Social experiment in sociology. Features of social experiments

Experiment- a specific method based on the controlled interaction of the researcher with the object under study under predetermined conditions. In an experiment, information can be obtained in an artificially created environment, which distinguishes this method from ordinary observation.

A sociological experiment is fundamentally different from a natural science experiment. The peculiarity of the latter is that the object is the material world, explored using a certain device or tool, i.e. the experimenter, in the words of G. Hegel, “acts against nature with the help of nature itself,” while a sociological experiment is a joint activity of subjects and a sociologist, aimed at studying any feature of an individual or group.

This method used when testing hypotheses regarding causal relationships between social phenomena. In this case, two complex phenomena are compared, differing in that in the first there is some hypothetical cause, and in the second it is absent. If, under the influence of the experimenter, a change is observed in the first, but not in the second, then the hypothesis is considered proven. Experimental research in sociology differs from the methods of other sciences in that the experimenter actively manipulates the independent variable. If in the application of non-experimental methods, as a rule, all groups are equal for the researcher, then the experiment usually involves main And control groups of subjects.

Due to the different level of development of one or another scientific problem and the lack of information about the relationship between the dependent and independent variables, there are two main types of experiments:

research, which is carried out when the causal relationship between the dependent and independent variables is unclear and the experiment is aimed at testing the hypothesis about the existence of a causal relationship between two phenomena;
confirming, which is carried out if the connection is clarified in advance and a hypothesis is put forward about the content of the connection. Then in the experiment this connection is revealed and clarified.

Thus, when identifying the causes of social tension in a certain city, the following possible hypotheses are put forward: low incomes of the population, social polarization, unprofessionalism of the administration, corruption, negative impact Media, etc. Each of them requires verification, although it seems quite reasonable.

The experimenter must have the necessary information on the problem being studied. After formulating the problem, the key concepts contained in the specialized scientific literature and sociological dictionaries are determined. When working with the literature, not only the problem is clarified, but also a research plan is drawn up, and new hypotheses arise. Next, the variables are defined in terms of the experimental procedure; First of all, external variables are identified that can significantly affect the dependent variable.

The selection of subjects must meet the requirement of representativeness, i.e. be carried out taking into account the characteristics of the general population, in other words, the composition of the experimental group should model this population, since the conclusions obtained as a result of experiments are generalized to the population as a whole.

In addition, subjects should be assigned to experimental and control subgroups so that they are equivalent.

The researcher experimentally influences the first group, and there is no influence in the control group. As a result, the resulting difference can be attributed to the independent variable.

Suppose a researcher hypothesizes that in a given city, the influence of the media leads to an increase in social tension. But what is the cause and what is the effect? Perhaps social tension itself influences the nature of television broadcasts and the publication of “disturbing” articles in the local press. IN in this case a sociologist can conduct an experiment to find out this cause-and-effect relationship.

So, for the experimental group, you can control (reduce or increase) the number of broadcasts with excessive “negative” information, change the influencing factors in order to find out how these factors separately or in combination influence people, i.e. the researcher manipulates one or two independent variables while trying to keep all others constant (Figure 1.3).

Rice. 1.3. The impact of the media on the growth of social tension

As objects sociological experiments are different - consumers and producers, managers and managed, believers and atheists, students and teachers, production and scientific teams, etc., and any characteristics of these groups are mainly psychological in nature. Therefore, experiments of this kind are often socio-psychological. Note that the main difference between purely psychological and sociological experiments is the emphasis of research programs and methods, as well as the goals set for the researcher. Thus, in a sociological experiment, specific manifestations of human behavior are studied, where psychological factors play a significant role. V. Birkenbill describes a nonverbal (wordless) conflict experiment, the participants of which were only two (small group).

This experiment was conducted at a restaurant table, at which two friends were sitting opposite each other. One of them, a psychiatrist, behaved somewhat unusually: he took a pack of cigarettes, lit a cigarette and, continuing to talk, put the pack next to his interlocutor’s plate. He felt somewhat uncomfortable, although he could not understand the reason. The feeling of discomfort intensified when the psychiatrist, pushing his plate towards the pack of cigarettes, leaned over the table and began to passionately prove something. Finally he took pity on his interlocutor and said:

I have just demonstrated, with the help of so-called body language, the main features of non-linguistic communication.

The amazed friend asked:

What are the main features?

I aggressively threatened you and through this influenced you. I brought you into a state where you could be defeated, and that bothered you.

But how? What were you doing?

First, I moved my pack of cigarettes towards you,” he explained. — According to the unwritten law, the table is divided in half: one half of the table is mine, and the other is yours.

But I didn’t set any boundaries.

Of course not. But despite this, such a rule exists. Each of us mentally “labels” our part, and usually we “divide” the table according to this rule. However, by placing my pack of cigarettes on the other half, I violated this unwritten agreement. Although you were not aware of what was happening, you felt discomfort... Then came the next intrusion: I moved my plate towards you. Finally, my body followed suit as I hovered over your side... You felt more and more miserable, but you just didn’t understand why.

If you conduct such an experiment, make sure that first your interlocutor, still unconsciously, will push back the objects that you place in his area.

You move them towards him again, and he stubbornly pushes them back. This may continue until the person you are talking to realizes what is happening. Then he will go “on the warpath”, for example by aggressively declaring: “Stop it!”, or will pointedly and sharply throw these objects towards you.

More risky are attempts to study the causes and dynamics of violent conflict. The researcher can use stimulating or suppressive measures (independent variables), for example, if you influence a group of subjects, you can detect an increase or decrease in aggression by recording its various manifestations (screams, threats, etc.).

M.B. Harris and colleagues in the 1970s. conducted an ingenious experiment when subjects who found themselves in shops, supermarkets, restaurants, airports, etc., were subjected to direct and strong incitement to aggression. Several different procedures have been used for this purpose. For example, in one of the options, the experimenter's assistants deliberately pushed people from behind. The subjects' reactions to this unexpected act were classified into categories: polite, indifferent, somewhat aggressive (for example, a brief protest or glare) and very aggressive (long angry reprimands or a push back). In several other experiments, the experimenter's assistants stood in front of a person standing in line (in a store, restaurant, bank). In some cases the assistants said “sorry” and in others they said nothing at all. Verbal responses were classified as polite, indifferent, somewhat aggressive (brief remarks such as “here I stand”), and very aggressive (threats or swearing). Nonverbal reactions were classified as friendly (smiling), blank looks, hostile or threatening gestures, pushing, and pushing. These procedures have been used to study frustration and aggression.

Thus, under sociological experiment you should understand the method of collecting and analyzing data that allows you to test hypotheses about the presence or absence of causal relationships between social phenomena. To do this, the researcher actively intervenes in the natural course of events: creates artificial conditions in the group being studied and systematically controls them. The information obtained during the experiment about changes in the indicators of the object being studied helps to clarify, refute or confirm the initial research hypothesis. The experimental method allows one to obtain reliable results, which can be successfully applied in practical activities, for example, to increase the efficiency of the functioning of social groups, organizations, and institutions. However, in the process of applying an experimental method, it is important to take into account not only the reliability of the data, but also moral and legal standards, as well as the interests and aspirations of the people participating in the study.

In order to give answers to strange human questions and solve global problems, and sociologists had to conduct social experiments, some of which were so unethical that they would shock even animal rights activists who generally despise humans. But without this knowledge we would never have understood this strange society.

Halo effect

Or, as it is also called, the “halo effect” is a classic social psychology experiment. Its whole point is that global assessments about a person (for example, whether he is cute or not) are transferred to judgments about their specific characteristics (if he is cute, that means he is smart). Simply put, a person uses only the first impression or memorable trait in assessing personality. Hollywood stars perfectly demonstrate the halo effect. After all, for some reason it seems to us that such nice people cannot be idiots. But alas, in reality they are little smarter than a tame toad. Remember when only people with an attractive appearance seemed good, for which many did not really like older people and the artist Alexander Bashirov. Essentially it's the same thing.

Cognitive dissonance

Festinger and Carlsmith's groundbreaking social psychological experiment in 1959 gave birth to a phrase that many still do not understand. This is best illustrated by an incident that occurred in 1929 with the surrealist artist Rene Magritte, who presented the public with a realistic image smoking pipe with a signature on a good, suitable French"This is not a pipe." That awkward feeling, when you seriously wonder which of you two is the idiot, is cognitive dissonance.

Theoretically, dissonance should cause a desire to either change ideas and knowledge in accordance with reality (that is, stimulate the process of cognition), or double-check incoming information for its authenticity (a friend, of course, is joking, and his ultimate goal is to see yours distorted, like Ron’s Weasley, I'll give birth). In fact, a variety of concepts coexist quite comfortably in the human brain. Because people are stupid. The same Magritte who gave the painting the title “The Cunning of the Image” was faced with an uncomprehending crowd and critics who demanded that the title be changed.

Robbers' Cave

In 1954, Turkish psychologist Muzafer Sherif conducted the “Robbers’ Cave” experiment, during which it came to the point that children were ready to kill each other.

A group of boys of ten or twelve years old from good Protestant families were sent to summer camp, led by psychologists. The boys were divided into two separate groups who only met together during sports competitions or other events.

The experimenters provoked an increase in tension between the two groups, in part by keeping the competition score close in points. The sheriff then created problems like a water shortage, which required both teams to unite and work together in order to achieve the goal. Of course, common labor brought the guys together.

According to Sheriff, reducing tension between any groups should be facilitated by informing about the opposing side in a positive light, encouraging informal, “human” contacts between members of conflicting groups, and constructive negotiations between leaders. However, none of these conditions can be effective on their own. Positive information about the “enemy” is most often not taken into account, informal contacts easily turn into the same conflict, and mutual compliance of leaders is regarded by their supporters as a sign of weakness.

Stanford prison experiment

An experiment that inspired the filming of two films and the writing of a novel. It was conducted to explain conflicts in US correctional facilities and the Marine Corps, and at the same time to study group behavior and the importance of roles within it. The researchers selected a group of 24 male students who were considered healthy, both physically and psychologically. These people have registered to participate in " psychological research prison life,” for which they were paid $15 a day. Half of them were randomly selected to become prisoners, and the other half were assigned to the role of prison guards. The experiment took place in the basement of the psychology department at Stanford University, where they even created an improvised prison for this purpose.

Prisoners were given the standard instructions of prison life, which included maintaining order and wearing a uniform. To make things even more realistic, the experimenters even carried out impromptu arrests in the homes of the subjects. The guards were never supposed to resort to violence against prisoners, but they did need to control order. The first day passed without incident, but the prisoners rebelled on the second day, barricading themselves in their cells and ignoring the guards. This behavior infuriated the guards, and they began to separate the “good” prisoners from the “bad” ones and even began to punish the prisoners, including public humiliation. Within just a few days, the guards began to display sadistic tendencies, and the prisoners became depressed and showed signs of severe stress.

Stanley Milgram's Obedience Experiment

Don't tell your sadistic boss about this experiment, because in his experiment Milgram was trying to clarify the question: how much suffering are ordinary people willing to inflict on other, completely innocent people, if such infliction of pain is part of their job duties? In fact, this explained the huge number of victims of the Holocaust.

Milgram theorized that people are naturally inclined to obey authority figures and set up an experiment that was presented as a study of the effects of pain on memory. Each trial was divided into the roles of "teacher" and "student", who was the actor, so that only one person was the actual participant. The whole experiment was designed in such a way that the invited participant always got the role of “teacher”. Both were in separate rooms, and the “teacher” was given instructions. He had to press a button to shock the “student” every time he gave an incorrect answer. Each subsequent incorrect answer led to an increase in tension. In the end, the actor began to complain of pain, accompanied by a cry.

Milgram found that most participants simply followed orders, continuing to inflict pain on the “student.” If the subject showed hesitation, then the experimenter demanded the continuation of one of the predetermined phrases: “Please continue”; “The experiment requires you to continue”; “It is absolutely necessary that you continue”; "You have no other choice, you have to continue." What’s most interesting is that if the current had actually been applied to the students, they simply would not have survived.

False Consensus Effect

People tend to assume that everyone else thinks exactly the same as they do, which gives the impression of a non-existent consensus. Many people believe that their own opinions, beliefs and passions are much more common in society than they really are.

The false consensus effect was studied by three psychologists: Ross, Green, and House. In one, they asked participants to read a message about a conflict that had two resolutions.

Then the participants had to say which of the two options they themselves would choose, and which option the majority would choose, and also describe the people who would choose one or the other option.

The researchers found that no matter which option participants chose, they tended to think that most people would choose it too. It also found that people tend to give negative descriptions of people who choose an alternative.

Social identity theory

The behavior of people in groups is an extremely fascinating process. As soon as people get together in groups, they begin to do strange things: copy the behavior of other group members, look for a leader to fight other groups, and some put together their own groups and begin to fight for dominance.

This was confirmed by the above-mentioned “cave of robbers” experiment.

The authors of the experiment locked people in a room, individually and in a group, and then blew out smoke. Surprisingly, one participant was much quicker to report smoke than the group. The decision was influenced environment(if the place is familiar, the likelihood of help is higher), doubt whether the victim needs help or is everything okay, and the presence of others within the radius of the crime.

Social identity

People are born conformists: we dress alike and often copy each other’s behavior without a second thought. But how far is a person willing to go? Isn’t he afraid of losing his own “I”?

This is what Solomon Asch tried to find out. Participants in the experiment were seated in an auditorium. They were shown two cards in order: the first showed one vertical line, the second - three, only one of which was the same length as the line on the first card. The students' task is quite simple - they need to answer the question which of the three lines on the second card has the same length as the line shown on the first card.

The student had to look at 18 pairs of cards and, accordingly, answer 18 questions, and each time he answered last in the group. But the participant was in a group of actors who first gave the correct answer, and then began to give a deliberately incorrect one. Asch wanted to test whether the participant would comply with them and also give the wrong answer, or would answer correctly, accepting the fact that he would be the only one to answer the question differently.

Thirty-seven of the fifty participants agreed with the group's incorrect answer, despite physical evidence to the contrary. Asch cheated in this experiment without obtaining informed consent from the participants, so these studies cannot be reproduced today.

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Federal state budget educational institution

higher vocational education

"Tyumen State Oil and Gas University"

Department of Sociology and Political Science

TEST

In the discipline "Sociology"

On the topic: “An experiment in sociology”

Introduction

The concept of experiment in sociology. Classification. Types

2. Experimental procedure

Alignment of experimental conditions

Experiment program and tools

List of used literature

Introduction

An experiment is a specific method based on the controlled interaction of a researcher with the object under study under predetermined conditions. In an experiment, information can be obtained in an artificially created environment, which distinguishes this method from ordinary observation.

Various social groups act as objects of sociological experiments<#"justify">1. The concept of experiment in sociology

An experiment in sociology is a method of collecting and analyzing empirical data aimed at testing hypotheses regarding causal relationships between social phenomena. In a real experiment, this test is carried out by the experimenter’s intervention in the natural course of events: he creates or finds a certain situation, activates a hypothetical cause and observes changes in the situation, recording their compliance or non-compliance with the hypothesis put forward.

A hypothesis is a proposed model of the phenomenon under consideration. Based on this model, the phenomenon being studied is described as a system of variables, among which an independent variable (experimental factor) is identified, subject to the control of the experimenter and acting as a hypothetical cause of certain changes in the dependent variable. Non-experimental variables are properties and relationships that are essential to the phenomenon being studied, but since their influence is not being investigated in a given experiment, they must be neutralized (isolated or held constant).

The main features of a social experiment are:

active intervention of the researcher in the system of phenomena being studied;

systematic introduction relatively isolated experimental factor, its variation, possible combination with other factors;

systematic control over all significant determining factors;

the effects of changes in dependent variables must be measured and unambiguously reduced to the influence of independent variables (experimental factor).

The structure of a social experiment can be presented as follows:

Experimenter. This is usually a researcher or group of researchers who designs and conducts an experiment.

An experimental factor (or independent variable) is a condition or system of conditions that are introduced by a sociologist. The independent variable must, firstly, be controllable, i.e. its direction and intensity of action must be in accordance with program settings; secondly, controlled, if its quality and quantitative characteristics are revealed within the experimental program.

An experimental situation is a situation that is created in accordance with the research program for conducting an experiment. An experimental factor is not included in the conditions of the experimental situation.

An experimental subject is a group of individuals who agree to participate in an experimental study

Classification of sociological experiments

Experiments conducted in sociology differ: 1) in the nature of the object and subject of research; 2) according to the specifics of the task; 3) by the nature of the experimental situation; 4) according to the logical structure of the hypothesis proof.

Table 1 Classification of sociological experiments

Basis for classification Types of experiments Nature of the object and subject of research Real (natural) on the general population on sample population Thought experiments based on a mathematical model “ex-post factum” Specifics of the task Scientific: theoretical and methodological Applied Projective Retrospective Single-factor Multifactor Nature of the experimental situation Controlled Uncontrolled Laboratory Field Actively directed Natural Logical structure of evidence Parallel Sequential

A natural (or field) experiment can be controlled or uncontrolled. In uncontrolled experiments, the result is achieved by sufficiently large number repeated experiments, so that, according to the theory of probability, uncontrolled factors cancel each other out and do not influence the influence of the experimental factor.

More rigorous data can be obtained in a controlled natural experiment.

A controlled (valid) experiment is an attempt to obtain a relatively pure effect of an experimental variable. For this purpose, careful balancing of other conditions that may distort the result of the influence of the experimental factor is undertaken.

This method is used to test hypotheses regarding causal relationships between social phenomena. In this case, two complex phenomena are compared, differing in that in the first there is some hypothetical cause, and in the second it is absent. If, under the influence of the experimenter, a change is observed in the first, but not in the second, then the hypothesis is considered proven. Experimental research in sociology differs from the methods of other sciences in that the experimenter actively manipulates the independent variable. If, in the application of non-experimental methods, as a rule, all groups are equal for the researcher, then the experiment usually involves the main and control groups of subjects.

Due to the different levels of development of a particular scientific problem and the lack of information about the relationship between dependent and independent variables, two main types of experiments are distinguished:

§ research, which is carried out when the causal relationship between the dependent and independent variables is unclear and the experiment is aimed at testing the hypothesis about the existence of a causal relationship between two phenomena;

§ confirming, which is carried out if the connection is clarified in advance and a hypothesis is put forward about the content of the connection. Then in the experiment this connection is revealed and clarified.

Thus, when identifying the causes of social tension in a particular city, the following possible hypotheses are put forward: low incomes of the population, social polarization, unprofessionalism of the administration, corruption, negative influence of the media, etc. Each of them requires verification, although it seems quite reasonable.

In addition, subjects should be assigned to experimental and control subgroups so that they are equivalent.

The researcher experimentally influences the first group, and there is no influence in the control group. As a result, the resulting difference can be attributed to the independent variable.

Suppose a researcher hypothesizes that in a given city, the influence of the media leads to an increase in social tension. But what is the cause and what is the effect? Perhaps social tension itself influences the nature of television broadcasts and the publication of “disturbing” articles in the local press. In this case, a sociologist can conduct an experiment to find out this cause-and-effect relationship.

Thus, a sociological experiment should be understood as a method of collecting and analyzing data that allows testing hypotheses about the presence or absence of causal relationships between social phenomena. To do this, the researcher actively intervenes in the natural course of events: creates artificial conditions in the group being studied and systematically controls them.

Rice. 1. The impact of the media on the growth of social tension

The information obtained during the experiment about changes in the indicators of the object being studied helps to clarify, refute or confirm the initial research hypothesis. The experimental method allows one to obtain reliable results that can be successfully applied in practical activities, for example, to increase the efficiency of the functioning of social groups, organizations, and institutions. However, in the process of applying an experimental method, it is important to take into account not only the reliability of the data, but also moral and legal standards, as well as the interests and aspirations of the people participating in the study.

Usually (in a real experiment) this check is carried out by the experimenter’s intervention in the natural course of events: he creates or seeks out a certain situation, puts it into action hypothetically. The reason and observes changes in the situation, records their compliance or non-compliance with assumptions. Experiment as a research and transformation activity<#"justify">1)By the nature of the object and subject of research;

)According to the specifics of the task;

)By the nature of the experimental situation;

)According to the logical structure of the proof of the hypothesis.

According to the nature of the object of study, real and thought experiments differ. A real experiment is characterized by targeted intervention in reality, testing explanatory hypotheses through systematic changes in social conditions. activities. In a thought experiment, hypotheses are tested on unreal phenomena, and information<#"justify">2. Experimental procedure

One of the well-known methods in sociology for collecting primary information is a social experiment. The main task of its application is the need for practical testing of theoretically established cause-and-effect patterns. At the same time, the experiment should be considered as a verification method scientific hypothesis. In this case, the goal of the social experiment is to identify a stable real pattern in the form of a clearly expressed cause-and-effect interdependence of the characteristics of social objects.

Most full definition experiment is given in the “Workbook of a Sociologist”: “An experiment in sociology is a way of obtaining information about the quantitative and qualitative changes in the indicative activity and behavior of an object as a result of the influence of certain manageable and controllable factors on it.”

The need to use a social experiment arises when it is necessary to solve problems related to the reaction of any social group on input internal or external factors, if these problems cannot be solved in another way.

The general logic of the experiment is to, by selecting a certain experimental group (or groups) and placing it in an unusual experimental situation (under the influence of a certain factor), to trace the direction, magnitude and stability of changes in the characteristics of interest to the sociologist, which are called control.

The most important thing in a social experiment is the creation of appropriate conditions (meaning the optimal choice of experimental factors). Factors (characteristics) that are most important from the point of view of the problem being studied and the creation of an experimental situation are selected as control factors. In turn, changes in control characteristics should depend on those characteristics of the experimental group that are introduced or changed by the researcher himself. Such characteristics are called factor characteristics. Characteristics that are not important from the point of view of solving research problems are called neutral.

Types of experiment and methods for selecting experimental groups.

Experiments differ both in the nature of the experimental situation and in their logical structure.

According to the nature of the experimental situation, experiments are divided into field (the object is in familiar, natural conditions) and laboratory (artificial formation of groups, placing them in specially created conditions),

According to the logical structure of the proof of hypotheses, a distinction is made between linear and parallel experiments.

In a linear experiment, the same group is analyzed, being both the control group (in the initial state) and the experimental group (in the post-experiment state).

IN parallelThe experiment simultaneously involves two groups: control and experimental. Their composition should be the same for control and neutral characteristics, moreover, the characteristics in the control group remain constant, but in the experimental group they change. At the end of the experiment, the control characteristics of the two groups are compared. Then conclusions are made about the causes and extent of positive or negative changes in the object of study.

The very logic of constructing and implementing a social experiment can be represented by the following structure:

Determining the purpose of the experiment.

Selection of object (control and experimental groups).

Definition of the subject of research.

Selection of control, factor and neutral characteristics.

Determination of experimental conditions and creation of an experimental group.

Definition of tasks.

Selection of methods for monitoring the progress of the experiment.

Determination of methods for checking the effectiveness of the experiment.

The logic of an experiment is always subordinated to the search for reasons and the nature of the change of interest to the researcher social phenomenon or process.

The typology of social experiments is presented in Table 1.

Table 1 Types of social experiments

Main divisions Types I. Specifics of tasks. 1. Research; 2.Practical.II. Nature of the experimental situation. 1. Field; 2. Laboratory. III. Logical structure of the hypothesis proof. 1. Parallel; 2.Sequential.IV. Nature of the object. 1. Social; 2. Pedagogical; 3.Economic, etc.

Let us give an example of a social experiment in the field physical culture and sports.

The purpose of the experiment is to identify the influence of different styles of managing students’ activities (authoritarian and democratic) in physical education classes on their physical activity. The control and experimental groups were organized taking into account the purpose and objectives of the study. The subject of the study is the effectiveness of physical education classes in conditions of different styles of student activity management. Control characteristics in this study The level of physical activity of students in classes is the factor, and various leadership styles are factors. The quality of performing motor actions can be neutral. The experimental situation is set by conducting classes in the control and experimental groups using different leadership styles.

The hypothesis underlying this social experiment was the assumption that the use of democratic style Guiding the activities of students in physical education classes, providing for some freedom in choosing the types of physical activity, will lead to an increase in physical activity.

The hypothesis in this case was tested by determining the motor density of activities.

In conclusion, we note that modern practice shows that experimental studies are a reliable method for collecting information and scientific analysis.

Alignment of experimental conditions

Leveling of conditions applies to all objects participating in the experiments: experimental and control. Experiments without a control object and repeated several times are possible. Then the conditions of the experimental objects in each series of experiments must be equalized.

Before we begin to level the playing field, it is necessary to identify the characteristics that presumably influence the expected consequence. This requires a preliminary analysis of the problem when developing a research program. All of these characteristics potentially represent experimental variables. But in each individual experiment, the effect of only one of the selected factors is checked, and the rest are subject to equalization.

First of all, the main parameters of the general social situation are aligned, such as the type of settlement, industry, ethnic and cultural environment, time interval and other features that are equally applicable to all objects of the process being studied.

Basic Leveling Techniques individual characteristics in the case where the units of observation are individuals, the following.

Point alignment is used in experiments with small groups. The procedure comes down to the selection of individuals in groups to be aligned according to common characteristics identified as essential, such as: a) age; b) marital status; c) gender; d) permanent place of residence, etc. Then, when equalizing in the experimental and control groups, each individual in the first group should have an analogue in the second: Ivanov, a 3rd year student, 20 years old, unmarried, from out of town, should have a corresponding Petrov with exactly the same data. This method is effective for small groups, therefore it is used, as a rule, in laboratory experiments and extremely rarely in field studies.

Frequency equalization involves comparing significant characteristics in the experimental and control groups in proportions, average values, etc., in accordance with similar indicators of the general population (see Table 2).

In this case, there is a danger that there may be a different combination of values of the selected characteristics in the experimental and control groups, which also differs from their distribution in the general population. For example, if, for example, one group of law and accounting faculties are taken as experimental and control groups, then they may have a different ratio of men and women, or urban and nonresident, different from the distribution of these parameters in the entire general population, i.e. . among all students of the academy.

Table 2 Frequency equalization of individual characteristics in a controlled experiment (in%)

Characteristics to be equalized General population (academy students) Group Experimental Control Gender Male 424,040 Female 586,060 Residence Urban 757,575 Nonresident 252,525

Quota equalization, often used in large samples, eliminates the shortcomings of the previous method. In this case, groups are compared according to the proportional representation of characteristics taken in strict combinations (quotas), as shown in Table. 3

Table 3 Alignment of individual characteristics in a controlled experiment using the quota method (in%)

Quota of characteristics subject to equalization Experimental group Control Male third-year lawyers, urban, age 20 years 1010 Female third-year lawyers, urban, age 20 years 1515

Random mechanical alignment is used in mass experiments, on large objects, when the selection of individuals is carried out according to the rules of random non-repetitive sampling. However, this technique is not suitable for small groups.

A type of controlled natural experiments is randomization (from the English random - chance), which allows you to eliminate or minimize the impact of uncontrolled “random” factors.

Using a significant number of experimental and control objects or conducting numerous experiments, randomization allows you to “extinguish” the influence of uncontrolled (background) influences if they are not systematic. Then the experimental effect is assessed by the usual calculation of the significance of the averages according to the criteria of the “before-after” state on experimental and control objects, and the degree of significance of the identified patterns is determined using correlation analysis.

A rather fruitful method of sociological research can be a thought experiment, or quasi-experiment. Its originality is that instead of manipulating with real objects, we operate with information about past events.

In a natural experiment, the researcher designs the supposed events, influencing the experimental object with their hypothetical causes. In a thought experiment, the course of reasoning is reversed: from the available consequences to possible reasons. This experimental approach is called a retrospective analysis or an “ex-post-facto” experiment.

For example, you can retrospectively check the assumption that the nature of a student’s creative activity significantly influences the direction of his subsequent career (remember Zhvanetsky: “Ilchenko, Kartsev, and I graduated from the Odessa Institute of Water Transport Engineers. It’s clear what kind of institute this is if you look at the specialists he releases"). In this case, we check to what extent the student’s participation in scientific research determines his future career in the field of science. To do this, from the list of university graduates, we select those who have made a career in the scientific field - defended a dissertation, work at a university or research institute, etc. Then we check their presence in the lists of research participants in the years when they studied at the institute. If the proportion of those participating in research work among this group is significantly higher than the average for the university student population, then, obviously, the assumption made is justified.

Experiment program and tools

The experimental program is a description of the experimentally verifiable hypothesis and the procedures for testing it (system of variables, experimental factor, experimental situation (conditions), experimental and control groups, experimental instruments).

The experimental tools include a protocol, a diary and an observation card.

The main resulting document of the experimental method is the experimental protocol, which should reflect the following items:

The name of the topic of the experiment.

The exact time and place of its holding.

A clear formulation of the hypothesis being tested.

Characteristics of dependent variables and their indicators.

Essential description of the experimental group.

Characteristics of the control group and principles of its selection

Description of the experimental situation.

Characteristics of experimental conditions.

The course of the experiment, i.e. its setting:

A) before the introduction of the experimental factor;

B) in the process of entering it;

B) after its administration;

D) after the end of the experiment.

Assessment of the purity of the experiment and the instruments used.

Conclusion about the reliability of the hypothesis.

Other conclusions.

Information about the authors of the protocol and the degree of their consent.

Date of signing the protocol.

Since the experimental method is more complex than others, errors are often made in its application. Let's name some of the most common:

The experiment is carried out to obtain information that can be obtained by other, more in simple ways.

An experiment is designated as either an included or a standardized non-included observation.

There is no organic connection between the experiment and the purpose, objectives and hypotheses of the study.

There was ambiguity or other significant significant inaccuracy in the formulation of the hypothesis submitted for experimental testing.

The theoretical system of variables is constructed incorrectly, causes and consequences are confused.

The experimental factor (independent variable) was chosen arbitrarily, without taking into account the fact that it should play the role of a determinant and be controllable by the researcher.

The independent and dependent variables were not adequately reflected in the empirical indicators.

The impact on dependent variables of factors not included in the independent variable is underestimated.

The experimental situation is not clearly defined, due to which the experiment is carried out in violation of its conditions.

Subjective assessments of the experimental situation prevail over objective characteristics.

During the experiment, important properties of the experimental group were revealed that were not known before the experiment began.

The control group is not an analogue of the experimental group in terms of parameters essential for the study

Control over the course of the experiment was weakened and/or ineffective.

The experimental instruments are aimed only at recording certain data (similar to an observation instrument), and not at maintaining the purity of the experiment.

The conclusions of experimenters are adjusted (adjusted) to the hypothesis without sufficient grounds.

social experiment sport

Literature used

1. Ryvkina R.V., Vinokur A.V. Social experiment. Novosibirsk, 1966;

2. Kupriyan A.P. Methodological problems of social experiment. M., 1971;

Kupriyan A.P. The problem of experiment in the system of social practice. M., 1981;

4.Workbook of a sociologist. M., 1983, Yadov V.A. Sociological research: methodology , program, methods. M., 1987;

Vikhalemm P.A. Experiment in sociological research // Methods of collecting information in sociological research. Book 2. M., 1990;

Andreenkov V.G. Data collection methods // Sociology. Basics general theory(edited by Osipov G.V., Moskvichev L.N.). M., 1996. P.A. Vihalemm.

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Experiment is a method of collecting and analyzing empirical data aimed at testing hypotheses regarding causal relationships between phenomena. Usually this check is carried out by the experimenter's intervention in the natural course of events.

The object of a sociological experiment there can be an individual person, any (both quantitatively and qualitatively) group of people, social institution, the whole society.

A social experiment performs two main functions:

Achieving effect in practical transformative activities

Testing a scientific hypothesis.

An experiment as a research and transformation activity is a form of practice, and its results are applicable as a criterion of truth.

This method is most effective for testing explanatory hypotheses. It allows you to establish the presence or absence of the influence of a certain factor (a certain combination of them) on the object under study, i.e. discover cause-and-effect relationships.

Experiment scheme:

1.generating hypotheses

2. selection of experimental and control object (or states of one object)

3. determination of neutral, factor (we will change) and control (we will monitor) characteristics of the object.

4.confirmation or refutation of hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships between phenomena.

Experiments conducted in sociology vary:

1) by the nature of the object and subject of research;

1.Real (natural)

On the general population

On the sample population

2. Mental

On a mathematical model

Ex-post experiments

2) according to the specifics of the task;

Scientific: theoretical and methodological

Applied

Projective

Retrospective

Single factor

Multifactorial

3) by the nature of the experimental situation;

Controlled

Uncontrollable

Laboratory

Actively directed

Natural

According to the logical structure of the proof of the hypothesis.

Parallel

Consecutive

So the experiment is effective method empirical knowledge.

Ticket 2

Understanding sociology of M. Weber.

Sociology, according to Weber, is "understanding", because it studies the behavior of an individual who puts a certain meaning into his actions.

One of the central points of his theory was his identification elementary particle behavior of an individual in society - social action, which is the cause and consequence of a system of complex relationships between people.

Weber introduced the concept into sociological terminology ideal type. He argued that we talk about an entrepreneur, a worker or a king as a typical (statistically average) representative of a given stratum. However, in real life“entrepreneur” or “king” does not exist at all. This is an abstraction invented in order to designate entire sets of facts, people, and phenomena with one name.

Weber identifies four types of social action in descending order of their meaningfulness and intelligibility:

1. purposeful - when objects or people are interpreted as means to achieve their own rational goals. The subject accurately imagines the goal and selects best option her achievements. This is a pure model of formal-instrumental life orientation; such actions are most often found in the sphere of economic practice.

2. value-rational - determined by a conscious belief in the value of a certain action, regardless of its success, performed in the name of some value, and its achievement is more important side effects(for example, the captain is the last to leave a sinking ship);

3. traditional - determined by tradition or habit. The individual simply reproduces the pattern of social activity that was previously used in similar situations by him or those around him (a peasant goes to the fair at the same time as his fathers and grandfathers).

4. affective - determined by emotions;

Social relation according to Weber is a system social action, social relations include such concepts as struggle, love, friendship, competition, exchange, etc. A social relation perceived by an individual as obligatory acquires the status of a legitimate social order. In accordance with the types of social actions, four types of legal (legitimate) order are distinguished: traditional, affective, value-rational and legal.

Weber analyzed in detail power relations, as well as the nature and structure of organizations where these relations are most pronounced. Ideal mechanism embodiment and maintenance of power relations in the organization, he considered bureaucracy(from French. bureau and Greek kratos, literally means: the dominance of the office) is an artificially created apparatus for managing an organization, extremely rational, controlling and coordinating the activities of all its employees.

Weber's main goal is to clarify how people's economic behavior depends on the nature of their worldview. Probably the most clear illustration of this approach should be considered one of his most famous works, “The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.” It argues, in particular, that the secular culture of capitalist society paradoxically arose from the asceticism inculcated by Protestant reformism.

In the theoretical works of Max Weber, the subject of sociology as a science was not only clearly defined, but also laid the foundations for its development in both theoretical and practical terms. Thanks to the theoretical contributions of Weber, as well as his colleagues Ferdinand Tönnies and Georg Simmel, it can be argued that the German school of sociology dominated world sociology until the First World War

Society as an object of sociological study.

The object of sociological knowledge is society.

Society - constantly changing dynamic system, isolated from nature, and closely connected with it, part of the material world.

stages of development:

Traditional society

Industrial society

Post-industrial society

Sociology studies the distribution and occurrence of group behavior and the integration of these variables across biological, psychological, cultural and environmental.

At all stages of history, humanity has tried to comprehend society and express its attitude towards it.

Sociological research program.

SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH PROGRAM is a document containing methodological, methodological and technical prerequisites for the scientific search for answers to the question posed in a sociological study.

Social program Research:

Methodological part.

1Substantiation of the research problem.

2 Purpose of the study.

3 Object and subject of research.

4. Logical analysis of basic concepts.

5. Research hypothesis.

6 Research objectives.

Methodological part.

1 Definition of the study population.

2 Methods for collecting primary sociological information.

Tools.

1 Questionnaire (for each applicant).

2. Instructions for filling out the questionnaire.

Ticket 3

Sociology of E. Durkheim.

Subject sociology are social facts that exist outside the individual and have normative and coercive force in relation to him.

Tasks of sociology- understand what motivates people to live together, why for them a stable social order is the highest value and what laws govern interpersonal relationships; offer the government specific recommendations on how to organize modern life.

Methodology of sociological knowledge(research) - based on the requirement of intellectual, scientific honesty, liberation scientific research from all political, religious, metaphysical and other prejudices that hinder the comprehension of the truth and bring a lot of troubles in practice.

Sociology- a strict objective science, free from all kinds of ideological prejudices and speculative speculations.

Society

An archaic (simple) society or group is characterized by mechanical solidarity of people - individual consciousnesses completely dissolved in the collective consciousness.

Industrial (complex) society is characterized by organic solidarity of people - the presence of a division of labor and specialization of activities is assumed, generating the functional dependence of individuals, as well as the need and need for joint work.

Man is a dual reality homo duplex, in which two entities coexist, interact and fight: social and individual.

Society is a reality of a special kind, the elementary “building blocks” of which are social facts - patterns of behavior that have an external, coercive influence on the individual and have an objective existence.

Civil society

At an early stage, the will of one person stands out from the collective unanimity - the leader. Only he could challenge public opinion by declaring the beginning of a new historical era.

Collective Consciousness

Collective consciousness is a set of common interests, beliefs, convictions, feelings, values and aspirations among members of the same society. K.s. - “a mental type of society, a type that has its own way of development, its own properties, its own conditions of existence.” It has a special, “separate reality” - it exists objectively, regardless of our will and consciousness, but is realized only in individuals.

Social facts

A “social fact,” according to Durkheim, is any course of action, whether clearly defined or not, but capable of exerting external pressure on the individual and at the same time having its own existence, independent of it. At birth, an individual finds ready-made laws and customs, rules of conduct, religious beliefs and rituals, language, and a monetary system that function independently of him. These images of thoughts, actions and feelings exist independently, objectively.

Suicide problem

Durkheim identified the following types of suicides, due to the varying influence of social norms on the individual:

Egoistic suicide is a person’s deliberate severing of his social ties.

Altruistic suicide - occurs as a result of the absolute integration of the individual into the social environment. For example, a captain who, according to the code of honor, in the event of a shipwreck must drown with the ship.

§ Anomic suicide - suicide associated with the loss of the value system in society; when old social norms no longer work in a society, and new ones have not yet been formed. Durkheim called this condition social anomie, which, from his point of view, is characteristic of transforming societies (for example, those experiencing rapid urbanization).

§ Fatalistic suicide - occurs as a result of excessive social control over the individual, “excessive social regulation”, is not very common.

Religion Analysis

Durkheim considered religion to be a social phenomenon. He believed that religious phenomena could only arise in society. The scientist himself was not a believer

Experiment in sociological research

One of the well-known methods in sociology for collecting primary information is a social experiment. The main task of its application is the need for practical testing of theoretically established cause-and-effect patterns. At the same time, the experiment should be considered as a method of testing a scientific hypothesis. In this case, the goal of the social experiment is to identify a stable real pattern in the form of a clearly expressed cause-and-effect interdependence of the characteristics of social objects.

The most complete definition of an experiment is given in the “Workbook of a Sociologist”: “An experiment in sociology is a way of obtaining information about the quantitative and qualitative changes in the indicative activity and behavior of an object as a result of the influence of certain manageable and controllable factors on it.”

The need to use a social experiment arises when it is necessary to solve problems related to the reaction of a social group to introduced internal or external factors, if these problems cannot be solved in another way.

Types of experiment and methods for selecting experimental groups.

Experiments differ both in the nature of the experimental situation and in their logical structure.

By the nature of the experimental situationexperiments are divided into field (the object is in familiar, natural conditions) and laboratory (artificial formation of groups, placing them in specially created conditions),

By logical structure of hypothesis proofThere are linear and parallel experiments.

With linear In the experiment, the same group is analyzed, which is both the control group (in the initial state) and the experimental group (in the post-experiment state).

In parallel The experiment simultaneously involves two groups: control and experimental. Their composition should be the same in control and neutral characteristics, moreover, the characteristics in the control group remain constant, but in the experimental group they change. At the end of the experiment, the control characteristics of the two groups are compared. Then conclusions are made about the causes and extent of positive or negative changes in the object of study.

The very logic of constructing and implementing a social experiment can be represented by the following structure:

1. Determining the purpose of the experiment.

2. Selection of object (control and experimental groups).

3. Definition of the subject of research.

4. Selection of control, factor and neutral characteristics.

5. Determination of experimental conditions and creation of an experimental group.

6. Definition of tasks.

7. Selection of methods for monitoring the progress of the experiment.

8. Determination of methods for checking the effectiveness of the experiment.

The logic of an experiment is always subordinated to the search for causes and the nature of changes in the social phenomenon or process of interest to the researcher.

The typology of social experiments is presented in Table 1.

Table 1

Types of Social Experiments

Basic divisions	Types
I. Specificity of tasks.	1. Research; 2.Practical.
II. The nature of the experimental situation.	1.Field; 2. Laboratory.
III. Logical structure of a hypothesis proof.	1.Parallel; 2.Sequential.
IV. The nature of the object.	1.Social; 2. Pedagogical; 3.Economic, etc.

Let us give an example of a social experiment in the field of physical culture and sports.

The purpose of the experiment is to identify the influence of different styles of managing students’ activities (authoritarian and democratic) in physical education classes on their physical activity. The control and experimental groups were organized taking into account the purpose and objectives of the study. The subject of the study is the effectiveness of physical education classes in conditions of different styles of student activity management. The control characteristics in this study are the level of physical activity of students in classes, and the factor characteristics are various leadership styles. The quality of performing motor actions can be neutral. The experimental situation is set by conducting classes in the control and experimental groups using different leadership styles.

The hypothesis underlying this social experiment was the assumption that the use of a democratic style of managing students’ activities in physical education classes, which provides for some freedom to choose the types of physical activity, will lead to an increase in physical activity.

The hypothesis in this case was tested by determining the motor density of activities.

In conclusion, current practice shows that experimental research is a reliable method for collecting information and scientific analysis.