher must be able to extend the conclusions drawn from the results of the study of this sample to the entire general population from which this sample was collected. For these purposes, there are various strategies for selecting samples and forming groups of subjects. Very often, for simple (one-factor) experiments, two groups are formed - control and experimental. In some situations, it can be quite difficult to select a group of subjects without creating a selection bias.

Stages of a psychological experiment

General model conducting a psychological experiment meets the requirements of the scientific method. When conducting a holistic experimental study, the following stages are distinguished:

1. Initial statement of the problem

Statement of a psychological hypothesis

2. Working with scientific literature

Search for definitions of basic concepts

Compilation of a bibliography on the subject of the study

3. Refinement of the hypothesis and definition of variables

Definition of experimental hypothesis

4. Selection of an experimental tool that allows:

Manage independent variable

Register dependent variable

5. Planning a pilot study

Highlighting Additional Variables

Choosing an Experimental Plan

6. Formation of the sample and distribution of subjects into groups in accordance with the adopted plan

7. Conducting an experiment

Experiment preparation

Instructing and motivating subjects

Actually experimentation

8. Statistical processing

Choice of statistical processing methods

Converting an Experimental Hypothesis to a Statistical Hypothesis

Carrying out statistical processing

9. Interpretation of results and conclusions

10. Fixing the research in a scientific report, article, monograph, letter to the editor of a scientific journal

Control methods

Exclusion method (if a certain feature is known - an additional variable, then it can be excluded).

Equalization method (used when one or another interfering feature is known, but it cannot be avoided).

Randomization method (used if the influencing factor is not known and it is impossible to avoid its impact). A way to retest the hypothesis on different samples, in different places, on different categories of people, etc.

Scientific quality of a psychological experiment

The scientific quality of a psychological experiment is the objectivity, reliability, validity and reliability of the methods used in it.

Scientific quality of a psychological experiment

The scientific quality of a psychological experiment is the objectivity, reliability, validity and reliability of the methods used in it. The credibility of a psychological experiment is confidence in its objectivity, reliability and validity.

Objectivity of results

When what is described exists so not only for me, but for all reasonable people, this is called objectivity. It is believed that the scientific result is an invariant with respect to many factors: space, time, type of objects and, most importantly, the personal characteristics of the researcher himself.

Objectivity of the results of a psychological experiment

When what is described exists so not only for me, but for all reasonable people, this is called objectivity. It is believed that the scientific result is invariant with respect to many factors: "... the scientific result must be invariant with respect to space, time, type of objects and type of research subjects, that is, objective ...".

In psychological research, objectivity is operationalized into ways of avoiding subjective tendencies and expectations: "...according to Peirce, being objective means avoiding such human factors as expectations and tendencies...".

The most effective research schemes in terms of its objectification are studies conducted by several unrelated researchers: "... an objective observation is an observation confirmed by several researchers ...".

Therefore, as a rule, in psychological research, the criterion of objectivity is implemented as a criterion of intersubjectivity: “... intersubjectivity, i.e. opportunities to be obtained by different researchers…” . See →

Reliability of results

Results are considered reliable if they are repeated during repeated measurements. See →

Validity of experimental methods and results

Perhaps the most important indicator that ensures the reliability of the results obtained in the experiment is validity - the confidence that the experiment measured exactly what the researchers wanted to measure. See →

What Experiments Prove

Psychology student studied auditory analyzers at the grasshopper. When at the first stage of the experiment he gave him the command: “Jump!”, The grasshopper jumped. At the second stage of the experiment, the student-psychologist tore off the legs of the grasshopper and repeated the command "Jump!", but the grasshopper did not hear and did not jump. Thus, it was proved that the grasshopper's auditory analyzers are on its feet...

Possibilities and limitations of the experiment as a research method

Experiment is one of the most respected methods scientific research but it has both its pros and cons. It is reliable but cumbersome, it impresses but is not always ethical. And most importantly - what does he prove? See →

Notable psychological experiments

Milgram experiment

Stanford Prison Experiment

For more than one century, great researchers have been striving to compile a complete scientific picture of a person and the characteristics of his personality. Similar work is being done by psychologists. This science from its inception to the present day has been able to accumulate a lot of material. An impressive amount of reliable data has been accumulated through the use of the most various methods and ways. But the experiments conducted in psychology are the most popular. Examples of many of them confirm the high reliability of the data obtained by the researchers.

A little about psychology

Children's, the subject of which is the development of mental processes and consciousness of the personality of a growing person;

Social, studying human behavior in society, as well as the influence of the press, radio, fashion, rumors, etc .;

Pedagogical, reflecting the picture of the patterns of personality development during the process of education and training.

There are a number of branches in psychology. Each of them considers the problems of a particular human activity. In the list of such industries, there is such a psychology:

Labor;

Engineering;

Aerospace;

Medical;

Legal;

Military.

At the same time, the tasks of psychology, regardless of direction, are to:

To study the essence of the phenomena taking place, considered by this sphere, and to understand their patterns;

Learn how to manage them

Serve as a theoretical basis for relevant services in practice.

Solving its tasks, psychology reveals the essence of the process aimed at reflecting the objective world in the human brain. At the same time, researchers find out how the actions of a person are regulated and the development of his mental activity, as well as the formation of personality traits.

All data obtained are based on the understanding that human activity is determined not only by objective conditions. Undoubtedly, this process is directly influenced by subjective factors. Among them are personal attitudes and relationships, one's own experience, which is expressed in skills, abilities and knowledge, etc. In this regard, the task of psychology is somewhat expanded and covers a range of issues that make it possible to find out the features of human activity depending on the available subjective and objective moments. .

experimental psychology

The discipline under consideration has one very significant direction. It is called experimental psychology and sets itself the goal of research into the study of human behavior.

The first experiment in this area was carried out in the 18th century. However, the experimental scientific direction took shape only in the second half of the 19th century. This happened thanks to the works of W. Wund, E. Weber, V.M. Bekhterev and others.

It is generally accepted that it was after the introduction of experiment into it that psychology stood out as a separate science. After all, obtaining data empirically opened up the prospect of substantiating the processes under consideration with mathematical accuracy. The reliability of the available facts began to be identified on the basis of indicators of their objectivity, verifiability and repeatability. Over time, the need to single out experimental psychology as a separate direction disappeared by itself. After all, the method of researchers began to be applied in all areas of this discipline.

Concept of experiment

What is it in psychology? This is an experiment carried out in special conditions. The goal set by the researcher is to obtain psychological data with the intervention of a specialist in the processes of the subject's activity. Not only scientists can conduct such experiments. Psychological experiments are sometimes performed by ordinary people. In this case, the researcher always acts in an orderly manner. It changes a certain factor of this or that process, while maintaining the rest without any changes. During these actions, the person who sets up such an experiment observes the results of systematic deviations of indicators and fixes them.

The concept of experiment can also have a broader meaning. In this case, observation, testing, questioning and other research methods are connected to the conduct of the experiment itself.

The need for

Experiments in the field of psychology make it possible to decompose this or that phenomenon into separate components, in order to then study each of them. Also, in the course of ongoing practical research, it is possible to fix the results obtained with a certain accuracy and monitor the development of the subject of study. In this case, the experimenter most often does not wait for the appearance of the mental phenomenon he is considering. He actively recreates it in the most favorable conditions for this, varies, intervenes in the process according to plan, repeatedly repeating the features of the experiment.

Quite often mental phenomena are studied in natural conditions with the help of methods of direct observation. But the use of the experiment makes it possible to artificially separate the phenomenon under study from others and purposefully vary the conditions of influence on the subjects. In the course of such work, the results obtained are traced, which is the basis for certain conclusions.

Classification

There are different types of experiment in psychology. Moreover, they are distinguished based on the conditions for conducting, goals, the nature of influence and many other factors.

In itself, the methods of experiment in psychology are divided into laboratory and natural, as well as formative research. In addition to this classification, there is a division into pilot (primary) experience and subsequent. Also, experiments are explicit and have a hidden purpose, etc. Consider the most commonly used of them in more detail.

Laboratory experiment

Such studies are classified according to the conditions of their conduct. Moreover, the laboratory is one of the most commonly used methods of experiment in psychology. What is it enclosed in?

A laboratory experiment is a type of research that is carried out in artificially created conditions for this. What are they like? An example of this is the acquisition of data directly in a scientific laboratory, where the interaction of the studied subject (person or group of persons) occurs only with factors that are of interest to the experimenter.

What are the benefits of doing this kind of work? With the help of a laboratory experiment, during which the researcher uses recording devices, it is possible to obtain indications about the time of the course of various mental processes, for example, the speed of the formation of labor and educational skills, the speed of a person's reaction, etc.

Based on this description, we can talk about the main features of experiments conducted in the laboratory. Such experiments are attractive because of the following:

High accuracy of the results obtained;

Possibilities of conducting repeated experiments with the creation of similar conditions;

Possibilities of exercising maximum control of the experimenter over the whole situation.

All this is the merit of such works.

However, in this case, the subjects are aware that they are taking part in scientific work; the subjects of the study are in conditions that do not correspond to reality.

This is the disadvantage of the type of experiment under consideration. An artificially created environment sometimes disrupts the normal course of the processes being studied.

natural experiment

In order to remedy the deficiency laboratory research, in practice, they often analyze phenomena in their usual situation. For this, a natural experiment is carried out.

In psychology, during such work, the subject is in his usual living conditions. The specialist intervenes in this process only slightly.

What are the advantages of a natural experiment? They are that:

The conditions in which the subjects are located correspond to reality;

Research subjects are most often unaware that they are involved in scientific development;

The results obtained are relatively accurate.

Among the shortcomings of the natural experiment are:

The impossibility of its re-conducting in similar conditions;

Lack of full control of the specialist over the situation.

This is the main advantages and disadvantages of the experiment in psychology, conducted in natural conditions. On the one hand, in this case there are undeniable advantages. After all, for example, a student who masters this or that subject is able to remember the material given to him in natural conditions not at all in the same way as he would do it in the presence of a researcher. But it also becomes simply impossible to take into account the inevitable occurrence of some factors influencing the process in such a situation.

Field studies

The types of experiment in psychology identified according to the conditions of the conduct are not limited to laboratory and natural types. There are also field experiments. They are carried out similarly to natural ones, but at the same time, as a rule, stationary equipment is used. This allows you to get more accurate results. All research participants are warned about such an experiment, but due to the usual environment, the level of distortion of motivation is minimal.

Classification of experiments based on their purpose

Depending on the task, the following types of experiment in psychology are distinguished:

1. Search. Such an experiment is carried out to determine the presence of causal relationships between the phenomena under consideration. Moreover, this technique is used only for early stages research. The data obtained should allow us to formulate a hypothesis, as well as to identify independent, dependent and secondary variables, determining ways to control them.
2. Aerobatic. Such experiments are trial. In the course of their implementation, the main hypothesis, approaches to research, etc. are refined. The requirements for an experiment in pilot-type psychology are to conduct it before labor-intensive and voluminous work in order to select a specific direction, which would allow rational use of funds. Obtaining data in this type of experiment is carried out by involving a smaller number of subjects, using reduced plans and without much control over external factors. Of course, the reliability of the results of such an experiment is not high, but they still make it possible to avoid gross errors associated with the advancement of the main hypothesis, the construction of work plans, etc. Sometimes aerobatics concretizes the main assumption, narrowing the search area, and also finally indicates a technique suitable for a large-scale study.
3. Confirming. This experiment is carried out to establish the variety functional connection, as well as to clarify the quantitative relationship between the data obtained. This type of work is carried out at the final stage of the study.

Classification of experiments based on the nature of their influence

Given this criterion, there are the following types of experiment in psychology:

1. Ascertaining. During such an experiment, the specialist does not change any properties of the participant, does not seek to form new qualities in him and develop those that he has. Very often, educators-researchers use the ascertaining experiment in developmental psychology. It allows you to establish the state of the existing problem and fix the fact that there is a connection between the phenomena taking place. The purpose of the ascertaining experiment may be, for example, to identify the degree of influence of the family on the process of becoming the personality of a child attending elementary school.
2. Formative. This is one of the research methods that is widely used by specialists and educators. A formative experiment involves the acquisition by a person of certain qualities that are set by a specialist. For this, specially created the necessary conditions. The results obtained in this case do not raise any doubts, since it is obvious that they were formed in the course of the work. The formative experiment is used for a deep study of the process of personality formation, as well as all stages of its course. In addition, this method is most effective when testing new ways of education and innovative technologies. A formative experiment is not always carried out according to a predetermined plan. First of all, the research problem is determined, and only after that I formulate a hypothesis, create a work program and conduct tests. The course of the whole process is under close observation, and its results are recorded for further understanding, which will allow drawing conclusions. To participate in a formative experience, as a rule, either two people or 2 groups of people are involved. Moreover, one of them is considered experimental, and the other - control. The participants in the psychological experience are given tasks that contribute to the formation of a certain quality. The control group is not given this task. After completing the formative experiment, the researchers conduct a comparative analysis of the results and evaluate them.
3. Control. This type of work carried out by specialists is a repeated measurement of certain indicators of the state of an object (a person or a group of people) for their comparison with those that were recorded before the start of the experiment. The data obtained are also compared with those possessed by a group of people who did not receive tasks.

Classification by level of awareness

What kinds of experiments in psychology still exist? Similar studies are divided according to the level of awareness of what is happening by a person.

At the same time, they distinguish:

1. Clear experiment. When conducting it, the subject has comprehensive information about the goals and objectives of the study.
2. Intermediate. This option involves familiarizing the subject with only part of the information about the experience. Other information is either distorted or withheld.
3. Hidden. As a rule, the participant does not know anything about this experiment. He does not know not only about the goals that psychologists face, but also about the very fact of the work being carried out.

Classification according to the possibility of influence

According to this characteristic, there is also a certain gradation of psychological experiments. In this case, allocate:

Provoked research;

The experiment that is subsequently referenced.

Provoked exploration is classic. When conducting this experiment, a specialist independently changes the conditions of the experiment. That is why those types of reactions that are observed in the subject are considered provoked.

The experiments referred to are experiments in which there is no intervention of the researcher. This method is used in cases where the impact on the subject is capable of causing him a serious psychological or physiological disturbance.

Experiment structure

What is included in the list of the main criteria that make up the studies considered in the article? The structure of the psychological experiment includes:

1. Investigated (tested) object or group.
2. Researcher (experimenter).
3. Stimulation, which is a method chosen by a specialist to influence the subject.
4. The response of the participant of the experiment to stimulation, that is, his psychological reaction.

The conditions of the study, which are additional influences, can influence the reaction of the subject.

Introduction

The components of psychological theoretical knowledge have different origin. Theory is an internally consistent system of knowledge about a part of reality (the subject of the theory). The elements of the theory are logically dependent on each other. Postulates and assumptions are the result of rational processing of products of intuition, not reducible to empirical grounds. The idealized object of the theory is a sign-symbolic model of a part of reality. The laws formed in theory do not actually describe reality, but an idealized object. The empirical foundations of the theory are obtained as a result of the interpretation of experimental and observational data.

As in any science, a psychological experiment is set up in order to test theoretical conclusions. The elements of psychological theory and practice are logically dependent on each other and complement each other. Psychological experiment, as a rule, plays an important role in the conduct of psychological research. This work is devoted to the analysis of the essence of a psychological experiment, its types, stages of its implementation.

The structure of psychological research

Science differs from any other sphere of human activity in its goals, means, motives and conditions in which scientific work takes place. The goal of science is to comprehend the truth, and the way to comprehend the truth is scientific research.

The study, in contrast to the spontaneous forms of cognition of the surrounding world, is based on the norm of activity - scientific method. Its implementation involves the awareness and fixation of the purpose of the study, the means of research (methodology, approaches, methods, techniques), the orientation of the study to the reproducibility of the result.

A distinction is made between empirical and theoretical research, although the distinction is arbitrary. As a rule, most studies are theoretical and empirical in nature. Any research is carried out not in isolation, but as part of a holistic scientific program or in order to develop a scientific direction. E. Fromm conducted the study of the characteristics of a narcissistic personality as part of a scientific program to study the causes of "malignant aggression". The program of K. Levin served as the basis for setting up research on the level of claims, achievement motivation, quasi-needs, group dynamics, etc. Proposed by B.F. Lomov, the program of studying the influence of the communication process on cognitive processes gave rise to studies of the dynamics and effectiveness of the joint solution of sensory problems, memorization of material, comparison of the processes of individual and group thinking, etc.

According to their nature, research can be divided into fundamental and applied, monodisciplinary and interdisciplinary, analytical and complex, etc.

Fundamental research is aimed at cognition of reality without taking into account the practical effect of the application of knowledge.

Applied research is carried out in order to obtain knowledge that should be used to solve a specific practical problem.

Monodisciplinary research is carried out within the framework of a separate science (in this case, psychology). Like interdisciplinary studies, these studies require the participation of specialists from various fields and are carried out at the intersection of several scientific disciplines. This group includes genetic research, research in the field of engineering psychophysiology, as well as research at the intersection of ethnopsychology and sociology.

Comprehensive research is carried out using a system of methods and techniques, through which scientists seek to cover the maximum (or optimal) possible number of significant parameters of the reality under study.

A one-factor, or analytical, study is aimed at identifying one, the most significant, in the opinion of the researcher, aspect of reality.

Any research includes a number of necessary stages. The following main stages of the study are distinguished.

1. Statement of the problem.

2. Analysis of information on the problem under study.

At this stage, the scientist analyzes the available information on the problem under study. It may turn out that this problem has already been solved or there are similar studies that have not led to a final result. If a scientist doubts the results obtained earlier, he reproduces the study according to the methodology proposed by his predecessors, then analyzes the methods and techniques that they used to solve this or similar problems. The most creative moment of the research lies in the invention of the original technique. Often, a methodological discovery transforms the scientific field and generates a new direction. The creation of the "problem box" by B. Skinner served as the basis for a series of studies on the operant learning of animals. The invention of "meaningless syllables" by G. Ebbinghaus contributed to the discovery of a number of interesting patterns in the work of long-term memory. Comparison method proposed by F. Galton mental characteristics twins marked the beginning of modern psychogenetic research.

3. Formulation of assumptions - hypotheses.

4. Development of a research plan.

To test hypotheses, a plan of scientific research is being built. It includes the choice of an object - a group of people with whom the experiment will be conducted or who will be monitored. The subject of research is specified - a part of reality that will be studied. Research methods (experimental or non-experimental) are selected, the place and time of research are determined, and the order of experimental samples is determined in order to reduce the influence of interference on the result of the experiment.

5. Carrying out research according to the planned plan.

Conducting research according to the planned plan is the next stage. In the course of a real experiment, deviations from the plan always occur, which must be taken into account when interpreting the results and re-conducting the experiment.

6. Formulation and interpretation of the results of the study.

After fixing the results of the experiment, the primary analysis of the data, their mathematical processing, interpretation and generalization are carried out. Initial hypotheses are tested for validity. New facts or regularities are formulated. Theories are refined or discarded as unusable. Based on the refined theory, new conclusions and predictions are made.

According to the purpose of their conduct, research can be divided into several types. The first type is exploratory research. Although the name sounds tautological, it implies an attempt to solve a problem that no one has posed or solved in a similar way. Sometimes similar studies are called studies of the "poke method": "Let's try this, maybe something will work out." Scientific works of this kind are aimed at obtaining fundamentally new results in a little-studied area.

The second type is critical research. They are carried out in order to refute an existing theory, model, hypothesis, law, etc., or to test which of two alternative hypotheses more accurately predicts reality. Critical research is carried out in those areas where a rich theoretical and empirical stock of knowledge has been accumulated and where there are proven methods for the implementation of the experiment.

Most of the research conducted in science refers to clarifying. Their goal is to establish boundaries within which theory predicts facts and empirical patterns. Usually, in comparison with the initial experimental sample, the conditions for conducting the study, the object, and the methodology change. Thus, it is registered to which area of ​​reality the previously obtained theoretical knowledge extends.

And finally, the last type is a reproducing study. Its goal is an exact repetition of the experiment of predecessors in order to determine the reliability, reliability and objectivity of the results obtained. The results of any study should be replicated in a similar experiment conducted by another scientific worker with the appropriate competence. Therefore, after the discovery of a new effect, pattern, creation of a new technique, etc. there is an avalanche of replicating studies designed to test the results of the discoverers. Reproducing research is the basis of all science. Therefore, the method and the specific technique of the experiment must be intersubjective, i.e. the operations carried out during the study should be reproduced by any qualified researcher.

Consider the classification of methods of psychological research.

S.L. Rubinstein singled out observation and experiment as the main psychological methods. Rubenstein S.L. Basics general psychology. M.: 1946. Pp. 58. Observation was subdivided into “external” and “internal” (self-observation), experiment - into laboratory, natural and psychological-pedagogical plus an auxiliary method - a physiological experiment in its main modification (method conditioned reflexes). In addition, he singled out methods for studying the products of activity, conversation (in particular, clinical conversation in Piaget's genetic psychology) and a questionnaire.

The second detailed classification of methods of psychological research, which has become widespread in Russian psychology thanks to B.G. Ananiev, - the classification of the Bulgarian psychologist G.D. Piriev. Pir'ov GD Experimental psychology. Sofia, 1968. Pp. 10. He singled out as independent methods:

Observation (objective - direct and indirect, subjective - direct and indirect),

experiment (laboratory, natural and psychological-pedagogical),

modeling,

· psychological characteristics,

Auxiliary methods (mathematical, graphic, biochemical, etc.),

· specific methodological approaches (genetic, comparative, etc.).

Each of these methods is subdivided into a number of others. So, for example, observation (indirect) is divided into questionnaires, questionnaires, the study of products of activity, etc.

B.G. Ananiev criticized Piryov's classification, proposing a different one. He divided all methods into:

1) organizational (4th and 5th levels, identified by us above);

2) empirical;

3) data processing methods;

4) interpretation.

Ananiev classified organizational methods as comparative, longitudinal and complex. The second group included observational methods (observation and self-observation), experiment (laboratory, field, natural, etc.), psychodiagnostic method, analysis of processes and products of activity (praxiometric methods), modeling and biographical method.

The third group included methods of mathematical and statistical data analysis and qualitative description. Finally, the fourth group consisted of genetic (phylo- and ontogenetic) and structural methods (classification, typology, etc.). Ananiev described each of the methods in detail, but for all the thoroughness of his argumentation, many unresolved problems remain: why did modeling turn out to be an empirical method? How are practical methods different from field experiment or instrumental observation? Why is the group of interpretative methods separated from organizational ones? Doesn't genetic interpretation presuppose a special way of organizing research ("twin method", etc.)?

In the works of M.S. Rogovin and G.V. Zalevsky Rogovin M. S., Zalevsky G. V. Theoretical basis psychological and pathopsychological research. Tomsk, 1988. P. 105. The above classifications are considered and its own is proposed. According to the point of view of these authors, a method is an expression of certain relationships between an object and a subject in the process of cognition. They reduce the number of basic psychological methods to six:

1) hermeneutic - corresponding to the undifferentiated state of science (subject and object are not opposed, the mental operation and the method of science are identical);

2) biographical - the allocation of a holistic object of knowledge in the science of the psyche;

3) observation - differentiation of the object and subject of knowledge;

4) self-observation - the transformation of the subject into an object on the basis of previous differentiation;

5) clinical - the task of transition from externally observed to internal mechanisms comes to the fore;

6) experiment as an active opposition of the subject of cognition to the object, in which the role of the subject in the process of cognition is taken into account.

The above classification has the advantage - the epistemological basis (subject-object interaction), although it is debatable: it is not clear what caused the selection of the biographical method (the criterion is integrity, then it is possible to isolate something according to the criterion of analyticity?) And the clinical method (is it specifics?).

However, the authors deliberately or unintentionally stopped only at the classification of empirical psychological methods, for which they were forced to include modeling among the hermeneutic methods. But aren't the subject and object of cognition opposed when using this method? After all, a model is a rational opposition by the subject of one object to another (image and prototype), which is impossible without a reflexive attitude of the subject to the object and to himself.

There are other approaches to the description and classification of methods of psychological research, but almost always a sign of identity is put between the empirical methods of psychological research and psychological methods in general, which makes it difficult to determine the specifics of both.

It is advisable, by analogy with other sciences, to distinguish three classes of methods in psychology:

1. Empirical, in which the external real interaction of the subject and object of research is carried out.

2. Theoretical, when the subject interacts with the mental model of the object (more precisely, the subject of study).

3. Interpretation and description, in which the subject "externally" interacts with the sign-symbolic representation of the object (graphs, tables, diagrams).

The result of the application of the first group of methods is data that fixes the state of the object with instrument readings, states of the subject, computer memory, products of activity, etc.

The result of the application of theoretical methods is represented by knowledge about the subject in the form of natural language, sign-symbolic or spatial-schematic.

Finally, interpretative-descriptive methods are the "meeting place" of the results of applying theoretical and experimental methods and the place of their interaction. Data empirical research, on the one hand, are primary processing and presentation in accordance with the requirements for the results on the part of the theory, model, and inductive hypothesis organizing the study.

On the other hand, there is an interpretation of these data in terms of competing concepts for the correspondence of hypotheses to the results. The product of interpretation is a fact, an empirical dependence, and, ultimately, a justification or refutation of the hypothesis.

1) deductive (axiomatic and hypothetical-deductive), otherwise - the ascent from the general to the particular, from the abstract to the concrete. The result is theory, law, etc.;

2) inductive - generalization of facts, ascent from the particular to the general. The result is an inductive hypothesis, regularity, classification, systematization;

3) modeling - concretization of the method of analogies, "transduction", inferences from particular to particular, when a simpler and / or accessible for research is taken as an analogue of a more complex object. The result is a model of an object, process, state.

Consider non-experimental research methods. These include: observation, conversation and the "archival method".

Observation is a purposeful, organized perception and registration of the behavior of an object. Observation, along with self-observation, is the oldest psychological method.

Distinguish between non-systematic and systematic observation. Non-systematic observation is carried out in the course of field research and is widely used in ethnopsychology, developmental psychology, social psychology. For a researcher conducting non-systematic observation, it is important not to fix causal dependencies and a strict description of the phenomenon, but to create some generalized picture of the behavior of an individual or group under certain conditions.

Systematic monitoring is carried out according to a specific plan. The researcher singles out the registered features of behavior (variables) and classifies the environmental conditions. Plan systematic observation corresponds to the scheme of a quasi-experiment or a correlation study.

Distinguish between "continuous" and selective observation. In the first case, the researcher (or a group of researchers) captures all the features of behavior that are available for the most detailed observation. In the second case, he pays attention only to certain parameters of behavior or types of behavioral acts, for example, he fixes only the frequency of manifestation of aggression or the time of interaction between mother and child during the day, etc.

Observation can be carried out directly or with the use of observation instruments and means of fixing the results. These include audio, photo and video equipment, special surveillance cards, etc.

Fixing the results of observation can be carried out in the process of observation or after a lapse of time. In the latter case, the value of the observer's memory increases, the completeness and reliability of registration of behavior "suffers", and, consequently, the reliability of the results obtained. Of particular importance is the problem of the observer. The behavior of a person or a group of people changes if they know that they are being watched from the side. This effect increases if the observer is unknown to the group or individual, if he is authoritative, significant and can competently assess the behavior of the subjects. The observer effect is especially strong when learning complex skills, performing new and complex tasks, and also during group activities. In some cases, for example, when studying "closed groups" (gangs, military groups, teenage groups, etc.), external observation is excluded. Participant observation assumes that the observer is himself a member of the group whose behavior he is investigating. In the study of an individual, such as a child, the observer is in constant natural communication with him.

There are two options for included monitoring:

1) the observed know that their behavior is recorded by the researcher (for example, when studying the dynamics of behavior in a group of climbers or a submarine crew);

2) the observed do not know that their behavior is being recorded (for example, children playing in a room, one wall of which is a Gesell mirror; a group of prisoners in a common cell, etc.).

Conversation is a method of studying human behavior that is specific to psychology, since in others natural sciences communication between the subject and the object of research is impossible. A dialogue between two people in which one person reveals psychological features another, is called the method of conversation. Psychologists of various schools and trends widely use it in their research. Suffice it to name Piaget and the representatives of his school, humanistic psychologists, founders and followers of "depth" psychology, and so on.

The conversation is included as an additional method in the structure of the experiment at the first stage, when the researcher collects primary information about the subject, gives him instructions, motivates, etc., and at the last stage - in the form of a post-experimental interview.

In the American scientific literature, the term “archival method” is adopted for such studies, in which the psychologist does not measure and does not observe the actual behavior of the subject, but analyzes diary entries and notes, archival materials, products of labor, educational or creative activity, etc. Domestic psychologists use a different term to refer to this method. Most often it is referred to as "analysis of products of activity", or the praximetric method.

A researcher can conduct a study of texts, subject products of activity with various goals. According to the goals and specific methods of implementing the "archival method", its varieties are distinguished.

The biographical method is widely used in the psychology of personality, the psychology of creativity and historical psychology, during which the features of life path one person or group of people.

The content analysis technique also belongs to the varieties of the “archival method”. Content analysis is one of the most developed and strict methods document analysis. The researcher identifies content units and quantifies the data obtained. This method is widespread not only in psychology, but also in other social sciences. Especially often it is used in political psychology, psychology of advertising and communication. The development of the content analysis method is associated with the names of G. Lasswell, C. Osgood and B. Berelson, the author of the fundamental monograph "Content Analysis in Communication Research". The standard units for text analysis in content analysis are:

1) word (term, symbol),

2) judgment or complete thought,

4) character,

6) complete message.

Each unit is considered in the context of a more general structure.

All methods used to obtain empirical material can be divided into:
active (laboratory experiment and its various modifications, quasi-experiment);
passive (observation, clinical method, method of analysis of products of activity, measurement and correlation studies, method of collecting information (servey research), "archival research", etc.).

Applying the methods of the first group, the researcher actively causes a phenomenon or process, influencing the object. Using the methods of the second group, he is only content with registering the natural process.

Pilot study in psychology, it differs from other methods in that the experimenter actively manipulates the independent variable, while with other methods, only options for selecting levels of independent variables are possible.

The usual variant of an experimental study is the presence of the main and control groups of subjects.

For formal reasons, several types of experimental research are distinguished:
research (exploratory) experiment is carried out when it is not known whether there is a causal relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Therefore, exploratory research is aimed at testing the hypothesis about the presence or absence of a relationship between variables A and B.
For example, is there a link between reading classics and IQ?
a confirmatory experiment is conducted if there is information about a qualitative relationship between two variables; then a hypothesis about the form of this relationship is put forward. For example, smart people do not necessarily read more classical literature, but you can try to find out what they read most often.

In psychological research practice, to characterize various kinds experimental research, the following concepts are also used: "critical experiment", "pilot study" ("pilot experiment"), "field study" ("natural experiment").

A critical experiment is carried out in order to simultaneously test all possible hypotheses. Confirmation of one of them leads to the refutation of all other possible alternatives. Setting up a critical experiment in psychology requires not only careful planning, but also a high level of development of scientific theory.

The term "pilot study" is used to refer to a trial, first experiment or a series of experiments in which the main hypothesis, research approaches, plan, etc. are tested. Usually pilotage is carried out before a “large”, labor-intensive experimental study, so as not to waste money and time later. The pilot study is carried out on a smaller sample of subjects, according to a reduced plan and without strict control of external variables. The reliability of the data obtained as a result of piloting is not high, but its implementation makes it possible to eliminate gross errors associated with hypotheses, research planning, variable control, etc. For example, when creating a new questionnaire, a pilot study is carried out in order to find out how respondents react to it, etc.

Field research is conducted to examine the relationship between real variables in everyday life (for example, between the child's status in the group and the number of contacts in the game with peers or the territory he occupies in the playroom). At its core, a field study (or field experiment) refers to quasi-experiments, since during its conduct it is not possible to strictly control external variables, select groups and distribute subjects within them, control the independent variable and accurately register the dependent variable. But in some cases the "field" or natural experiment is the only possible way obtaining scientific information (in developmental psychology, social psychology, clinical or labor psychology, etc.).

The algorithm of the experimental study as a whole looks like this:
1. A hypothesis is put forward about the causal relationship between A and B.
2. A search experiment is being carried out.
3. If the hypothesis is refuted, another hypothesis is put forward and a new search experiment is carried out; if the qualitative hypothesis is confirmed, a quantitative functional hypothesis is put forward.
4. A confirmatory experiment is carried out.
5. The hypothesis about the type of relationship between variables is accepted (or rejected) and specified.
Let us present the main stages of psychological experimental research and briefly consider their content.

1. Definition of the research topic.
2. Work with scientific literature. The researcher must familiarize himself with the experimental data obtained by other psychologists and with attempts to explain the causes of the phenomenon that interests him.
3. Refinement of the hypothesis and definition of variables. An experimental hypothesis, unlike a theoretical one, should be formulated as an implicative statement: "If ... then ...".

The definition of variables is a very important stage, because the plausibility and validity depend on how correctly they are selected, i.e. reliability of the received data. In other words, a variable is a parameter of mental or social reality that the experimenter investigates.

In the experiment, there are several types of variables that are fixed in the process of conducting:
dependent
independent
by-products - those whose influence can change the results of the experiment
external - gender, age and other characteristics of the subjects, which must be taken into account when conducting the experiment.

4. Choice of experimental tools. The researcher should choose a tool that would allow him to:
a) control the independent variable;
b) register the dependent variable.
We are talking about a specific methodology and equipment for a psychological experiment.

5. Planning a pilot study is the central stage of the entire procedure. First of all, we are talking about the selection of external variables that can affect the dependent variable. Planning is necessary to ensure the external and internal validity of the experiment. Experts recommend numerous techniques for controlling external variables.

6. Choice of experimental plan. With limited time and resources (including financial ones), the simplest experimental plans are chosen. The researcher can conduct an experiment with the participation of one person. In this case, he applies any of the research plans for one subject. If the researcher is working with a group, then he can choose a number of plans using the experimental and control groups. The simplest are plans for two groups (main and control). More complex experimental plans also exist.

7. Selection and distribution of subjects into groups, carried out in accordance with the adopted experimental plan. The entire set of potential subjects who may be the objects of this psychological study is referred to as a population, or general population.

The set of people or animals taking part in a study is called a sample. The composition of the experimental sample should model, represent (represent) the general population, since the conclusions obtained in the experiment apply to all members of the population, and not only to representatives of this sample.

8. Conducting an experiment. During the experiment, the researcher organizes the process of interaction with the subject, reads the instructions, conducts, if necessary, a training series. He varies the independent variable (tasks, external conditions, etc.), registers the behavior of the subject himself or with the help of an assistant.

9. The choice of methods of statistical processing, its implementation. Usually, data processing methods are chosen at the stage of experiment planning or even earlier - when putting forward an experimental hypothesis. The experimental hypothesis is transformed into a statistical one.

10. Conclusions and interpretation of the results complete the research cycle. The result of the experimental study is the confirmation or refutation of the hypothesis of a causal relationship between the variables: "If A, then B."

Main characteristics of the experiment: variables, sample, validity
Experimental variables are divided into dependent, independent, secondary and external.
An independent variable is one that the experimenter varies in order to find its effect on the dependent variable. The central problem in conducting an experimental study is the selection of an independent variable and its isolation from other variables.

The independent variables in a psychological experiment can be:
1) characteristics of tasks;
2) features of the situation (external conditions);
3) controlled features (states) of the subject.

A task characteristic is something that the experimenter can manipulate more or less freely. He can vary the stimuli or the material of the task, change the type of response of the subject (verbal or non-verbal response), change the rating scale, etc.

The peculiarities of the situation include those variables that are not directly included in the structure of the experimental task performed by the subject. This may be the temperature in the room, the situation, the presence of an external observer, etc.

Controlled features of the subjects can be represented by:
the physical parameters of the situation: the location of the equipment, the appearance of the room, the illumination, sounds and noises, temperature, the placement of furniture, the color of the walls,
the time of the experiment (time of day, duration, etc.), provided that this is not an experimental stimulus, socio-psychological parameters: isolation - work in the presence of the experimenter, work alone - work with a group, etc.,
features of communication and interaction between the subject (s) and the experimenter.

The "organism variables", or unmanaged characteristics of the subjects, include physical, biological, psychological, socio-psychological and social characteristics.

A dependent variable is one that changes under the influence of experimental exposure.

Psychologists deal with the behavior of the subject, therefore, parameters of verbal or non-verbal behavior are often chosen as the dependent variable. The researcher should specify the dependent variable as much as possible, i.e. to ensure that it is operationalized, amenable to registration during the experiment (one cannot choose as a dependent variable what is not observable: thoughts, assessments, etc.).

The problem of fixing the qualitative features of behavior is solved by:
training of observers and development of observation charts;
measuring the formal-dynamic characteristics of behavior with the help of tests.

The dependent variable must be valid and reliable. The reliability of a variable is manifested in the stability of its recordability when the experimental conditions change over time.

The validity of the dependent variable is determined only under specific experimental conditions and in relation to a particular hypothesis.

There are three types of dependent variables:
1) one-dimensional, in which only one parameter is recorded, and it is this parameter that is considered a manifestation of the dependent variable (there is a functional linear relationship between them), for example, when studying the time of a simple sensorimotor reaction;
2) multidimensional - for example, the level of intellectual productivity is manifested in the time of solving the problem, the quality of the solution, the difficulty of the problem solved;
3) fundamental. When the relationship between the individual parameters of a multivariate dependent variable is known, these parameters are treated as arguments and the dependent variable itself as a function. For example, the fundamental measurement of the level of aggression F(a) is considered as a function of its individual manifestations: facial expressions, pantomimes, abuse, assault, etc.

There is another important property of the dependent variable, namely the sensitivity (sensitivity) of the dependent variable to changes in the independent variable.

Side variables - all those whose influence can change the results of the experiment (for example, lighting in the room, the feeling of hunger in the subject, anxiety, etc.). Among the side, completely non-removable variables, include the influence of the time factor, the task factor, the factor of individual difference.

Since the influence of the experimenter is significant in the experiment, it is customary to talk about controlling variables during the experiment.

The control of an independent variable consists in its active variation or knowledge of the patterns of its change.

The control of the dependent variable consists in its clear fixation.

The biggest problem is the control of side variables that can skew the results of the experiment. There are several basic methods for controlling external (“side”) variables:
elimination of external variables;
constancy of conditions;
balancing;
counterbalancing;
randomization.

Elimination. The simplest in essence, but not in terms of implementation, "radical" method of control. The experimental situation is designed in such a way as to exclude any presence of an external variable in it.

Creating constant conditions. If external variables cannot be excluded from the experimental situation, then the researcher has to make them unchanged.

Balancing. In those cases where it is not possible to create constant conditions for the experiment or the constancy of the conditions is not enough, the technique of balancing the effect of the action of external variables is used. It consists in the fact that in addition to the experimental group, the control group is included in the experimental plan. An experimental study of the control group is carried out under the same conditions as the study of the experimental group. When balancing, each subject receives only one experimental effect: the external variable is balanced by identifying the effect of its action on the members of the experimental group compared to the effect obtained in the study of the control group.

Counterbalancing. This method of controlling a side variable is most often used when the experiment includes several series. The subject is exposed to different conditions sequentially, and previous conditions can change the effect of exposure to subsequent conditions. The counterbalancing technique consists in the fact that each subject receives more than one exposure option (AB or BA) and the effect of the sequence is purposefully distributed to all experimental conditions.

Randomization. This is a procedure that guarantees an equal opportunity for each member of the population to become a participant in the experiment. Each representative of the sample is assigned a serial number, and the selection of subjects in the experimental and control groups is carried out using a table of "random" numbers. Randomization is a way to eliminate the influence individual features subjects on the outcome of the experiment.