Of particular interest in the bioethological context represents the problem of cloning.
Cloning methods
manipulation with stem cells;
cell core transplant.
The uniqueness of stem cells is that when they fall into damaged areas of different organs, they can turn into cells of this type that is necessary for the restoration of the fabric (muscle, bone, nervous, hepatic, etc.). That is, using cloning technology, you can "customize" to grow the necessary human organs. Real fiction, however, where to take stem cells?
Sources of biomaterial for cloning
abutient material with natural and artificial fertilization;
removing stem cells from corners and furrows of the brain, bone marrow and hair follicles of an adult organism and other tissues;
blood from the umbilical cord;
faded fat;
potted children's teeth.
The study of the stem cells of an adult organism is definitely encouraging and does not cause ethical problems, in contrast to embryonic stem cells. It is generally recognized that the best source of stem cells for therapeutic cloning (ie, the production of embryonic stem cells) are embryos. However, in this regard, it is impossible to close the eyes to potential dangers. The European Ethics Group has put forward the problem of women's rights to the fore, which may fall under strong pressure. In addition, specialists celebrate the problem of voluntary and informed consent for the donor (as well as anonymity) and for cell recipient. Discussion remains on acceptable risk, the application of ethical standards in studies on people, the protection and safety of cellular banks, the confidentiality and protection of the private nature of genetic information, the problem of commercialization, the protection of information and genetic material when moving across the border, etc.
In most countries of the world there is a complete or temporary ban on the reproductive cloning of a person.
In the Universal Declaration of Man and Human Rights of UNESCO (1997), the practice of cloning is prohibited in order to reproduce the human individual.
Another cloning method is a cell core transplant. At the moment, many clones of various animal species are obtained: horses, cats, mice, sheep, goats, pigs, bull, etc. Scientists state that cloned mice live less and more susceptible to different diseases. Research on cloning of living beings continues.
Bioethic problems of genetic engineering technologies
Long period of time under biotechnology understood microbiological processes. In a broad sense, the term « biotechnology» denote the use of living organisms for the production of food and energy. The last years of the twentieth century was marked by great achievements of molecular biology and genetics. Methods for the allocation of hereditary material (DNA) were developed, creating its new combinations using manipulations carried out outside the cell, and transferring new genetic structures into living organisms. Thus, it appeared the opportunity to receive new breeds of animals, plant varieties, strains of microorganisms with signs that cannot be selected using traditional selection.
The history of the use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in practical activity is small. In this regard, there is an element of uncertainty about GMO security for human health and the environment. Therefore, ensuring the safety of genetically engineering works and transgenic products is one of the actual problems in this area.
Safety of genetic engineering activities, or biosafety provides for a system of measures aimed at preventing or decreasing to a safe level of adverse effects of genetic engineering organisms on human health and the environment in the exercise of genetically engineering activities. Biosafety As a new area of \u200b\u200bknowledge includes two directions: Development, applying methods for assessing and preventing the risk of adverse effects of transgenic organisms and a system of state regulation of the security of genetically engineering activities.
Genetic engineering - This is the technology of obtaining new combinations of genetic material using manipulations with nucleic acid molecules conducted outside the cell, and transferred generated structures in a living organism. The technology of obtaining genetically engineering organisms is expanding the possibilities of traditional selection.
Productiontransgenic Medical preparations - Perspective direction of genetically engineering activities. If earlier, for example, the effective method of treating anemia was considered frequent transfusion of donor blood (risky and expensive procedure), today the modified microorganisms and cultures of animal cells are used to produce transgenic medicines. The efficiency of using transgenic organisms in medicine can be considered on several examples of solving human health problems. According to WHO, about 220 million people suffering from diabetes in the world. For 10% of patients, insulin therapy is shown. It is impossible to provide all animal insulin in need (probability of transferring viruses from animals to people; expensive medicine). That is why the development of technology of biological synthesis of hormone in cells of microorganisms is the optimal solution of the problem. Insulin, obtained on a microbiological factory, identical to natural insulin of a person, cheaper than animal insulin drugs, does not cause complications.
A pronounced slowdown in the growth of children, leading to the appearance of Liliputov, dwarfs, is another human health problem associated with a violation of the internal secretion glands (lack of a hormone growth of somatotropin, which is produced by a pituitary. Previously, this disease was treated by introducing into the blood of patients of drugs of growth hormone allocated from the pituitary died of dead people. However, a number of technical, medical, financial and ethical problems arose here. Today, this problem is solved. The gene encoding the formation of human growth hormone is synthesized and embedded in E. coli genetic material.
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A person since his reasonable existence was striving to be young, healthy and live long, and better - forever. Not only ancient sorcerers, shamans, healers sought to reveal the secret of eternal life, to invent, but the Soviet doctors worked on the creation of the Kremlin Tablet of immortality. Unfortunately, while man is powerless in this problem. But to extend the life becomes quite real. With the emergence and development of genetic engineering becomes possible cloning of living organsthat in itself is a step to health and longevity.
What is cloning, I think everyone knows. Cloning The multicellular organisms or medical organs are accurate recreation, the appearance of living organisms with artificial way (without sexual reproduction) of living organisms or the creation of its parts by means of certain influences on the cellular core.
By creating certain conditions and affecting the core of the cells, it is possible to force it to develop in the right direction up to the complete reproduction of the deceased organism in the presence of its genetic material. And today, such works are no longer a mystery.
The scientific world swung on great: human cloning after an unprecedented appearance of a test tube in 1996 to all the famous Scottish lambs by the name of Dolly.
However, adopted in 2005 by the UN "Convention on the Prohibition of Human Cloning" on social and ethical and ethical and religious considerations suspended all work in this direction for an indefinite period. Yes, and the dolly itself was satisfied in 2003 due to the disease.
By the way, the scarecrow dolly is exhibited in the Scottish National Museum.
Russia has a federal law "On the temporary ban on human cloning" of May 20, 2002 No. 54-FZ.
However, not all countries signed up under the Convention, China became one of them. Literally yesterday, September 18, 2015, scientists from the London Institute of the UK requested permission from the state regulator to modify the genes of human embryos. If permission is received, the UK will become the second country after China, where such works will be carried out.
This is what concerns human cloning. However, scientific work in the field of stem cells successfully continue throughout the world and today.
What are stem cells?
In the human body there are two types of stem cells: normal Cells that all their lives perform only the role assigned to them on the reproduction of tissues, and there are those that can turn into other types of cells, they are called universal. The first live in an adult organism, but the second can only be taken from the embryo and then grow in a test tube. Here are these cells and methods to replace the amazed (patients of cells) in the body. However, the first problem is that not every organism they can approach. Second: There are cases in experiments when embryonic stem cells entered into the body begin to uncontrollamatically sharing, forming teractive tumors.
These problems were solved by Japanese physicians during the important scientific research performed by them in 2012, for which they received the Nobel Prize. Installed we all theoretically, regardless of age, we can be clones for yourself, that is, for our bodies. The smallest piece of skin, hair or even blood can serve as material to obtain the most valuable universal cells, which will serve as the basis for any organ, be it bone, cartilage or pupil eyes.
Of course, all this is still purely scientific developments, must pass the years so that the biomaterial is easily grown in any laboratory of the medical center and just returned back to his body. Before such surgery for the replacement of "sick" or not at all failed human organs, a lot of interim issues should be solved. But their decision is not far off! And then any genetic breakage in patient cells will be easily fixed.
And pleases that in Russia, scientific studies of stem cells are developing successfully. So in the Russian Institute of General Genetics, Vavilov, Vavilov quite recently obtained blood from stem cells of the skin, descending eye, there were the first to grow mini-hearts and work continues to improve it ...
The Dutch was grown to the gut, the Japanese - the descendant of the tooth, and a little earlier, the cells of the retina were obtained, work is being carried out on the creation of cells producing insulin. The task is very complicated. But imagine how many people in the world will be delighted with heavy illness - diabetes, Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson.
And even if the theory is very far from practice, it still pleases the fact of such a rapid development of cloning, both branches of biomedicine and the ability to save the lives of people, especially young children.
You live in a world where you can clone animals, flirt with virtual girls and play with robot dolls, which are more difficult to distinguish from person. Returning once home with a gift for her daughter, you will find a copy of yourself. Your clone that took your place and selected your life. If the first offer is fully tugged with reality, then the following is the filming of the film "6th day" with Arnold Schwarzenegger. Do you feel how this facet is that reality and fantastics?
Short. What's about
In January of this year, scientists of the Chinese Academy of Sciences reported successful cloning of primates in the same nuclear transplantation method, which was already cloned by the legendary lamb of Dolly. She died back in 2003, and many of my peers watched news issues about this event with undisguised surprise, delight and tool of fear.
Cloned lamb. Joke Lee! In adolescent consciousness, she turned into something comparable to alien cyborg, the eighth miracle of the light in the organic shell. The Internet, after all, in those years, issued extremely limited and expensive portions, and therefore it was not easy to dig information about the animal, they spoke quite commonly and vaguely on TV ...
In general, since then science has not fried over the corpse of a cloned sheep, which has become a world celebrity. Humanity has advanced from experiments with tadpoles to primates and human embryos. But first things first.
Who are clones?
Clones are obtained as a result of cloning, no matter how surprising it sounds. Let's start with the fact that even one-time twins can be safely called clones, because they developed from the same fertilized egg. Clones are cells of multicellular organisms, and even the plants that are obtained as a result of the vegetative (cullless) reproduction: cuttings, tubers, bulbs, rhizomes, etc. This is a rather an ancient tool for plant breeding, thanks to which we eat with dendry vegetables and fruits.
But if everything is clear with the plants, then the person or cow will not spread the bulb. We get from our parents on the set of genes, these sets are different, since the dads with moms we have different. And therefore, we get out of such as dad or only mom. Each of us is unique! From a genetic point of view, of course. And it is wonderful: the more different people, the wider a variety of species and the stronger it is protected from any damage to the environment.
How to create a clone on the example of a lamb
Dolly was born on July 5, 1996 in Scotland. It happened in the laboratory Jan Vilmut and China Campbell in the Roslinsky Institute. She was born as the most ordinary sheep. That's just her mother at the time of birth was long dead. Dolly has seen from the kernel of the somatic cell of the udder of its genetic mother. These cells were frozen in liquid nitrogen. In total, 227 egg cells were used, 10% of which, according to the result, was preystral to the state of embryos. But only one managed to survive.
He smasted in the body of his surrogate mother, in which he fell by transplanting a cell nucleus from the donor to the egg plasma flown from the kernel of its future carrier. The double set of chromosomes was experimentally received only from his mother whose genetic copy was.
Dolly lived like a normal sheep. True, most of the time spent locked and away from their relatives. Still laboratory instance. For six years, arthritis developed at the sheep, and then retroviral lung disease. Usually these animals live up to 10-12 years old, but Dolly decided to put halfway, which caused a lot of curvators in the media.
Some scientists, like the media, assumed that the cause of the early death of the sheep could be cloning. The fact is that the cell of an adult individual with already shortened telomeres was chosen as a base material for Dolly. These are the endings chromosomes that are shortened with each division. This process is called one of the main causes of aging.
But okay, let the scientist succeeded on some of the lands in numerous parallel universes. What's next? How to deal with an egg? Where to find a close view close to the structure that will be able to make future dinosaurs? And whether they can exist in general in the contemporary environment? Some people do not tolerance in the room, and poor dinosaurs will have to breathe air, which is 21% saturated with oxygen instead of the usual millions of years ago 10-15%.
Therefore, look at closer looks at the time line. For example, the last wonderful bird Dodo left this cruel world back in the 17th century, but even schoolchildren know about her (not sure that today's). All thanks to the caricature self portrait Lewis Carroll from Alice in Wonderland.
Several copies of this bird in the form of stuffed are preserved in different museums. Their soft tissues are also preserved, and among relatives there is a nicobar dove, which could take offspring Dodo. True, while all this is only talk.
Among the well-known, but unfortunately, the failed attempts to reanimate the deceased species are the Pyrenean Capricorn, which disappeared relatively recently - in 2000. In 2009, his clone was born, which lived only seven minutes.
Why do I need a clone?
So far in theory, but not always in practice, two types of human cloning are discussed: therapeutic and reproductive. The first implies the cloning of cells of certain tissues (non-organ) for transplant purposes. The tissues thus obtained will not be rejected by the patient's body, because they are essentially its own. Useful thing.
How it works? The patient's cell is taken, the kernel of which is transplanted into the cytoplasm (internal medium) of the egg, already deprived of his nucleus. This egg cell multiplies, develops in the early embryo of five days from the genus. Then, in Petri dishes, the resulting stem cells are converted into tissues necessary scientists and doctors.
Who may need a reproductive clone? People who lost their loved ones and want to return them in this way? But clones are not born at the right age. This happens except in science fiction.
Ethics issues
Cloning has too many unresolved ethical problems. And working with embryos, let them at the earliest stage of their development, leads to the waves of criticism in the address of genetics. In particular, from religious organizations. Still, the artificial creation of life and the likelihood of the gods, they cannot approve.
In addition, the reproductive cloning of a person is directly prohibited in many countries of the world and threatens criminal liability. Yes, the techniques worked on animals exist and scientists do not see any obstacles to human cloning except moral. However, the problem is that animals are not a person. No, I love and respect animals (not everyone), but the fact remains: they are embedded in our digestive chain. And no one asks the clone of the cow of her opinions about the bifhtex roasters.
The reproductive cloning of a person suggests that he will not be a simple set of organs, and over the years will be formed in the person, which can be fundamentally different from the original (this, in particular, demonstrate the twins). And the legal status of the clone will be undefined: what is his rights and obligations at all? How should he interact with his original? Who will he be grandson or heir?
As for therapeutic cloning, it is also prohibited in many countries of the world. Although the sake of scientific purposes can always make an exception.
It was expressed about the cloning of man and the UN. Negative. In the Declaration on Human Cloning from 2005, the Organization said that the use of achievements of biological sciences should serve as a facilitation of suffering and strengthening the health of the individual and humanity as a whole. The document encourages to prohibit all forms of cloning people to such an extent that they are incompatible with the human dignity and protection of human life.
Despite this, inconspicuously, but inexorably to the study of therapeutic cloning, more and more research institutes are embarking. When the time comes, humanity will still have to weigh everything for and against, relieve ethical issues and solve moral dilemmas. Because progress can be delayed, but not to cancel.
In October 2001, companies Advanced CELL TECHNOLOGY. (AST, USA) managed to obtain a cloned human embryo for the first time consisting of 6 cells. This is aware of the challenge of embryos for medical purposes (the so-called therapeutic cloning) is no longer outside the corner.
The purpose of the troyoclonation is to obtain human blastocysts (hollow spherical formations consisting of approximately 100 cells), which contain the inner cellular mass. After removing from blastocyters, internal cells can develop in culture, turning into stem cells, which, in turn, can turn into any differentiated human cells: nervous, muscle, blood-forming, glasses of glands, etc.
Medical applications of stem cells are very promising and unusually ill. They can be used, for example, for the treatment of sugargoabeta by restoring the population of dead or damaged pancreatic cells producing insulin. They can be used to replace the nerve cells with damage to the spinnogomozing. It does not arise the danger of rejecting the grafts and other unwanted complications accompanying ordinary operations of cells, tissues and organs.
Recently, the term "therapeutic cloning" began to use and to designate embryo cloning, intended for implantation in a woman's uterus, which can then give a cloned rone. It is arab fact that such a cloning will allow you to have children with fruitless pairs. Netons is related to treatment as such. Therefore, the general practitioners engaged in cloning for medical purposes are considered to be the record of the "reproductive" cloning, there is still no more multiple biological, medical and ethical problems.
At the announcement of the company AST with a request to provide material for scientific research in the field of cloning, multilaterals responded, of which 12 donors were selected after careful health and mental checks. Interestingly, in orderly substantial donors, they said that it would be to participate in the experiments to be infrodulative cloning.
Donors did special injections of hormones so that it is not alone, and approximately 10 eggs. Fibroblasts were used as sources of cores for transplantation in egg cells. Fibroblasts were obtained from biopsy of the skin of anonymous donors, among which were patients with diabetes mellitus, as well as patients with damage to the spinnogomozing. After the selection of fibroblasts, cell cultures were obtained. Cloning Egg Embryo Medicine
In the first experiments, fibroblast kernels were used. However, the core transplant is the egg cell, though he began to share, the Nopecess quickly quickly, and even two separate cells were not formed. After a number of failures, American researchers decided to use the T.W.W. R. Yanagimachi (the so-called Hawaiian method), with the help of which the first cloned mouse was obtained.
This method is that a somatic cell (fibroblast) (fibroblast) (fibroblast) transplanted a whole ovarian cell transplanted into the egg. The ovarian cells provide the supply of the developing egg and the tablespositions of it are associated, they are strangled on its surface even after ovulation. These cells are tables, Chtovstro, can be used a whole cell.
However, in this case there were significant difficulties. It took more than 70 experiments before you managed to get a dividing egg. Of the 8 eggs, in which ovarian cells were introduced, the two formed a four-cell embryo, and one was six cell. After that, the division ceased.
The parthenogenetic approach is based on the fact that the receptacle becomes a haploid not immediately, but on the satisfied stage of ripening. If such an almost ripe egg was able to activate, i.e. Stimulate to divide, you can get blastocyst and stem cells. The disadvantage of this stem cells are that the stem cells will be genetically related to the Tolkodonor of the egg cell. To obtain stem cells for other people in this way it is impossible - the core transplant is obligated into the egg.
Previously, there were successful attempts to activate the eggs of mice and rabbits using various substances or electrical flow. Back in 1983, E. Berrtson received stem cells from the Mouse Parthenogenetic Embryrine and showed that something can form various fabrics, including muscle and nervous.
Everything turned out to be more difficult with the human embryo. Of the 22 eggs activated by a chemical path, only6 formed in five days an irrelevant to blastocyst. There was no one-way cell mass in these blastocysts ...
There are three types of mammalian cloning: embryonic cloning, cloning of mature DNA (reproductive cloning, Roslin method) and therapeutic (biomedical) cloning.
For embryonal cloning Cells resulting from dividing fertilized eggs are divided and continued to develop into independent embryos. So maybe monosigital twins, triples, etc. up to 8 embryos developing in normal organisms. This method has long been used for cloning animals of various species, the elapical to the person, his hostility is not sufficiently studied.
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