Science and education in the first half of the nineteenth century. Science and culture of the first half of the 19th century

In the scientific field, in the first half of the 19th century, differentiation began, the separation of independent scientific disciplines (natural and humanities), and in this regard, Russian science had serious successes. The general socio-economic and political processes taking place in Russian society had a beneficial influence on scientific thought.

Natural Sciences

The discoveries and scientific research of natural scientists contributed to the development and strengthening of the materialist tradition in Russian science. The inclusion of new territories into the Russian Empire contributed to interest in geographical and ethnographic research. Their routes in the first half of the 19th century. ran through the expanses of the Urals, Siberia, Far East and Alaska. Another direction of Russian travel was the southern steppes and Central Asian countries. At the same time, seas and inland water basins were studied and described Russian Empire. As a result, maps and a description of the territory were drawn up, ethnographic and statistical materials were collected. A number of expeditions around the world were made. In 1803-1806. The first Russian round-the-world expedition took place on two ships “Nadezhda” and “Neva” under the command of I.F. Krusenstern and Yu.F. Lisyansky. She went from Kronstadt to Kamchatka and Alaska. The islands of the Pacific Ocean, the coast of China, and the islands were studied and taken. Sakhalin. In 1819-1821 F.F. Bellingshausen and M.P. Lazarev on the boats “Vostok” and “Mirny” led a round-the-world expedition that discovered Antarctica (a sixth of the world) and numerous islands. After the first expedition around the world, about 40 more trips around the world were made. Admiral F.P. Litke made a great contribution to the development of marginal Russian lands, the study of the Arctic Ocean and the shores of Kamchatka, on whose initiative the Russian Federation was established in 1845 geographical society(on the study of the territory and seas of Russia). In 1821-1824, during scientific expeditions on the brig Novaya Zemlya, Litke described the shores of Novaya Zemlya and did a lot geographical definitions places along the shore of the White Sea, explored the depths of the fairway and dangerous shallows of this sea. In 1828, Litke’s book “Four-fold voyage to the Arctic Ocean on the military brig “Novaya Zemlya” in 1821-1824” was published, which brought him fame and recognition in the scientific world. In 1826, Litke went as commander of the Senyavin sloop on a new voyage around the world, which lasted three years. Based on its results, this was one of the most successful expeditions of the first half of the 19th century: the most important points of the Kamchatka coast from Avachinskaya Bay to the north were identified in the Bering Sea. The previously unknown Karaginsky Islands, Matvey Island and the coast of Chukotka Land were described, the Pribilof Islands, the Carolingian Archipelago (the Senyavin Islands were discovered), the Bonin-Sima Islands and many others were identified. Busy with the historical and hydrographic description of the results of the expedition, Litke handed over some of his scientific materials to Academician E. Lenz and Professor Gelshtrem. The first published in the academic “Memoirs” “On the inclination and tension of the magnetic needle according to Litke’s observations”, the second - “On Litke’s barometric and sympiesometric observations and on heat in tropical climates.” Wrangel Ferdinand Petrovich, an outstanding Russian explorer, led an expedition to explore the northeastern coast of Siberia in 1820-1824. During the expedition, the coast of Siberia was described from the Indigirka River to Kolyuchinskaya Bay, and the Bear Islands were mapped. In 1825-1827 he headed the circumnavigation of the world on the military transport "Meek". In 1826, a real revolution in scientific ideas about the nature of space was made by Kazan University professor N.I. Lobachevsky, having discovered a new geometric system called non-Euclidean geometry. Lobachevsky's geometry was not understood by his contemporaries. It was only on the 100th anniversary (1893) of his birth that his works became widely recognized and an international prize was established in his name. This discovery created the prerequisites for substantiating the mathematical concepts of modern physics. For almost 19 years, Lobachevsky headed Kazan University and paid a lot of attention to the formation of the university library. The mathematician Mikhail Vasilyevich Ostrogradsky is also very famous. His main works relate to applied aspects mathematical analysis, mechanics, theory of magnetism, theory of probability. He also made contributions to algebra and number theory. His method for integrating rational functions (1844) is well known. In physics, Ostrogradsky's formula is extremely useful for converting a volume integral into a surface integral. Achievements in astronomy were largely associated with the founding of the Pulkovo Observatory in 1839, which became one of the best in the world. In astronomy, the works of V.Ya. have received worldwide recognition. Struve, who headed the Pulkovo Observatory. He established the presence of light absorption in interstellar space, and also discovered the concentration of stars in the main plane of the Milky Way, which was a significant astronomical discovery of the 19th century. Struve devoted a lot of time to studying double stars. His two catalogs of double stars were published in 1827 and 1852. Struve was responsible for the successful measurement of the egodic parallax of the star Vega in the constellation Lyra (1837). V. Ya. Struve and his students, using the latest mathematical and physical methods, have achieved high accuracy in determining interstellar distances. Their work on astrometry and the study of double stars gained worldwide fame. The first professor of astronomy at Kazan University was I.I. Litrov, who built a small observatory in 1814. His student I.M. is better known in astronomy. Simonov, participant in the trip to Antarctica. In 1819, at the suggestion of the Academy of Sciences, Simonov was appointed as an astronomer on a new voyage around the world together with Russian travelers F. F. Bellingshausen and M. P. Lazarev. M. Simonov became the first Russian astronomer to travel around the world. He was the first Russian astronomer to make observations of stars in the southern hemisphere of the sky, which are never visible in Russia. In addition to astronomical observations and determination geographical coordinates, he conducted magnetic observations and for the first time established that the South Magnetic Pole of the Earth is located at 76° south. w. and 142.5° E. d. The natural science and ethnographic collections collected by Simonov (about 180 exhibits) were transferred to Kazan University. They replenished its geological and zoological museums and laid the foundation for the ethnographic museum. Simonov left detailed description(travel diary) travel. He was the first Russian astronomer to observe the newly discovered new planet Neptune in November 1846. For a number of years Simonov was the rector of Kazan University. The focus of attention of Russian physicists in the first half of the 19th century. was the study of the properties of electricity and physical phenomena of nature. A huge contribution to the study of electricity was made by V.V. Petrov, who in 1802 demonstrated the phenomenon of a voltaic arc and put forward the idea of its use for welding and melting metal. The practical experience accumulated by Russian metallurgy served as the basis for the emergence of major specialists in this field. Metallurgical engineer P.P. Anosov at the Zlatoust plant was the first in the world to use a microscope to study the structure of metal (1831), thereby laying the foundation for the metallurgy of high-quality cast steel. Based on a long experiment, he developed it in the early 40s. a method of producing damask steel, lost in the Middle Ages. At the Nizhny Tagil Metallurgical Plant of the industrialists Demidovs, serf mechanics E. A. and M. E. Cherepanovs in 1833-1834. The first steam railway in Russia was built. The rapid development of the textile, primarily cotton, industry contributed to advances in chemistry. B. S. Jacobi successfully worked in the field of electrochemistry and discovered the method of electroplating. In 1834, he builds an electric motor based on the principle of attraction and repulsion between electromagnets. In 1838, Jacobi made his most remarkable discovery - he discovered electroplating, laying the foundation for a whole field of applied electrochemistry. Significant advances have been made in the field of telegraphy. He designed a synchronous telegraph apparatus with direct (without decoding) indication in the receiver of transmitted letters and numbers and the world's first direct-printing telegraph apparatus (1850), supervised the construction of the first cable lines in St. Petersburg and to Tsarskoye Selo. In 1839 he built a boat with an electromagnetic engine. This was the world's first application of electromagnetism to locomotion. large sizes. Engineer P. L. Schilling on October 21, 1832, before the American inventor S. Morse, created a recording electromagnetic telegraph that operated along the St. Petersburg - Tsarskoe Selo line. The device created by Schilling had a arrow indication of signals transmitted through electrical wires, which were easily deciphered into letters by the operator of the receiving telegraph machine, according to a special code table developed by Schilling. The discovery of the electromagnetic telegraph, which has been in practical use since the 50s of the 19th century, is considered one of the most important scientific and technical inventions of the 19th century. In the history of physics, the scientific works of E.Kh. Lenz will always be given a place of honor. Many of his scientific studies relate to physical geography. But mainly he worked in the field of electromagnetism. Main results his research is presented in all physics textbooks: the Law of Induction (“Lenz’s Rule”) (1834), “Joule-Lenz Law” (1842), experiments confirming the “Peltier phenomenon” (1838), experiments on polarization electrodes (1847), etc. At Kazan University in the first half of the century, a strong chemical school began to take shape. Its creation was stimulated by the government’s special concern for overcoming the country’s technological backwardness. At the end of the 1830s. Professor of Kazan University P.P. Zinin and K.K. Klaus founded a chemical and technological laboratory. In them, already in 1842, Zinin made his famous discovery of a method for artificially producing aniline, etc. His discoveries became the basis for the development of the production of synthetic dyes in the country, medicines. And in 1844, Professor Klaus discovered a new chemical element- ruthenium. A little later, in the second half of the 1840s, the second Russian center of chemical science was formed at St. Petersburg University. He gave such famous chemists as Professor N.N. Beketov, whose discoveries in the field of metal chemistry improved Russian metallurgical production. Russian science of the first half of the 19th century. made significant progress in the development of medicine. Becoming medical science associated with the opening of the St. Petersburg Medical-Surgical Academy in 1799 and medical faculties at universities. The professor at the academy was the famous Russian surgeon N.I. Pirogov, the founder of military field surgery, an anatomical and experimental direction in this field of medicine. During Crimean War he was the first to use ether anesthesia in military field conditions(1847), introduced a fixed plaster cast, proposed a number of new surgical operations. Pirogov’s four-volume atlas “ Topographic anatomy”, published from 1851 to 1859, gained worldwide fame.

In the first half of the 19th century, education and enlightenment received further development . The basis for the development of the education system was the reform of 1803. The following types of educational institutions were established:

1. parish schools for children of peasants;

2. district schools for citizens;

3. provincial gymnasiums for noble children;

4. universities.

The country was divided into 6 educational districts, each of which had educational establishments all types.

The Ministry of Public Education was created to organize and manage educational institutions. In addition to Moscow University, universities were opened in Kazan, St. Petersburg, Kharkov, Vilno, and Dorpat. Lyceums close to universities in terms of curriculum were Tsarskoselsky near St. Petersburg, Demidovsky in Yaroslavl, Richelievsky in Odessa. These were mainly educational institutions of the nobility. Every decade, more and more commoners entered universities. However, at the beginning of the 19th century the number of universities in Russia increased. However, only 4 thousand students studied there.

Russian universities began to announce their scientific research.

In the 19th century, Russia gave the world a galaxy of great scientists. List of only greatest discoveries looks quite impressive.

· Mathematics.

In the field of mathematics: N.I. Lobachevsky created the theory of non-Euclidean geometry, revolutionizing ideas about the nature of space, which was based on the teachings of Euclid for more than two thousand years. Lobachevsky's geometry was not understood by his contemporaries. Only on the 100th anniversary (1893 ᴦ.) of his birth, wide recognition of his works came, and an international prize was established in his name.

For almost 19 years, Lobachevsky headed Kazan University and paid a lot of attention to the formation of the university library.

A.A. Markov, M.V. Ostrogradsky - studied the theory of probability.

· Astronomy.

Achievements in astronomy were largely associated with the founding of the Pulkovo Observatory, which became one of the best in the world. In astronomy, the works received worldwide recognition V.Ya. Struve. Work on astrometry and the study of double stars has gained worldwide fame. He established the presence of light absorption in interstellar space.

Struve and his students, using the latest mathematical and physical methods, achieved high accuracy in determining interstellar distances.

The first professor of astronomy at Kazan University was I.I. Littrov, who built a small observatory. His student is better known in astronomy THEM. Simonov, participant in the trip to Antarctica. Most of his works are devoted to the study of terrestrial magnetism. For a number of years Simonov was the rector of Kazan University.

· Development of physics.

The focus of attention of Russian physicists in the first half of the 19th century. was the study of the properties of electricity and physical phenomena of nature. He made a huge contribution to the study of electricity V.V. Petrov. He created a number of physical instruments and discovered the electric arc, which found wide practical application; E.H. Lenz formulated a rule determining the direction of the induction current; B.S. Jacobi designed several electric motors. In the 1840-1850s. B.S. Jacobi was developing a telegraph apparatus and invented several of its modifications. Engineer P.D. Shilling before the American inventor S. Morse, he created a recording electromagnetic telegraph that operated along the line St. Petersburg - Tsarskoe Selo; mechanical engineers, serfs of the Demidov industrialists in the Urals, father and son E.A. and M.E. Cherepanovs in 1833-1834. built the first steam-powered railway in Russia; metallurgical engineer P.P. Anosov At the Zlatoust plant, he was the first in the world to use a microscope to study the structure of metal and, on the basis of a long experiment, developed a method for producing damask steel.

· Progress in chemistry.

Mendeleev established the Periodic Law of Chemical Elements.

In the first half of the century, a strong chemistry school began to emerge at Kazan University. Its creation was stimulated by the government’s special concern for overcoming the country’s technological backwardness. At the end of the 1830s. professor at Kazan University P.P. Zinin And K.K. Klaus founded chemical and technological laboratories. In them already in 1842 ᴦ. Zinin made his famous discovery of a method for artificially producing aniline, etc.
Posted on ref.rf
His discoveries became the basis for the development of the production of synthetic dyes and medicines in the country. And in 1844 ᴦ. Professor Klaus discovered a new chemical element - ruthenium.

A little later, in the second half of the 1840s, the second Russian center of chemical science was formed at St. Petersburg University. He gave such famous chemists as professor N.N. Beketov, whose discoveries in the field of metal chemistry improved Russian metallurgical production.

· Medicine.

The formation of medical science is associated with the opening of the St. Petersburg Medical-Surgical Academy (1799) and medical faculties at universities. The famous Russian surgeon was a professor at the academy N.I. Pirogov, founder of military field surgery. He was the first to use ether anesthesia in military field conditions (1847), introduced a fixed plaster cast, and proposed a number of new surgical operations. N.V. Sklifosovsky began to use the antiseptic method during operations.

· Story.

Particular attention was paid to the study of Russian history. N.M. Karamzin created a 12-volume History of the Russian State; CM. Soloviev wrote “History of Russia since ancient times” in 29 volumes; IN. Klyuchevsky wrote ʼʼRussian history courseʼʼ.

· Linguistics.

Linguistics has made significant achievements. IN AND. Dahl for 50 years he worked on compiling ʼʼ explanatory dictionary living Great Russian language.

· Philosophy.

The 19th century was the time of the formation of Russian philosophy as an independent science. It develops a rich spectrum of original schools and movements. Large figures: P.Ya. Chaadaev, I.V. Kireevsky, A.I. Herzen, N.G. Chernyshevsky, Vl. Soloviev.

· Geography.

The inclusion of new territories into the Russian Empire contributed to interest in geographical and ethnographic research. Their routes in the first half of the 19th century. lay in the expanses of the Urals, Siberia, the Far East and Alaska. Another direction of Russian travel was the southern steppes and Central Asian countries. At the same time, the seas and inland water basins of the Russian Empire were studied and described. As a result, maps and a description of the territory were drawn up, ethnographic and statistical materials were collected.

A number of expeditions around the world were made. The first Russian round-the-world expedition on two ships “Nadezhda” and “Neva” under the command of I.F. Krusenstern and Yu.F. Lisyansky(1803-1806) passed from Kronstadt to Kamchatka and Alaska. The islands of the Pacific Ocean, the coast of China, Sakhalin Island, and the Kamchatka Peninsula were studied and photographed. F.F. Belingshausen and M.P. Lazarev led a round-the-world expedition (1819-1821), which discovered Antarctica (sixth of the world) and numerous islands. In 1845 ᴦ. The Russian Geographical Society was established (for the study of the territory and seas of Russia). After the first expedition around the world, about 40 more trips around the world were made.

In general, Russian scientists have made breakthroughs in many fields of knowledge, which have made Russia a scientifically advanced country. But the delay in economic and political transformations contributed to the fact that science developed largely in isolation from social needs, as if ahead of them. Scientific research were rarely subsidized by Russian entrepreneurs, as in Europe.

Material and moral reward for the work of the most talented Russian scientists was the award by the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences of the Demidov Prize (since 1831) for published works on science, technology, and art.

In the first half of the 19th century, the development of education continued. Until the beginning of the 19th century, personal libraries in Russia were the property of the titled aristocracy. Gradually, reading became not just a fashion, but an urgent need.

In the first half of the 19th century, salons became the centers of cultural life of an educated society. Some noble houses began to turn into literary salons, attracting prominent writers, journalists, scientists, and artists. In St. Petersburg, salons were widely known A.P. Tail And A.O. Smirnova, in Moscow - A.P. Elagina, in Kazan - A. Fuchs.

Public lectures by university teachers became a means of disseminating education among the population. Οʜᴎ were varied in subject matter. The initiative in organizing public lectures belonged to Moscow University. In the 40s of the 19th century, lectures acquired wide public significance. T.N. Granovsky on general history.

In general, the development of education, enlightenment and science in the first half of the 19th century achieved impressive results .

Sciences in Russia in the first half of the 19th century - concept and types. Classification and features of the category “Science in Russia in the first half of the 19th century” 2017, 2018.

Russian education system in the first half of the 19th century. has undergone significant changes, has been significantly improved and improved. A division of educational institutions into primary, secondary and higher education appeared, and many new schools, colleges, gymnasiums and universities were built. In addition, domestic science was actively developing at this time. Russian biology, geology and astronomy were improved. The development of education and science was greatly influenced by printing, which in the first half of the 19th century. began to gain strength in the Russian Empire. You will learn about all this in more detail from this lesson.

Also, the beginning of the century was the time of the opening of a number of new educational institutions. It was the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum (Fig. 2), opened in 1811. In addition, new universities were opened: Dorpat (Fig. 3), Kharkov, Vilna, St. Petersburg (Fig. 4) and Kazan.

Rice. 2. Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum ()

Rice. 3. University of Dorpat ()

Rice. 4. St. Petersburg University ()

In the second quarterXIXV. The state's attitude towards the needs of education has changed. If previously the universality of education was the cornerstone, now the state demanded that educational institutions pay attention to issues of morality and religious education of the younger generation.

The types of schools at this time remained the same, but during the reign of NicholasI(Fig. 5) they received their class status. Thus, one-class parish schools were intended for the lower social classes. They taught subjects such as the law of God, arithmetic, and literacy. Children of merchants, artisans, and townsfolk could study in district schools, where training lasted for three years. They studied subjects such as geography, history, geometry in addition to the Russian language and arithmetic. The children of nobles, officials and merchants of the first guild studied for seven years in gymnasiums.

Rice. 5. Nicholas I - Russian Emperor ()

The number of schools grew continuously. If to the beginningXIXV. There were 158 of them, then by the middle there were approximately 130 in each province of the Russian Empire. Specialized schools and universities developed especially successfully during this period. This was explained by the fact that graduates of such institutions were more willingly and privileged to be employed in the relevant ministries.

A major role in the development of science and education in Russia in the first halfXIXV. what was published in the country at that time played a role a large number of books. Thus, the publishing house A.F. Smirdin (Fig. 6) published up to 70 collected works of major Russian authors, and the books of this publishing house were available to all layers of Russian society. In addition, through the efforts of provincial nobles, libraries appeared in almost every city (Fig. 7) - this is an achievement of 1830-1840.

Rice. 6. A.F. Smirdin - Russian book publisher ()

Rice. 7. Imperial Public Library in St. Petersburg ()

Improving the education system in Russia in the first halfXIXV. gave a powerful impetus to the development of science. This time was a period of accumulation and systematization of new knowledge. Russian biologists and zoologists at this time created excellent collections of flora and fauna of Siberia, the Far East, and Russian America. In 1812, the Crimean Botanical Garden was created (Fig. 8), which became one of the centers of domestic botany for many decades.

Rice. 8. Crimean Botanical Garden ()

Geological research became systematic. They covered all of Siberia, Transbaikalia, and the Caucasus. N.I. Kasharov in the first half of the 19th century. published the first geological atlas of the European part of Russia. Geologists also made an important discovery: they determined that the Earth has existed for a long period and has undergone significant changes during this time.

In 1839, the Pulkovo Observatory was built (Fig. 9). Thus, the state provided invaluable assistance to Russian astronomers. This gave a powerful impetus to the development of astronomy.

Rice. 9. Pulkovo Observatory ()

Thus, the first half of the 19th century. - this is a breakthrough in domestic education and science, a time of their active development.

Bibliography

Graham, L. Can Russia Compete? History of innovations in the Tsarist, Soviet and modern Russia. - M.: Mann, Ivanov and Ferber, 2014.
Lazukova N.N., Zhuravleva O.N. Russian history. 8th grade. - M.: “Ventana-Graf”, 2013.
Lyashenko L.M. Russian history. 8th grade. - M.: “Drofa”, 2012.
Milyutin A.O. 7 scientific breakthroughs in Russia and 42 more discoveries that you need to know about / Milyutin, A. O., Bolushevsky, S. V. - M.: Eksmo, 2011.
Ostrovsky E.V. History and philosophy of science. - M: Unity, 2007.
Saprykin D.L. Educational potential of the Russian Empire. - M.:IIET, 2010.

Countries.ru ().
Yaklass.ru ().
Studopedia.org ().

Homework

Tell us about the development of education in the first half of the 19th century. What changes occurred in Russian education at this time?
How did Russian science develop in the first half of the 19th century?
What gave a powerful impetus to the development of education and science in the first half of the 19th century? Why was this particular factor decisive?

In the 19th century, Russia gave the world a galaxy of great scientists. The list of the greatest discoveries alone looks quite impressive.

· Mathematics.

In the field of mathematics: N.I. Lobachevsky created the theory of non-Euclidean geometry, revolutionizing ideas about the nature of space, which was based on the teachings of Euclid for more than two thousand years. Lobachevsky's geometry was not understood by his contemporaries. It was only on the 100th anniversary (1893) of his birth that his works became widely recognized and an international prize was established in his name.

For almost 19 years, Lobachevsky headed Kazan University and paid a lot of attention to the formation of the university library.

A.A. Markov, M.V. Ostrogradsky - studied the theory of probability.

· Astronomy.

Struve and his students, using the latest mathematical and physical methods, achieved high accuracy in determining interstellar distances.

· Development of physics.

The focus of attention of Russian physicists in the first half of the 19th century. was the study of the properties of electricity and physical phenomena of nature. He made a huge contribution to the study of electricity V.V. Petrov. He created a number of physical instruments and discovered the electric arc, which found wide practical application; E.H. Lenz formulated a rule determining the direction of the induction current; B.S. Jacobi designed several electric motors. In the 1840-1850s. B.S. Jacobi was developing a telegraph apparatus and invented several of its modifications. Engineer P.D. Shilling before the American inventor S. Morse created a recording electromagnetic telegraph that operated along the St. Petersburg - Tsarskoye Selo line; mechanical engineers, serfs of the Demidov industrialists in the Urals, father and son E.A. and M.E. Cherepanovs in 1833-1834 built the first in Russia railway steam-powered; metallurgical engineer P.P. Anosov At the Zlatoust plant, he was the first in the world to use a microscope to study the structure of metal and, based on a long experiment, developed a method for producing damask steel.

· Progress in chemistry.

Mendeleev established the Periodic Law of Chemical Elements.

In the first half of the century, a strong chemistry school began to emerge at Kazan University. Its creation was stimulated by the government’s special concern for overcoming the country’s technological backwardness. At the end of the 1830s. professor at Kazan University P.P. Zinin And K.K. Klaus founded chemical and technological laboratories. In them, already in 1842, Zinin made his famous discovery of a method for artificially producing aniline, etc. His discoveries became the basis for the development of the production of synthetic dyes and medicines in the country. And in 1844, Professor Klaus discovered a new chemical element - ruthenium.

· Medicine.

· Story.

Particular attention was paid to the study of Russian history. N.M. Karamzin created a 12-volume History of the Russian State; CM. Soloviev wrote “The History of Russia from Ancient Times” in 29 volumes; IN. Klyuchevsky wrote "A Course in Russian History".

· Linguistics.

Linguistics has made significant achievements. IN AND. Dahl for 50 years he worked on compiling “an explanatory dictionary of the living Great Russian language.”

· Philosophy.

· Geography.

A number of expeditions around the world were made. The first Russian round-the-world expedition on two ships “Nadezhda” and “Neva” under the command of I.F. Krusenstern and Yu.F. Lisyansky(1803-1806) passed from Kronstadt to Kamchatka and Alaska. The islands of the Pacific Ocean, the coast of China, Sakhalin Island, and the Kamchatka Peninsula were studied and photographed. F.F. Belingshausen and M.P. Lazarev led a round-the-world expedition (1819-1821), which discovered Antarctica (one-sixth of the world) and numerous islands. In 1845, the Russian Geographical Society was established (for the study of the territory and seas of Russia). After the first expedition around the world, about 40 more trips around the world were made.

In general, Russian scientists have made breakthroughs in many fields of knowledge, which have made Russia a scientifically advanced country. But the delay in economic and political transformations contributed to the fact that science developed largely in isolation from social needs, as if ahead of them. Scientific research was rarely subsidized by Russian entrepreneurs, as in Europe.

Material and moral reward for the work of the most talented Russian scientists was the awarding of the Demidov Prize by the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (since 1831) for published works on science, technology, and art.

In the first half of the 19th century, salons became centers of cultural life in educated society. Some noble houses began to turn into literary salons, attracting prominent writers, journalists, scientists, and artists. In St. Petersburg, salons were widely known A.P. Tail And A.O. Smirnova, in Moscow - A.P. Elagina, in Kazan - A. Fuchs.

Public lectures by university teachers became a means of disseminating education among the population. They were varied in subject matter. The initiative in organizing public lectures belonged to Moscow University. In the 40s of the 19th century, lectures acquired wide public significance. T.N. Granovsky on general history.

In general, the development of education, enlightenment and science in the first half of the 19th century achieved impressive results .

59. Russian literature in the first half of the 19th century.

Beginning of the 19th century.

(We were children of 1812. To sacrifice everything, even life, for the good of the fatherland was the desire of the heart" - these words of the Decembrist M. Myravyev-Apostol reflected the internal tension of Russian society at the beginning of the 19th century. Political events taking place in Russia and the world influenced on the spiritual life of people, causing the rise of national culture and literature.The works and ideas of the French enlighteners of the 18th century - Voltaire, J. J. Rousseau, the German romantic philosophers F. Schelling, F. Schlegel and others - became widely known.

At the beginning of the 19th century, the activity of society in Russia, as Derzhavin wrote, was manifested in the fact that it (...was journaled): the number of literary and journalistic publications began to number in the dozens. It was the magazines that made it possible to follow the literary process of the era, the expansion of the range of interests of the reading public. Karamzin founded the "Bulletin of Europe", which became a long-lived journalist of those years (it existed from 1802 to 1830). Karamzin's stories "Martha the Posadnitsa" and "A Knight of Our Time" were published in the magazine. Zhukovsky placed more than 70 of his works on its pages. The first printed works of Pushkin appeared here.

V.G. Belinsky considered Karamzin “the founder of criticism in Russian literature.” It was in the “Moscow Journal” and “Bulletin of Europe” that he created that the departments of criticism and bibliography became permanent.

Numerous literary societies, circles, and salons were a phenomenon of the country's cultural life. In 1811, the “Society of Lovers of Russian Literature” was founded at Moscow University, which existed for more than a hundred years.

At the beginning of the 19th century, cultural figures developed an interest in national folklore, customs, and antiquities, which originated at the end of the 18th century. In 1800, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” first appeared in print, and in 1804, the collection “The Most Ancient Russian Poems” by Kirsha Danilov. Activities begin to collect and study historical and literary monuments of Russian antiquity. The issue of the national identity of the Russian people is being discussed in literary societies. In 1818, the first volumes of Karamzin’s “History of the Russian State” were published. Belinsky attributed the success of this publication to “the desire of Russian society for self-knowledge.”

A significant contribution to the development of Russian literature was made by Ivan Andreevich Krylov, writer, journalist, and fabulist. Back in 1789, he began publishing a monthly satirical magazine, Spirit Mail. In terms of the boldness of its satirical denunciation, this was one of the brightest phenomena of Russian journalism of that time. Then Krylov created the satirical magazine "Spectator". His works “A Eulogy in Memory of My Grandfather...” and others), published in this magazine, exposed the vices of his contemporary society. Only in 1806. When the first fables “The Oak and the Cane” and “The Picky Bride” were published in the Moscow Spectator, the path of Krylov the fabulist began. However, as V. G. Belinsky wrote, “Krylov’s fables are not just fables; it is a story, a comedy, a humorous essay, an evil satire - in a word, whatever you want, just not just fable».

Unlike his predecessors, Krylov acted in fables not only as a moralist. A. A. Bestuzhev Marlinsky wrote: “...his every fable is a satire, the strongest because it is short and told with an air of innocence.” Often Krylov’s fables were associated with specific historical events: “Quartet” ridiculed the reorganization of ministries, “Fish Dances” the omnipotence of Arakcheev, fables reflecting the events of the Patriotic War of 1812 are widely known. Certainly, possible interpretation fables are much broader than the facts that gave rise to their creation.

At the beginning of the 19th century, the literary community widely discussed the question of ways to develop the Russian language. As a result of the controversy, opposing literary organizations arose. In 1811, Admiral A. S. Shishkov founded the society “Conversation of Lovers of the Russian Word” in St. Petersburg, whose meetings were held in Derzhavin’s house - the venerable poet presided over them. The object of the “Conversations...” attacks was first Karamzin and his supporters - the “Karamzinists”, and then Zhukovsky.

One should not think that everything that “Conversation...” defended was bad and worthy of ridicule. Thus, they keenly felt the power and energy of Derzhavin’s poetry, but at the same time they were fierce defenders of the archaic, ponderous style. Shishkov demanded cancellation or replacement foreign words which Karamzin introduced into the Russian language: audience, billiards, heroism, galoshes, catastrophe, moral, speaker, enthusiasm, era, aesthetic. Shishkov's supporters suggested speaking to the audience instead of the audience. an eloquent speaker instead of an orator. Sharokat instead of billiards. wet shoes instead of galoshes... The “Shishkovists” did not accept the words created by Karamzin: development, influence, shade, touching...

In contrast to Shishkov’s society, the famous “Arzamas” arose in 1815. All members of this literary society bore names taken from Zhukovsky's ballads. Zhukovsky was Svetlana, Batyushkov was Achilles, young Pushkin was Cricket, and his uncle Vasily Lvovich was called “Here.” Defending innovations in the language, they actively ridiculed the “Conversation...”, calling it “The Conversation of the Destroyers of the Russian Word,” and distributed many satires and parodies of their opponents in handwritten form. For example, each new member of “Arzamas” had to “bury” one of the participants in the “Conversation...” in his introductory speech. The protocols of society, which Zhukovsky kept, still delight readers with their wit and originality.

“Beseda...” disintegrated after Derzhavin’s death in 1816, and in 1818 “Arzamas” also ceased to exist. For the “Arzamas Protocols” Zhukovsky wrote a poetic text of his farewell speech:

Brothers are friends from Arzamas! You listen to the protocol, that's right, you hoped. No protocol! What to record? ..

This latest comic document records what each of the Arzamas participants was doing this year and why they could not be brought together.

Echoes of the disputes between “Conversations of Lovers of the Russian Word” and “Arzamas” will sound on the pages of literary works for a long time. You can find a mention of the name Shishkov in the lines of “Eugene Onegin”. In Chapter VIII of the novel, Pushkin uses a French phrase and immediately makes a playful reservation: “...Shishkov, forgive me: / I don’t know how to translate.”

At the beginning of the 19th century, the era of sentimentalism ended and a new literary movement - romanticism - emerged.

Romanticism widely embraces the phenomena of reality. We can no longer say that this is only a literary direction - this is the principle of perception of the world, therefore, in the interpretation of the term dictionaries do not skimp on variants of meanings. At the heart of the romantic worldview and romantic art is the discord between ideal and reality. When an obvious discrepancy arises between the imperfect surrounding world and the ideal that exists beyond its borders, the world seems to bifurcate. This phenomenon has received an expressive definition: romantic duality. Such conflictual unity forces us to see any phenomenon both in the light of those ideas that the romantic soul gives birth to, and in the system of connections determined by real life.

The preferences of the romantic authors were on the side of the sublime soul, striving to overcome the imperfections of the world. Romanticism strengthened the lyrical principle in art, focusing the artist mainly on depicting the unique and changeable internal state of the individual. “Lyricism for romantic art is, as it were, a spontaneous basic feature,” poetry turned out to be most “capable of finding expressions for an internal experience preoccupied only with itself, its goals and events,” noted German philosopher Hegel.

Romanticism contrasted the canons with improvisation, stylistic freedom, and a new attitude towards genres. Classicism trusted primarily reason, sentimentalism - feeling, romanticism - intuition.

In Russian literature, the term romanticism was first mentioned in 1816 by the poet and friend of Pushkin, P. A. Vyazemsky. “Apology of personality,” according to A.I. Tyrgenev, is the main thing in this method. The properties of a particular person, and not circumstances or the environment, determine the logic of plots among romanticists. "The circumstances have no of great importance. The whole point is in character,” writes one of prominent representatives Romanticism French writer Benjamin Constant, whose hero Adolphe (from the novel of the same name, created in 1815) was considered an example of a romantic hero “with his embittered mind, seething in empty action. The sphere of romanticism, as Belinsky wrote, is “the entire inner, soulful life of a person, that mysterious soil of the soul and heart, from where all vague aspirations for the best and sublime rise, trying to find satisfaction in the ideals created by fantasy.” The romantic created a world in which unusual characters and amazing passions appeared, the lives of the heroes took place in plots full of dramatic events, they were surrounded by spiritual and healing nature. the heroism of protest coexisted with the motives of “world sorrow”, “world evil”, “the night side of the soul”.

The English poet George Gordon Byron, who died for the freedom of Greece, became the personification of the romantic hero of the era. This was an example of the unity of poetry - action - fate. It was in Byron's work that a new literary image appeared: a romantic personality who challenges the world with its inertia and immobility? - Byronic hero.

Romantics were interested in the origins of the birth of powerful characters on their native soil, which had a fruitful effect on the development of national cultures. They saw folklore as one of the sources of fantasy that carried them into other worlds. It was then that the Brothers Grimm turned to literary adaptations of German folk tales. Interest in the history of one’s people and national traditions was reflected in the plots of Zhukovsky’s ballads, legends and fairy tales, and in the brightness of the romantic works of Pushkin and Lermontov. The mysterious world of the Middle Ages was captured in historical novels by Walter Scott. The Romantics put forward the principles of historicism and nationalism in literature, which prepared the way for the advent of realism. "Nationality, identity - main feature true poetry,” speaking in defense of romanticism, writes P. A. Vyazemsky in the preface to Pushkin’s poem “The Bakhchisarai Fountain.”

Romantic techniques caused fierce disputes, which mostly concerned violations of all kinds of canons. A powerful impetus for the emergence of such disputes was given by the publication of Pushkin’s poem “Ruslan and Lyudmida”. Supporters of classicism strongly criticized it for its style, plot, and the characters chosen; critics saw obvious deviations from the rules in everything.

Each literary movement has a predominant inclination towards specific genres and even types of literature. For Russian romanticism of the early 19th century, these were lyrical and lyric-epic genres. The brightness of the romanticism palette was ensured by its stylistic freedom. The names of V. A. Zhukovsky, K. N. Batyushkov, P. A. Vyazemsky, A. I. Odoevsky, D. V. Benevitinov, I. I. Kozlov, M. Yu. Lermontov are associated with romanticism. Prose writers V.F. Odoevsky and A.A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky are also considered romantics.

The founder of Russian romanticism was Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky. You have already encountered the work of this poet more than once, who at the beginning of the 19th century was considered the first Russian poet in terms of fame and recognition. You are familiar with his fate, his rare gentleness and humanity, and his spiritual responsiveness. “The ability to understand and feel the creativity of another person, combined with a brilliant poetic gift, allowed him to become a brilliant translator. However, subtly perceiving all the movements of someone else’s soul, Zhukovsky creates his translations as original and completely independent works. This is “The Rural Cemetery” - a free translation of Thomas Gray’s elegy According to Zhukovsky, this work was the beginning of his creative path.

The spiritual sensitivity and inspired grace of Zhukovsky’s lyrics captivated his contemporaries. We still feel “the captivating sweetness of his poems.” Belinsky claimed that Zhukovsky’s muse “gave Russian Poetry a soul and a heart.” The poet's pen includes excellent examples of landscape lyricism; among the genres, elegy and friendly message especially stand out.

Zhukovsky was often called a “balladeer.” Belinsky claimed that he began, created and approved this kind of poetry in Rus': contemporaries of Zhukovsky’s youth looked at him primarily as an author of ballads.” He expanded the range of topics to which the ballad addressed. This lyric-epic genre was previously limited to the reproduction of medieval folk legends, and Zhukovsky used both ancient myth and Russian legends, which have their own unique flavor. It is interesting to compare the free adaptations of Burger's ballad "Lenora": "Lyudmila" (1808), "Svetlana" (1812) and the closest to the original called "Lenora" (1831). Of these three ballads, you know “Svetlana,” which was and remains one of the most popular among the dozens of works created by Zhukovsky. You are probably familiar with the poet’s other ballads: “The Cup”, “Roland the Squire”, “Fisherman”, “The Glove”, “The Forest King”.

When characterizing Zhukovsky’s work, we must not forget about his activities as a translator. The poet introduced the Russian reader to the works of writers and poets different countries. He translated the works of Homer, Goethe, Schiller, Byron, Gray, Scott, Burger, Uhland, Klopstock, Iranian, Indian, Tajik epic, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, the old story “Ondine” by Lamott Fouquet, the Corsican story “Matteo Falcone” and etc.

“The importance of this poet for Russian poetry and literature is immensely great,” wrote Belinsky.

Konstantin Nikolaevich Batyushkov played a major role in the development of Russian romanticism. His lyrics appear as a poetic autobiography - “Live as you write, and write as you live.” Batyushkov’s work is distinguished by the perfection of verse, the search for new artistic forms, and deep psychologism. The perfection of the poet’s lyrics was highly appreciated by Pushkin, who considered Batyushkov his idol: “Italian sounds! What kind of miracle worker is this Batyushkov.” V. G. Belinsky highly appreciated his poetic gift: “Batyushkov contributed a lot and a lot to the fact that Pushkin appeared as he really appeared.”

The influence of romanticism on all spheres of cultural life in Europe and America was very strong. It is enough to list the names of the most famous authors who firmly connected their work with this direction: J. G. Byron, P. B. Shelley, G. Heine, A. V. de Vigny, D. Leopardi, E. T. A. Hoffmann, E. Poe, G. Melville.

Romanticism in music developed in close connection with literature (hence the attention to synthetic genres - opera, song): F. Schubert, K. M. von Weber, R. Bagner, G. Berlioz, F. Liszt, F. Chopin.

IN fine arts The romantic direction was most clearly manifested in the painting and graphics of E. Delacroix, J. Constable, W. Turner, O. A. Kiprensky, A. O. Orlovsky.

E years of the 19th century.

The first decades of the 19th century passed under the sign of romanticism. Zhukovsky is popular, the genius of Pushkin is blossoming, Lermontov is making himself known, Gogol’s creative path is beginning, and the critic Belinsky is actively participating in the development of Russian literature. Literature is increasingly becoming an integral part of the spiritual life of society.

Young people and students create associations that have a socio-political orientation. Thus, at Moscow University, in the circle of N.V. Stankevich - V.G. Belinsky, M.A. Bakunin, K.S. Aksakov participate; in the circle of A. I. Herzen - N. P. Ogarev. As Herzen argued, the “Russia of the future” existed precisely between these “boys who had just emerged from childhood” - they had “the heritage of universal science and purely folk Rus'.”

The autocratic government proclaims the ideological formula of Russian society: “Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality. It was made in 1833 in a circular from the Minister of Public Education, Count S.S. Uvarov, which stated “that public education should be carried out in the united spirit of Orthodoxy, autocracy and nationality.”

Disputes about the nationality of literature, about the type of positive hero, about patriotism, about attitudes towards the culture of other peoples were actively conducted in the periodical press. The role of journals continues to increase, among the most "Moscow Telegraph" N. A. Polevoy and “Telescope” by N. I. Nadezhdin, in which potters, Koltsov, Tyutchev, Belinsky were published. For publishing works objectionable to the authorities, these magazines were closed. For some time (1830-1831) their place was taken by the Literary Newspaper. It was the organ of the writers of Pushkin's circle. the newspaper was edited by A. A. Delvig, A. S. Pushkin, P. A. Vyazemsky, D. V. Davydov, E. A. Baratynsky, N. M. Yazykov, V. F. Odoevsky, A. A. were published in it Bestuzhev-Marlinsky. The active position of the newspaper caused a response from the authorities: Literaturnaya Gazeta was closed.

Pushkin could not come to terms with the fact that the possibility of publication had disappeared. In 1836, he created the magazine “Sovremennik”, in which he published both his works: “The Feast of Peter the Great”, “The Captain’s Daughter”, “The Stingy Knight”, and works of authors close to him: “The Nose” and “The Stroller” by Gogol, poems Davydov, Baratynsky, Koltsov, Tyutchev, excerpts from notes about Patriotic War 1812 cavalry maiden Durova and others.

It was during these years that Russian literature made its way from romanticism to realism.

The confrontation and interaction of literary trends lasted for a long time, and it manifested itself not only in the work of individual writers, but also in specific works. This is evidence of the complexity of the development of the literary process in Russia. A striking example This is the fate of the comedy “Heart of Mind” by Alexander Sergeevich Griboyedov. Conceived in 1816, completed in 1824, first published (only a fragment!) in 1825 and for a long time not allowed on stage. The comedy became popular, spreading in the lists. The appearance of “Woe from Wit” caused a fierce controversy, during which its special place in Russian literature was established. The comedy retained the signs of classicism, romantic features were discernible in its hero, and above all, it amazed with the sharp picture of morals characteristic of realism. “I’m not talking about poems: half of them must be included in the proverb” - this is how A. S. Pushkin characterized the bright, living language of realistic comedy.

For Russian literature of the 19th century century, realism can be considered the leading direction. In the literature of different countries, it arose in parallel with the successes of the exact sciences. The position of a realist writer is close to that of a scientist, since they consider the world around them as a subject of study, observation, and research.

Romanticism gravitated towards the depiction of an extraordinary personality, unusual subjects, spectacular contrasts and vivid forms of expression. Realism strives to depict everyday existence ordinary people, to reproduce the real flow of life. “To accurately and powerfully reproduce the truth, the reality of life, is the greatest happiness for a writer, even if this truth does not coincide with his own sympathies,” argued I. S. Typgenev.

Modern literary critic A. M. Gurevich defines the peculiarity of realism of the 30-40s of the 19th century: “The discovery of the poetry of the everyday, prosaic and everyday side of reality, the everyday flow of life, the beauty of familiar, established relationships between people became the most important achievement of classical realism.” Reproducing the truth of life, realism reflected various shapes dependence of a person on society, hostility of the social order to the personality of an individual. This is how critical realism was born.

However, for Russian realism of the 19th century, the foreground was not negation, but affirmation. “The dynamic relationship between the pressure of external circumstances and internal freedom becomes a problem that worries literature,” argued literary historian Yu. M. Lotman.

Within the framework of the 19th century, Russian and Western European realism differed in that foreign realist writers gravitated primarily towards an artistic and analytical study of modernity, while in Russia the authors sought to transform the world and man. What united them was their close attention to the study of the general properties of human nature. These problems will arise especially convincingly later, in the middle of the 19th century.

Russian realism is characterized by a close connection with previous literary movements: sentimentalism and romanticism. The romantic thirst for transformation does not leave Russian realists. The ideals, hopes, and aspirations of the people lived on the pages of the works of Russian classics, again and again affirming its nationality.

The development of realism significantly expands the themes of literary works, enriches the genre originality of works, and the sphere of observation of life. “If we were asked what the distinctive character of modern Russian literature is, we would answer: in closer and closer proximity to life, to reality,” wrote V.G. Belinsky in a review of Russian literature for 1846. A mighty galaxy of prose writers entered Russian literature during these years: I. S. Tyrgenev, D. V. Grigorovich, F. M. Dostoevsky, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin.

Belinsky was published in the magazine “Domestic Notes” from 1839 to 1846, and Lermontov’s works were published in them: “Bela”, “Taman”, “Fatalist”, “&Boyarin Orsha”, “Izmail - Bey”; poems by Koltsov, Ogareva, Nekrasov.

In the 30-40s, realism was looking for new forms and a direction appeared that was called the “natural school”.

The combination of the spirit of analysis and detailed, even often scrupulous reproduction of reality, the taste for the “little things in life” came from Gogol’s powers of observation. The image of the “little man” was impossible without attention to detail. In this direction, searches were carried out in the stories and poems of Typgenev, the early prose and poetry of Nekrasov, the works of Dostoevsky and Dahl, and the poems of Koltsov. One of the most popular genres of this direction was the essay. The titles of the essays can already serve as a characteristic of their content: “The Coachman”, “The Orderly” by V. I. Dahl, “Merchants”, “Officials”, “The Landowner” by V. A. Sollogub.

The works of this direction combine the desire to accurately depict reality and generalize their observations. In this regard, the collection “Physiology of St. Petersburg” (1844-1845) is indicative. It contained essays: Petersburg Corners by Nekrasov, Petersburg Janitor by Dahl, Petersburg Organ Grinders by Grigorovich. In his introductory article, Belinsky argued that the collection forces readers to think. Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky occupied a special place in the literature of those years. His name has become known since 1834, when the article “Literary Dreams” was published. Elegy in prose." Following this publication, articles by the critic began to appear in the magazines Telescope, Moscow Observer, Otechestvennye Zapiski, and Sovremennik. Belinsky saw in literature the expression of “symbol inner life people." He considered criticism to be “the sister of doubt,” and art to be an artistic analysis of reality.

V. G. Belinsky is considered to be the founder of Russian realistic criticism. The concept of realism in his works is inseparable from the nationality of literature. You should read it best works: “The Idea of Art” (1841), “The Division of Poetry into Genera and Types” (1841), “Speech on Criticism” (1842), “The Works of Alexander Pushkin” (1843-1846) and reviews of literature for 1846, 1847. Although his literary activity lasted only 15 years, it had a huge influence on Russian literature.

The critic's ideological search was sometimes painful. You can still disagree with him, argue with many of his statements, but you must always remember: he helped a generation of Russian realists grow up. I. S. Tyrgenev called him “father and commander” and, dying, asked to be buried next to Belinsky’s ashes.

1. Parish schools for children of peasants; In the first half of the 19th century, education and enlightenment received further development . The basis for the development of the education system was the reform of 1803. The following types of educational institutions were established:

2. District schools for citizens;

3. Provincial gymnasiums for noble children;

4. Universities.

The country was divided into 6 educational districts, each of which had educational institutions of all types.

The Ministry of Public Education was created to organize and manage educational institutions. In addition to Moscow University, universities were opened in Kazan, St. Petersburg, Kharkov, Vilno, and Dorpat. Lyceums close to universities in terms of curriculum were Tsarskoye Selo near St. Petersburg, Demidovsky in Yaroslavl, Richelievsky in Odessa. These were mainly educational institutions of the nobility. Every decade, more and more commoners entered universities. Thus, at the beginning of the 19th century, the number of universities in Russia increased. However, only 4 thousand students studied there.

Russian universities began to announce their scientific research.

In the 19th century, Russia gave the world a galaxy of great scientists. The list of the greatest discoveries alone looks quite impressive.

- Mathematics.

In the field of mathematics: N.I. Lobachevsky created a theory non-Euclidean geometry, making a revolution in ideas about the nature of space, which was based on more than two thousand years Euclid's doctrine. Lobachevsky's geometry was not understood by his contemporaries. It was only on the 100th anniversary (1893) of his birth that his works became widely recognized and an international prize was established in his name.

For almost 19 years, Lobachevsky headed Kazan University and paid a lot of attention to the formation of the university library.

A.A. Markov, M.V. Ostrogradsky - were engaged probability theory .

- Astronomy.

Achievements in astronomy were largely associated with the founding of the Pulkovo Observatory, which became one of the best in the world. In astronomy, the works received worldwide recognition V.Ya. Struve. Works on astrometry and study double stars gained worldwide fame. He established the presence of light absorption in interstellar space.

Struve and his students, using the latest mathematical and physical methods, achieved high accuracy in determining interstellar distances.

The first professor of astronomy at Kazan University was I.I. Littrov, who built a small observatory. His student is better known in astronomy THEM. Simonov, participant in the trip to Antarctica. Most of his works are devoted to the study terrestrial magnetism. For a number of years Simonov was the rector of Kazan University.

- Development of physics.

Engineer P.D. Shilling before the American inventor S. Morse created a recording electromagnetic telegraph that operated along the St. Petersburg - Tsarskoe Selo line; mechanical engineers, serfs of the Demidov industrialists in the Urals, father and son E.A. and M.E. Cherepanovs in 1833-1834 built the first steam-powered railway in Russia; metallurgical engineer P.P. Anosov At the Zlatoust plant, he was the first in the world to use a microscope to study the structure of metal and, based on a long experiment, developed a method for producing damask steel.

- Progress in chemistry.

Mendeleev established the Periodic Law of Chemical Elements.

In the first half of the century, a strong chemistry school began to emerge at Kazan University. Its creation was stimulated by the government’s special concern for overcoming the country’s technological backwardness. At the end of the 1830s. professor at Kazan University P.P. Zinin And K.K. Klaus founded chemical and technological laboratories. In them, already in 1842, Zinin made his famous discovery of a method for artificially producing aniline etc. His discoveries became the basis for the development of the production of synthetic dyes and medicines in the country. And in 1844, Professor Klaus discovered a new chemical element - ruthenium.

- Medicine.

- Story.

- Linguistics.

Linguistics has made significant achievements. IN AND. Dahl for 50 years he worked on compiling “an explanatory dictionary of the living Great Russian language.”

- Philosophy.

- Geography.

A number of expeditions around the world were made. The first Russian round-the-world expedition on two ships “Nadezhda” and “Neva” under the command of I.F. Krusenstern and Yu.F. Lisyansky(1803-1806) passed from Kronstadt to Kamchatka and Alaska. The islands of the Pacific Ocean, the coast of China, Sakhalin Island, and the Kamchatka Peninsula were studied and photographed. F.F. Belingshausen and M.P. Lazarev led a round-the-world expedition (1819-1821), which discovered Antarctica (one-sixth of the world) and numerous islands. In 1845, the Russian Geographical Society was established (for the study of the territory and seas of Russia). After the first expedition around the world, about 40 more trips around the world were made.

In general, Russian scientists have made breakthroughs in many fields of knowledge, which have made Russia a scientifically advanced country. But the delay in economic and political transformations contributed to the fact that science developed largely in isolation from social needs, as if ahead of them. Scientific research was rarely subsidized by Russian entrepreneurs, as in Europe.

In general, the development of education, enlightenment and science in the first half of the 19th century achieved impressive results .