Humanity could not have made the progress we have today without the ability to communicate verbally with each other. Speech is our wealth. The ability to communicate with people of both one’s own and another nationality allowed countries to reach the current level of civilization.
Someone else's speech
In addition to one’s own words, there is such a thing as “other people’s speech.” These are statements that do not belong to the author, but are included in the general conversation. The words of the author himself are also called someone else's speech, but only those phrases that he said either in the past or plans to say in the future. Mental, so-called “inner speech” also refers to someone else’s speech. It can be oral or written.
As an example, let’s take a quote from Mikhail Bulgakov’s book “The Master and Margarita”: “What do you think?” Berlioz whispered anxiously, and he himself thought: “But he’s right!”
Transmitting someone else's speech
Over time, special ways of transmitting someone else’s speech have appeared in the language:
- Direct speech.
- Indirect speech.
- Dialogue.
- Citation.
Direct speech
If we consider methods of transmitting someone else's speech, then this one is intended for verbatim reproduction of the form and content of the conversation.
Direct speech constructions consist of two parts - these are the words of the author and, in fact, direct speech. The structure of these structures may be different. So, how can there be ways of transmitting someone else's speech? Examples:
- First come the words of the author, followed by direct speech.
Masha entered the hotel room, looked around, and then turned to Kolya and said: “Great room! I would even stay here to live.”
- Here, direct speech comes first, and only then the words of the author.
“Great room! I would even stay here,” Masha said to Kolya when she entered the hotel room.
- The third method allows you to alternate direct speech with the words of the author.
“Great room!” Masha admired when she entered the hotel room. Then she turned to Kolya: “I would like to stay here.”
Indirect speech
Third person speech may be transmitted in various ways. One of them is the use of indirect speech. Indirect speech is complex sentences with Thus, the transmission of someone else's speech can be carried out. Examples:
Masha told Kolya that the hotel room was excellent, and she would even stay in it.
They greeted each other, and Andrei told Mikhail Viktorovich that he was very glad to see him.
Means of communication
The choice of means of communication is called the choice of a means of communication. It depends on the original sentence and on The message can be narrative, motivating or interrogative.
- The conjunctions most often used in a declarative sentence are “that,” “as if,” or “as if.” For example: A student said: “I will give a report at the seminar about environmental problems region." / The student said that he would make a report at the seminar on environmental problems in the region.
- In an incentive sentence, the conjunction “so that” is used. For example: The school director ordered: “Take part in the city exhibition.” / The school director ordered that we take part in the city exhibition.
- In an interrogative sentence, the means of communication can be the particle “li”, or double particles “li... whether”. For example: Students asked the teacher: “When do you need to take the coursework in your subject?” / The students asked the teacher when they would have to take the coursework.
In indirect speech, it is customary to use pronouns and verbs from the speaker’s position. When sentences are translated from direct speech to indirect speech, the word order in them often changes, and the loss of individual elements is also noted. Most often these are interjections, particles or For example: “Tomorrow it may be very cold,” my friend said. / My friend suggested that tomorrow it will be very cold.
Improperly direct speech
When considering methods of transmitting someone else's speech, we should also mention such a phenomenon as improperly direct speech. This concept includes both direct and indirect speech. An utterance of this kind retains, in whole or in part, both the syntactic and lexical features of speech and conveys the speaker’s manner.
Its main feature is the transmission of the narrative. This is from the perspective of the author, and not from the character himself.
For example: “She measured the room with her steps, not knowing what to do. Well, how can I explain to my brother that it wasn’t her who told everything to her parents? They themselves won’t tell about it. But who will believe her! How many times did she expose his tricks, but here ... We need to come up with something."
Dialogue
Another way of transmitting someone else's speech is a conversation between several people, expressed in direct speech. It consists of replicas, that is, the transmission of the words of each participant in the conversation without changing them. Each spoken phrase is connected with others in structure and meaning, and punctuation marks do not change when transmitting someone else's speech. The author's words may appear in the dialogue.
For example:
Well, how do you like our number? - asked Kolya.
Great room! - Masha answered him. - I would even stay here to live.
Types of dialogues
There are several basic types of dialogues. They convey conversations between people and, like a conversation, can be of a different nature.
- The dialogue may consist of questions and answers to them:
Great news! When will the concert take place? - asked Vika.
In a week, on the seventeenth. He will be there at six o'clock. You should definitely go, you won’t regret it!
- Sometimes the speaker is interrupted mid-sentence. In this case, the dialogue will consist of unfinished phrases that the interlocutor continues:
And at this time our dog began to bark loudly...
Ah, I remembered! You were still in a red dress then. Yes, we had a great time that day. I'll have to do it again sometime.
- In some dialogues, the speakers' remarks complement and continue the general idea. They talk about one common subject:
Let's save up a little more money and we can already buy small house, - said the father of the family.
And I will have my own room! I must have my own room! And the dog! We'll get a dog, right, mom? - asked seven-year-old Anya.
Certainly. Who else can guard our house? - Mom answered her.
- Sometimes people talking can agree or refute each other’s statements:
“I called her today,” he told his sister, “I think she felt bad.” The voice is weak and hoarse. I got really sick.
“No, she’s already better,” the girl answered. - The temperature subsided, and my appetite appeared. He will soon be completely well.
This is what the basic forms of dialogue look like. But don’t forget that we don’t communicate in only one style. During a conversation, we combine various phrases and situations. Therefore, there is a complex form of dialogue, containing various combinations of it.
Quotes
When a schoolchild is asked: “Name the ways of conveying someone else’s speech,” he most often remembers the concepts of direct and indirect speech, as well as quotes. Quotations are the verbatim reproduction of a statement by a specific person. Quote phrases to clarify, confirm or refute someone's thoughts.
Confucius once said: “Choose a job you love, and you will never have to work a day in your life.”
A quotation as a way of conveying someone else’s speech helps to demonstrate one’s own education, and sometimes drive the interlocutor into a dead end. Most people know that certain phrases were once uttered by someone, but they don’t know who those people were. When using quotes, you need to be sure of their authorship.
Finally
There are various ways to convey someone else's speech. The main ones are direct and indirect speech. There is also a method that includes both of these concepts - this is improperly direct speech. Conversations between two or more people are called dialogue. And this is also the transmission of someone else's speech. Well, to quote Socrates: “The only true wisdom is in the realization that we essentially know nothing.”
foreign russian speech transmission
As we noted in the previous chapter, the statement of another person, included in the author’s narrative, forms someone else’s speech.
Someone else's speech, reproduced verbatim, preserving not only its content, but also its form, is called direct speech.
Someone else's speech, reproduced not verbatim, but only with its content preserved, is called indirect.
Direct and indirect speech differ not only in the literal or non-verbal transmission of someone else's speech. The main difference between direct speech and indirect speech lies in the way they are included in the author’s speech. and indirect speech is formalized in the form of a subordinate clause as part of a complex sentence, in which the main part is the words of the author. Wed, for example: The silence lasted a long time. Davydov turned his eyes to me and said dully: “I was not the only one who gave his life to the desert” (Paust.).-Davydov turned his eyes to me and said dully that he was not the only one who gave his life to the desert. When translating direct speech into indirect speech, if necessary, the forms of pronouns change (I - he).
With the convergence of forms of transmission of someone else's speech, i.e. direct and indirect, a special form is formed - improperly direct speech. For example: A gloomy day without sun, without frost. The snow on the ground had melted overnight and lay only on the roofs in a thin layer. Grey sky. Puddles. What kind of sleds are there: it’s disgusting to even go out into the yard (Pan.). Here someone else's speech is given verbatim, but there are no words introducing it; it is not formally highlighted as part of the author's speech.
Direct speech
In direct speech, the statements of other persons cited by the author are preserved in full, without undergoing any processing; it not only accurately conveys the content of these statements, but also reproduces all the features of their linguistic expression, in particular, direct speech is conducted not on behalf of the author, but on behalf of the person to whom the transmitted statement belongs. Direct speech is clearly distinguished from the author's speech.
The authenticity and accuracy of other people's statements acquire special significance in scientific speech. This poses a number of citation requirements. First of all, it is necessary that the quotation does not distort the thoughts of the quoted work. Such distortions may arise due to the fact that a single sentence (or part of it), taken out of context, may acquire a different meaning than it has in the work from which the quotation is given. Therefore, when quoting, it is necessary to carefully ensure that the quote taken accurately reproduces the views of the quoted author.
On the external side, the accuracy of citation requires compliance with a number of generally accepted techniques in the press, so that the reader can easily see what the author is citing from the cited work. These techniques include: 1) enclosing the quoted text in quotation marks, 2) a completely accurate reproduction of this text, preserving punctuation, 3) indicating omissions made with ellipses, 4) comments on the use of special fonts (discharge, italics) in the form of indications whether it belongs such a font for the cited work or citing author, 5) links with the exact indication of the author, title, edition, year and place of publication, page, etc.
In works of art, direct speech reproduces all the features of the character’s speech manner. First of all, the features of dialect or jargon are preserved, for example: in the speech of a specialist, the use of terminology and typical for a given social group phraseology, the use of dialectisms in the speech of residents of different areas. Then all the features of speech are preserved in connection with different attitudes towards interlocutors and other persons (respect, business relations, ridicule, neglect), with different attitudes towards the subject of speech (seriousness, conversational style, playfulness, etc.). In this regard, direct speech widely uses means of emotionality and expressiveness: interjections, emotionally charged vocabulary, suffixes of subjective assessment, syntactic means of colloquial speech and vernacular.
Here is an example of direct speech, in which the characteristics of the characters’ speech manner are expressed relatively weakly:
The manager told me: “I’m keeping you only out of respect for your venerable father, otherwise you would have left me long ago. I answered him: “You flatter me too much, Your Excellency, by believing that I can fly.” And then I heard him say: “Take this gentleman away, he’s ruining my nerves” (Chekhov, My Life).
Here, the attitude of a subordinate employee to a manager in pre-revolutionary times explains your Excellency’s address; at the same time, the irony of the hero of the story is reflected in his rethinking of the word fly; in the speech of the manager, the respect for the hero’s father, the architect, is due to his designation father; on the contrary, the emphasized harshness comes through in the statement: otherwise you would have flown away from me long ago instead of I would have fired you.
In the following remarks of the grandfather from the story by A.M. Gorky’s “In People,” the character’s speech manner is conveyed exceptionally vividly:
I entered the room, looked at my grandfather and could hardly restrain myself from laughing - he was truly as happy as a child, he was beaming, kicking his legs and pounding his red-furred paws on the table.
-What, goat? Have you come to fight again? Oh, you robber! Just like my father! Formazon, entered the house-I didn’t cross myself, now I’m smoking tobacco, oh, you, Bonaparte, the price is a penny!
The syntax of emotional speech with interjections, appeals, incomplete sentences and unique vocabulary and phraseology is widely represented here.
Direct speech conveys:
1) a statement by another person, for example: Amazed, he asked: “But why do you come to my lectures?” (M. Gorky.);
3) an unspoken thought, for example: Only then did I straighten up and think: “Why is father walking around the garden at night?”(Turgenev).
In the author's speech there are usually words that introduce direct speech. These are, first of all, verbs of speech, thoughts: say, speak, ask, ask, answer, think, notice (in the meaning of “say”), speak, object, shout, address, exclaim, whisper, interrupt, insert, etc. Introduce direct speech Verbs that characterize the target orientation of the statement can also be used, for example: reproach, decide, confirm, agree, assent, advise, etc. In addition, sometimes verbs are used that denote actions and emotions accompanying the statement, for example: smile, be upset, be surprised, sigh, to be offended, indignant, etc. In such cases, direct speech has a pronounced emotional connotation, for example: “Where are you going?”-Startsev was horrified (Chekhov).
Some nouns are sometimes used as introductory words. Like verbs introducing direct speech, they have the meaning of statements, thoughts: words, exclamation, question, exclamation, whisper and others, for example: “Did the boy lie down?”-A minute later the whisper of Pantelei (Chekhov) was heard.
Direct speech can be located in relation to the author's in preposition, in postposition and in interposition, for example : "Talk to me about the future"-she asked him (M. Gorky); And when he extended his hand to her, she kissed her with hot lips and said: “Forgive me, I am guilty before you” (M. Gorky); And only when he whispered: “Mom! Mother!"-he seemed to feel better...(Chekhov). In addition, direct speech can be broken by the author's words, for example: "Signorina-my constant opponent,-he said,-Doesn’t she think that it would be better in the interests of the matter if we got to know each other better?” (M. Gorky).
Depending on the location of direct speech, the order of arrangement of the main members of the sentence in the author’s speech usually changes. Words that introduce direct speech are always next to her. So, in the author’s speech preceding the direct one, the predicate verb is placed after the subject, for example:... Kermani said cheerfully: “The mountain becomes a valley when you love!” (M. Gorky). If the author’s words are located after direct speech, the predicate verb precedes the subject, for example: “You will be an architect, right?”-she suggested and asked (M. Gorky).
Indirect speech
Indirect speech is someone else's speech, conveyed by the author in the form of a subordinate part of a sentence while preserving its content.
Unlike direct speech, indirect speech is always located after the author’s words, formatted as the main part of a complex sentence.
Wed: “Now everything will change,” said the lady (Paustovsky).-The lady said that now everything will change.
To introduce indirect speech, various conjunctions and allied words are used, the choice of which is related to the purposefulness of someone else's speech. If someone else's speech is a declarative sentence, then when formatting it as an indirect sentence, the conjunction that is used, for example: After some silence, the lady said that in this part of Italy it is better to drive at night without lights.
If someone else’s speech is an incentive sentence, then when forming indirect speech, a conjunction is used so that, for example: The guys are shouting for me to help them tie down the grass (Sholokhov).
If someone else's speech is an interrogative sentence, which contains interrogative-relative pronominal words, then when forming indirect speech these pronominal words are preserved, and no additional conjunctions are required. For example: I asked where this train was going.
If in someone else’s speech, framed as an interrogative sentence, there are no pronominal words, then the indirect question is expressed using the conjunction whether. For example: I asked him if he would be busy.
In indirect speech, personal and possessive pronouns, as well as forms of personal verbs, are used from the point of view of the author, and not from the speaker. Wed: "You speak sadly"-interrupts the stove man (M. Gorky).- The stove maker notices that I speak sadly.
Improperly direct speech
There is a special way of transmitting someone else’s speech, which contains the features of both direct speech and partly indirect speech. This is improperly direct speech, its specificity lies in the following: like direct speech, it retains the features of the speaker’s speech - lexical-phraseological, emotional-evaluative; on the other hand, as in indirect speech, it follows the rules for replacing personal pronouns and personal forms verbs. A syntactic feature of improperly direct speech is that it is not distinguished within the author’s speech.
Improperly direct speech is not formalized as a subordinate clause (unlike indirect speech) and is not introduced with special introductory words (unlike direct speech). It does not have a typed syntactic form. This is someone else's speech, directly included in the author's narrative, merging with it and not delimited from it. Inappropriate direct speech is conducted not on behalf of the person, but on behalf of the author, the narrator; someone else's speech is reproduced in the author's speech with its inherent features, but at the same time does not stand out against the background of the author's speech.
Wed: Friends visited the theater and unanimously declared: “We really liked this performance!”(direct speech). - Friends visited the theater and unanimously declared that they really liked this performance (indirect speech). - Friends visited the theater. They really liked this performance! (improper direct speech).
Improperly direct speech is a stylistic figure of expressive syntax. It is widely used in fiction as a method of bringing the author’s narrative closer to the speech of the characters. This method of presenting someone else’s speech allows one to preserve the natural intonations and nuances of direct speech and at the same time makes it possible not to sharply distinguish this speech from the author’s narrative. For example:
Only he went out into the garden. The sun was shining on the high ridges covered with snow. The sky turned blue carefree. The sparrow sat down on the fence, jumped up, turned to the right and left, the sparrow's tail provocatively stuck up, the round brown eye looked at Tolka in surprise and fun,-what's going on? What does it smell like? After all, spring is still far away! (Pan.);
In fiction, improperly direct speech is often used in the form of the second part of the non-union complex sentence and reflects the reaction of the actor to the phenomenon he perceives.
For example: Oh, how good it was for district police officer Aniskin! Looked at the chintz curtains-oh, how funny! I touched the rug with my foot-oh, how important! Inhaled the smells of the room-well, like being under a blanket as a child! (Lip.).
Thus, we can say that free direct speech is an adapted presentation, and not a literal transmission of someone else’s speech. In a written text, in contrast to direct speech itself, free direct speech is not highlighted by quotation marks, and short authorial introductions such as: the speaker said further, he wrote, he thought, most often used in interposition, are highlighted only by commas and play the role of introductory sentences.
Improper direct speech does not represent any specific syntactic structure. Without any direct signals, it is woven into the author’s narrative, and the “voice of the character,” and not the narrator, is recognized only by the nature of the assessments of the situation, sometimes by the presence of interrogative or exclamatory sentences associated with the character’s reasoning, by the peculiarities of word usage that reflect his individuality and etc. Most often, improperly direct speech is used to imitate the character’s internal speech and thoughts.
Different forms of transmitting someone else's speech constantly interact with each other. This is especially typical for the works of L.N. Tolstoy. Thus, improperly direct speech with its characteristic “indirect” use of facial forms can be accompanied by the author’s input, characteristic of free direct speech; can, as it were, imperceptibly turn into direct speech; may be a continuation of indirect speech, etc.
Ways to formulate someone else's speech
I.Direct speech
A: "P". "P", - a. "P, - a, - p."
A: “P?” "P?" - A. "P? - A. - P".
A: “P!” "P!" - A. "P! - A. - P".
A: “P...” “P...” - a. “P, - a. - P".
Etc.: 1) . P. I. Tchaikovsky wrote: “Inspiration is a guest who does not like to visit the lazy.”
2). “Inspiration is a guest who does not like to visit the lazy,” wrote P.I. Chaikovsky.
3). “Inspiration,” wrote P. I. Tchaikovsky, “is a guest who does not like to visit the lazy.”
If direct speech is presented in the form of a dialogue, then each replica begins with a new paragraph and is preceded by a dash.
- Are you satisfied, gentlemen generals? - the man-lounger asked meanwhile.
- We are satisfied, dear friend, we see your zeal! - the generals answered.
- Would you allow me to rest now?
- Rest, my friend, just unwind the rope first.
M. Saltykov-Shchedrin
II. Indirect speech
, (). Complex sentence with an explanatory clause coming after the main clause.
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Sentences with direct speech |
Sentences with indirect speech |
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1) He said: “I will bring this book tomorrow.” |
1) [He said], ( What will bring this book tomorrow). |
|
2) He told me: “Bring this book tomorrow.” |
2) [He told me], ( to I brought this book tomorrow). / Indirect incentive/ |
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3) He asked: “When will you bring this book?” |
3) [He asked], (When I'll bring this book). /Indirect question/ |
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4) He asked: “Will you bring this book tomorrow?” |
4) [He asked], (I’ll bring whether I will read this book tomorrow). /Indirect question/ |
III. Basic citation methods
|
Sentence with direct speech |
A.P. Chekhov wrote: “Everything in a person should be beautiful: face, clothes, soul, and thoughts.” |
|
Sentence with indirect speech |
A.P. Chekhov believed that “everything in a person should be beautiful: face, clothes, soul, and thoughts.” |
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Sentence with introductory words |
According to A.P. Chekhov, “everything in a person should be beautiful: face, clothes, soul, and thoughts.” |
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Partial citation |
A.P. Chekhov believed that “everything should be beautiful in a person.” |
Introductory structures (post source)
BB, ….…, BB,……, BB.
1) According to P.I. Tchaikovsky, “inspiration is a guest who does not like to visit the lazy.” /Introductory phrase/.
2) As P.I. Tchaikovsky wrote, “inspiration is a guest who does not like to visit the lazy.” /Introductory sentence/.
3) “Inspiration,” as P.I. Tchaikovsky wrote, “is a guest who does not like to visit the lazy.”
Partial citation
1) In the middle or end of a sentence.
Etc. a) “This is the hope of our literature.” (V. A. Zhukovsky about A. S. Pushkin)
V. A. Zhukovsky called A. S. Pushkin “the hope of our literature.”
b) “You marvel at the jewels of our language: every sound is a gift...”
(N.V. Gogol)
N.V. Gogol always “marveled at the preciousness of the Russian language.”
2) At the beginning of a sentence.
“Nikolai Ostrovsky! You left us, but yours is wonderful fiery life continues, blooms, boils in millions yours readers! (V. Kataev about N. Ostrovsky)
“... The fiery life continues... in millions... of readers,” -
V. Kataev wrote about N. Ostrovsky.
IV. Errors in the design of someone else's speech
- Mixing direct and indirect speech.
A. P. Chekhov wrote that: “Everything in a person should be beautiful.”
Right:
A.P. Chekhov wrote: “Everything in a person should be beautiful.”
A.P. Chekhov wrote that “everything in a person should be beautiful.”
2. Using an extra conjunction in a sentence with indirect speech.
I asked in the theater What will whether premiere today.
Right: I asked at the theater if there would be whether premiere today.
3. Placing a question mark in a declarative sentence with an indirect question.
I asked at the theater if there would be a premiere today?
Right: I asked at the theater if there would be a premiere today.
4. Formatting the introductory sentence as the words of the author in direct speech.
As A.P. Chekhov believes: “Everything in a person should be beautiful.”
Right: As A.P. Chekhov believes, “everything in a person should be beautiful.”
The concept of someone else's speech and methods of its transmission. Direct speech. Indirect speech. Translation of direct speech into indirect speech. Improperly direct speech as a contamination of forms of direct and indirect speech. Structural-formal features and structural-semantic varieties of improperly direct speech.
Quotation and its forms. Dialogue. Punctuation design of various ways of transmitting someone else's speech.
Someone else's speech is a new speech layer in the speech of any native speaker, in the narration of the author, the narrator introduced by him or the hero of the work, for example: “Dear, kind Marya Ivanovna,” I told her, “be my wife, agree to my happiness.” Without any affectation, she confessed to me her heartfelt inclination and said that her parents, of course, would be glad to see her happiness (A. Pushkin).
The particular difficulty of studying and linguistically describing someone else’s speech lies in the fact that it is organically connected with the speech act, with the entire process of communication. As a result of this, it is not possible to characterize someone else’s speech only from a grammatical, linguistic point of view, i.e., as a set of ways of transmitting it, but it is necessary to take into account the peculiarities of the functioning of these methods in speech. It should be emphasized that this approach to language is fully consistent with understanding it as a system: after all, “a system is a set of elements with relationships and connections between them that form a certain integrity,” and the characteristics of a system include its behavior and functioning. In accordance with this, each of the methods of transmitting someone else's speech is considered as a linguistic construction, the relationships between them are established, and then the features of their use in real communication and in the context of different forms of storytelling. The same approach applies to all concepts associated with someone else’s speech, and above all the concepts of “author” and “speaker”. In this case, the author is the person who conveys someone else’s speech, and the speaker is the person whose speech is transmitted. Thus; in fiction, the “author” conveying someone else’s speech can be the author of the work, the narrator on whose behalf the story is told, or any hero of the work: We talked in a low voice. Maria Ivanovna tenderly reprimanded me for the anxiety caused to everyone by my quarrel with Shvabrin. “I just froze,” she said, “when they told us that you intend to fight with swords” (A. Pushkin). The author conveying the words of Maria Ivanovna (the speaker) in the form of direct speech is Grinev, on whose behalf Pushkin conducts the narration, i.e. the narrator; and the author conveying the words of unknown persons (speakers) is Maria Ivanovna, that is, one of the characters in the story “The Captain's Daughter”.
Due to the fact that those assessments and opinions that the author put into his work can only indirectly reflect the true assessments and opinions of the writer himself, in the communicative situation of a narration (narrative) it is customary to talk about the image of the author or the narrator. The narrator may be one of the characters in the text, that is, he may enter the world of the text, and then he is called the narrator, or he may not enter the world of the text (such, for example, is the narrator of A. Pushkin’s story “The Shot”).
The speaker in real communication necessarily belongs to the world he is talking about. The author of a literary text creates a fictional world, which only passes off as a fragment of the real world. He himself does not belong to the world of the text of his work. These and many other features of literary works lead to the use of numerous artistic techniques associated with the transmission of someone else's speech. However, it is advisable to base the characterization of methods of transmitting someone else’s speech as linguistic constructions on the criterion of correlation in the text of “two quantities – the transmitted (“alien”) speech and the transmitting (“author’s”) speech.” This possibility is due to the fact that for each of these linguistic constructions there are typical narrative forms in which they function.
In the form of direct speech, someone else’s speech is conveyed from the speaker’s point of view while preserving the features of the transmitted speech: “Ugh, what. . . “- thought Seryozha (V. Panova). For direct speech, it is typical to use it in a first-person narrative (traditional narrative, primary narrative form).
In the form of indirect speech, someone else's speech is conveyed from the point of view of the author, which does not allow preserving all the features of the transmitted speech without exception. Wed. : Korostelev said that it will pass now and Korostelev said: “What are you talking about, brother. It will pass now” (V. Panova). For indirect speech, it is typical to use it in a third-person narrative (traditional narrative, third-person narrative form).
In the form of improperly direct speech, someone else’s speech is conveyed both from the point of view of the hero and from the point of view of the author, which makes it possible to preserve the features of the transmitted speech: She looked around in surprise and thought: is it really not the day since she drove away from her place? . (V. Panova). Improperly direct speech is characterized by its use in narrative form, which is last years received the name “free indirect discourse” (non-traditional narrative).
According to tradition, direct speech is defined as a method of transmitting someone else’s speech, in which it is introduced into the text by the words of the author and reproduces a statement (or thought) from the person to whom it belongs, preserving the lexical, phraseological, grammatical and intonation features his own speech.
Thanks to this, the forms of direct speech freely convey the individual style of each speaker and it gives the impression of being literally restored. However, in fact, it cannot be assumed that direct speech necessarily conveys the statement literally. This can be easily proven by comparing the transfer of any real words V different sources: V.I. Kodukhov compares the transmission of the words of M.I. Kutuzov, spoken by him at the council in Fili, in the novel by L.N. Tolstoy “War and Peace”, in the book of the military historian A.I. Mikhailovsky-Danilevsky and in the epic M S. Kryukova. In all three sources, Kutuzov’s words are conveyed in the form of direct speech, but in completely different ways, which is due to the specifics of the genre of each of these works.
Direct speech is characterized by the independent use of facial forms, that is, from the point of view of the speaker himself: 1st person denotes the speaker, 2nd person - the interlocutor or listener, 3rd person denotes persons not taking part in the conversation, or objects . In the author’s words, facial shapes are used from the author’s point of view: Ivan Kuzmin, reprimanding me for the fight, told me: “Eh, Pyotr Andreich! I should have put you under arrest, but you’ve already been punished” (A. Pushkin). Thus, the pronoun me has different meaning: in the author’s words it means Grinev, and in direct speech – Ivan Kuzmich.
Direct speech is built on the principle of parataxis - a free juxtaposition of constructive parts without their grammatically expressed connection: He said: “It’s so good here!”; “Could you help us?” - I asked him; “It would be nice,” the father suggested, “to take a little walk.” The author’s words in a construction with direct speech can occupy any place: they can be located before direct speech, after direct speech, or they can break it. The author’s words themselves can also be broken into direct speech: The Red Army soldier, calmly saying: “You sit here for now,” crawled out after the investigator (K. Simonov).
The introduction of direct speech by the speaker's commentary remark (in the words of the author) is typical, but not necessary: He [Seryozha] was exhausted, he fell silent, pressing his sore wet cheek to Korostelev's face. - Here comes winter! Once again you will walk a lot, go sledding - time will fly by. . . (V. Panova).
The words with the semantics of speaking in the composition of the words of the author, which introduce direct speech, are very diverse. This is especially true for verbs. The main categories of these verbs are: 1) verbs of speech (say, notice, report, yell, jabber, etc.); 2) verbs with the meaning of internal state and feelings (to come to your senses, to be perplexed, to be offended, to doubt, etc.); 3) verbs of facial expressions, gestures, body movements and other ways of expressing the internal state of the speaker (moan, sob, wink, wince, etc.); 4) verbs of thought (think, figure out, decide, etc.); 5) verbs of perception (hear, catch, etc.). But in addition to the verbs of the listed groups, verbs of various specific actions are possible here: There was a knock on the door: - Get up quickly!
The author's words most often represent a two-part sentence with a subject indicating the person to whom the direct speech belongs, and a predicate, an expressed verb with the meaning of speech or thought. But the author’s words can also be expressed in incomplete sentences: And he: “I know that.”
Direct speech can consist of one sentence or several sentences, which can be different in structure, purpose of the statement, etc.: - Agreed! - said Seryozha. - I want a bike. Is Sunday coming soon? (V. Panova).
The intonation of direct speech sentences is independent, since the speaker uses not only declarative sentences, and the author’s sentences are usually declarative.
Direct speech can be included as a component in the direct speech of the one who conveys his own or someone else’s words. Such direct speech is called included:
Dolly, who had from her father the gift of telling funny stories, made Varenka fall over with laughter when for the third and fourth time, all with new humorous additions, she told how she had just gotten ready to put on new bows for a guest and was already going out into the living room when she suddenly heard a crash rattlesnake. And who is in the car? - Vasenka himself, with a Scottish cap, and with romances, and with leggings, is sitting on the hay.
“If only he had ordered the carriage to be harnessed!” No, and then I hear: “Wait!” Well, I think they took pity. I saw they put a fat German in front of him and took him away. . . And my bows are gone! . (L. Tolstoy).
Usually in fiction there are various variations of two-degree or three-degree constructions.
I. . . And I, a fool, walked from Moscow and thought,
The lady will call me and say:
III – Play me a little harmony piece, Ivan! (M. Saltykov-Shchedrin).
A type of direct speech is the so-called unmarked direct speech, i.e. speech that is not highlighted graphically.
In the darkness your eyes shine before me,
They smile at me - and I hear sounds:
- My friend, my gentle friend. . . I love. . . yours. . . yours! (A. Pushkin).
Indirect speech is usually defined as a method of transmitting someone else's speech, in which the statement is conveyed on behalf of the author (or narrator) in the form of a subordinate clause, and in most cases with significant changes.
But in indirect speech, someone else’s statement can be conveyed verbatim: He said: “I wasn’t there”; He said he wasn't there. In other words, for direct and indirect speech, the sign of literal/non-literal transmission of someone else's speech is not differential.
In a complex sentence with indirect speech, the main sentence is the author’s words, and the subordinate explanatory sentence is someone else’s speech: Uncle looked at his watch and said that it would be nice to take a bath (V. Panova). The main and subordinate clauses are usually located one after the other, but the main sentence (the author’s words) can be broken by the subordinate clause: Verochka said that she didn’t want tea and went to her room (N. Chernyshevsky). It is impossible to omit the author’s words in a sentence with indirect speech. There are much fewer verbs that introduce indirect speech than verbs that introduce direct speech. For example, verbs of some semantic groups do not introduce indirect speech at all (smile, nod, etc.) or introduce it much less often than direct speech (continue, insert, say, etc.).
Sentences with indirect speech are characterized by a single (usually narrative) intonation.
With the help of indirect speech, the author conveys other people's statements on his own behalf, and therefore he replaces all personal forms accordingly, i.e. in indirect speech, personal forms are dependent. Wed. : Serezha really didn’t want to get off, he grabbed the bike with his hands and said that he wanted to ride some more, that it was his “bike” and Serezha really didn’t want to get off; he grabbed the bike with his hands and feet and said:
- I want more! This is my bicycle (V. Panova).
In the literature on indirect speech, it is often indicated that its subordinate clause is connected to the main sentence by explanatory conjunctions that, so that, as if, as if, and the conjunction that introduces narrative sentences in which reliable information is conveyed, with the conjunction that - motivating, and with the conjunctions as if, as if – narrative sentences conveying unreliable, dubious information: The servant entered and announced that the horses were ready (A. Pushkin); The governor ordered that they come to him tomorrow exactly at nine o’clock in the morning, without fail (A. Chekhov); They said about him that he drove his wife into the coffin with his conversations (A. Chekhov). But there may be other cases. So, for example, the union so that can introduce not only incentive sentences: Since then, not a single day has passed that I have not thought about revenge (A. Pushkin).
Interrogative sentences are connected with the main particle-conjunction whether; These are the so-called indirect questions: Sorry, my precious, are you satisfied with my chatter today? (A. Pushkin). But indirect questions can also be introduced by the conjunction words who, what, which, which, where, how, when, etc.: Then she began to ask me where I work now, how much I earn, where I live (A. Chekhov). However, conjunctions often introduce sentences of indirect speech and not containing a question, for example: Without looking at us, she very seriously and in detail told us how many houses burned down in the village of Siyanov, how many men, women and children were left homeless and what she intended to do first pores of the fire-fighting committee, of which she was now a member (A. Chekhov).
As part of a subordinate clause of indirect speech, as an additional reference to someone else’s speech, as in direct speech, they can be used, they say, de: It smells like spring and an inexpensive cigar, it smells like happiness - and everyone seems to want to say that here - where a man lived, worked hard and finally achieved the happiness possible on earth (A. Chekhov).
Indirect speech is usually a complex sentence, but in modern literature sometimes it is conveyed using a syntactic whole: Lena began to convince herself that she could live without love. What does she have interesting job, comrades, Shurochka. That now is not the time for drama (V. Panova). Researchers of other people's speech also talk about the transmission of indirect speech in the structure of a simple sentence, for example: It occurred to me to invite my neighboring landowners and invite them to organize something like a committee in my house. . . (A. Chekhov); Laptev gave her a hundred rubles and promised to talk to Panaurov (A. Chekhov). But the degree of condensation of transmitted speech in simple sentence very different, so that often this is just the topic of the statement: Both talked for a long time about tomorrow's visit (A. Pushkin).
Indirect speech is used not only as an independent construction as part of the narrative, but it can also represent speech in speech, that is, it can be indirect speech of the second stage: Karpovna said that a soldier brought it every time, but from whom is unknown; and the soldier asked if I was healthy, if I had lunch every day and if I had a warm dress (A. Chekhov).
Indirect speech is used to convey oral and written speech: In December, during the holidays, he got ready to travel and told his wife that he was leaving for St. Petersburg to work for one person - and left for S. (A. Chekhov); They were waiting for my husband to arrive. But a letter came from him in which he informed that his eyes hurt and begged his wife to return home as soon as possible (A. Chekhov).
The transmitted speech can also be collective: They said that a new face had appeared on the embankment: a lady with a dog (A. Chekhov).
Forms of indirect speech can convey thoughts and internal monologues: Gurov thought about how, in essence, if you think about it, everything is beautiful in this world, everything except what we ourselves think and do when we forget about the highest goals of existence, about our humanity dignity (A. Chekhov). These thoughts may also be imaginary: The father and the boy looked at her in a special way, as if just before her arrival they had condemned her for marrying an unloved, tedious, boring man for money. . . (A. Chekhov).
When replacing direct speech with indirect speech (see Table 1), conjunctions and allied words are used depending on the purpose of the statement: the conjunction that is used when replacing a narrative sentence, the conjunction that is used when replacing an incentive sentence, the conjunction is a particle whether - when replacing an interrogative sentence. If there was a question word in the interrogative sentence of direct speech, then this word is used to connect the subordinate clause of indirect speech with the words of the author. When transmitting direct speech using indirect speech, emotionally expressive words and expressions are omitted that are inappropriate when conveying the main content of the statement or those that cannot be conveyed through indirect speech, as well as those components of direct speech, the use of which is associated with direct contact of participants in the communicative act (for example, appeal). The patterns of pronoun replacement are related to whether the person being reported in the form of indirect speech is a participant in the dialogue or not.
Since the 30s of the XX century. , much attention of linguists is attracted by the artistic device of multifaceted (polyphony, polyphony) narration, which allows the voices of both the author of the work and his characters to be heard simultaneously, reflecting different points of view on what is being discussed. But for
Table 1
The ratio of persons in direct and indirect speech
| The person reported in indirect speech | Face in direct speech | Examples |
| The author himself | 1st | I said I didn't like this book. I said, “I don’t like this book.” You said you haven't read this book. You said: “I haven’t read this book.” |
| Author's interlocutor | 2nd | Vanya told me that this book is not interesting for me. Vanya told me: “This book is not interesting for you.” Vanya told you that you should read this. |
| Person not participating in the conversation | 3rd | And you said about me that I would not solve this problem. And you said about me: “He won’t solve this problem.” Vanya said about you that you didn’t read this. Vanya said about you: “He didn’t read this.” Vanya said about Petya that he did not read this. Vanya said about Petya: “He didn’t read this.” |
there was no single term to designate this technique. The terms “free indirect speech”, “experienced speech”, “improper-direct (improper direct) speech”, “improper-indirect speech”, “indirect speech of the author”, “free indirect discourse”, etc. were used. This is explained by the great complexity of the phenomenon . On the one hand, to create a multifaceted narrative, various forms of expression are used, and on the other hand, this technique is implemented in a variety of ways in specific texts. But gradually, two terms became quite firmly established in science: “improper-direct speech” (to denote that type of device for which a certain syntactic pattern has been fixed in the language) and “free indirect discourse” (to denote the type of narrative in which this device functions, i.e. for its speech implementation).
Improperly direct speech is a method of conveying someone else’s speech that combines the grammatical features of direct and indirect speech: the statement is constructed on behalf of the author, as indirect speech; the connection between someone else's speech and the words of the author is non-union, as in direct speech, and all the features of the speech of the speaker (hero) can be preserved.
She thought: what will happen to her now? Will they give her something to eat first or will they immediately begin to teach her how to treat the wounded?; Faina took him to the staff car to rest. By the way, she told Yulia Dmitrievna, she would also clean herself up a little and change clothes, she was already sick of blood, and her underwear was all wet from sweat. . . ; Who is she? As simple as him. She is wearing patched felt boots and a scarf the same as her mother's. She learned and what she became, he thought; He said. He was instructed to collect them into notebooks. He collected it and wanted to give it to Olga Ivanna, but Olga Ivanna was not there, and he was told to give it back tomorrow; She had a gray face and dull eyes. And the lips are gray. And then the lips smiled. She will have the same fate as him (V. Panova).
Improper direct speech can be used in real life verbal communication, but the main sphere of its functioning is fiction. The specificity and special advantage of improperly direct speech is that it makes it possible to combine the subjective plans of the author and the speaker (in a work of art - the author and the hero), and the lines of speech of the author and the hero are formally expressed in it approximately equally. The reflection of the author’s speech brings this variety closer to indirect speech: this is expressed by the use of personal forms of the verb, personal and possessive pronouns, and the reflection of the hero’s speech is with direct speech (except for the transfer of features of the speech of the hero himself, which is not characteristic of indirect speech; from a grammatical point of view, this is expressed by the uniformity of the syntactic structure - a non-union connection between the words of the author and the hero, the possibility for the author’s words to be located in relation to the transmitted speech in preposition, postposition or interposition, and also omitted). There is a contamination of forms of direct and indirect speech.
Differential features different ways transmissions of other people's speech are presented in Table 2.
table 2
Differential characteristics of methods of transmitting someone else's speech
| Direct speech | Indirect speech | Improperly direct speech |
| I. The nature of the relationship between transmitted (alien) and transmitted (author's) speech | ||
| 1. Someone else's speech is conveyed from the point of view of the speaker (hero). | 1. Someone else’s speech is conveyed from the author’s point of view. 2. The transfer of the main content of someone else's speech is typical. | 1. The points of view of the hero and the author are combined. 2. Literal transmission of the content of someone else's speech is typical. |
| II. Basic linguistic features of different ways of transmitting someone else's speech | ||
| 1. Allows you to save all lexical, phraseological and syntactic features transmitted speech. 3. The intonation of direct speech sentences is independent. 4. Grammatical features: b) the use of facial forms is independent (from the speaker’s point of view). | 1. It does not allow you to save all the features of the transmitted speech. 3. The intonation of indirect speech sentences is dependent. 4. Grammatical features: a) connection using conjunctions or allied words (indirect speech is conveyed by a subordinate clause); 5. Indirect speech is not highlighted in quotation marks. | 1. Allows you to preserve all the features of the transmitted speech. 3. The intonation of sentences in improperly direct speech is independent. 4. Grammatical features: a) the connection between the parts of the construction (improper direct speech and the words of the author) is non-union. b) facial forms are used from the author’s point of view (dependent use). 5. No quotation marks or dashes are used (otherwise the punctuation is the same as in direct speech). |
The proposed set of features is not exhaustive. For methods of transmitting someone else's speech, the possibility/impossibility of using the imperative mood and addresses is relevant: in direct speech, addresses and verbs in the imperative mood are used, in indirect speech they are not used; in improperly direct speech, addresses are not used, as in indirect speech, and the imperative mood is used only in the form of an indirect command (let him do it); Constructions with foreign speech are characterized by peculiar relationships of aspectual and temporal forms. It is possible to detail the characteristics of the constructions of each of the methods of transmitting someone else's speech, to consider the location of the author's words in these constructions, which is associated with their punctuation design. Also of interest is the nature of the words that require explanation (as part of the author’s introductory words) and the syntactic structure of each part of the construction.
For those varieties of methods of transmitting someone else's speech that are located on the scale of transition between direct and indirect speech, the sets of features will be somewhat modified.
A systematic approach to the objects of research leads to the need to use the concept of “paradigm” not only in morphology, but also in syntax. A paradigm is considered as “a series of opposed linguistic units, each member of which is determined by its relations to other members of the series.” The appeal to the concept of “paradigm” in syntax is due to the desire to present syntactic constructions not in isolation, but in series that are formed in connection with the change in syntactic meanings, communicative tasks, etc.
So, direct speech, indirect speech and improperly direct speech form a syntactic paradigm: “By the way,” she said to Yulia Dmitrievna, “I’ll also come to my senses a little and change clothes, I’m already sick of blood, and my underwear is all wet from sweat.” “By the way,” she told Yulia Dmitrievna, she will also come to her senses a little and change clothes, she is already sick of blood, and her underwear is all wet from sweat. “She told Yulia Dmitrievna that she would also come to her senses a little and change clothes, that she was already sick of the blood, and her underwear was all wet from sweat.
Improperly direct speech, along with some other methods of conveying someone else’s speech, is used in this type of narration (in free indirect discourse), which is based “on the complex coordination of the voices of different characters with each other and with the narrator’s voice”:
Lisa was delighted with the success of her invention. She hugged her father, promised him to think about his advice and ran to appease the irritated Miss Jackson, who forcibly agreed to unlock her door and listen to her excuses. Liza was ashamed to appear such a dark creature in front of strangers; she didn't dare ask. . . she was sure that kind, sweet Miss Jackson would forgive her. . . and so on. and so on. (A. Pushkin); She recalled how painful the wedding was, when it seemed to her that the priest, the guests, and everyone in the church looked at her sadly: why, why did she, so sweet and good, marry this elderly, uninteresting gentleman? (A. Chekhov).
In the example from “The Young Peasant Lady,” the narrator (author) conveys the words of Lisa (the character) herself, and in the example from “Anna on the Neck,” the narrator (author) refracts someone’s opinions through the prism of the consciousness of Anya (the character in the work).
Indirect speech is especially widely used to convey thoughts, and these can be individual thoughts or entire internal monologues:
And suddenly he remembered. How come he didn't do anything to find Igor? Obviously something could be done. Make a phone call. To write an application. To bother somewhere, to ask someone. . . Nonsense, nonsense - where to call, where to bother, who to ask?
No no. Something could have been done, of course. He just doesn't know how. Sonechka could do it. He is slow-witted, has always been slow-witted in such things. Sonechka would have guessed, because she loved Igor. True love guesses everything and can do everything. He loves Igor little, he has always loved him too little, he is a worthless, uncaring, inept father. He loved Lyalya more. And why is it better? Curls on the mind, operetta and flirting. The craftswoman has just been flattering. . . (V. Panova).
Very often, when conveying someone else’s speech or thoughts, the points of view of the author and the hero fundamentally diverge:
At the news of this [that his wife, Zinochka, was expecting a child], Spouses experienced real chilling horror.
Child?! His father-in-law and mother-in-law will immediately push him and Zinochka to Spuzhov, six and a half meters away. These are callous egoists. He, Spuzhov, is not interested in their future. From morning to night, children's squeaks, potties, diapers. . . He'll go crazy.
And the cost of raising a child. I'll have to quit the faculty and go to the village as a paramedic.
He decided not to give up (V. Panova).
The passage, conveyed in improperly direct speech, simultaneously expresses the horror of the egoist Spupov at the prospect that he has drawn for himself, and the author’s condemnation of Spouse’s egoism.
But, having walked around the deck and not finding Dasha, Ivan Ilyich became worried and began to look everywhere. Dasha was nowhere to be found. His mouth was dry. Obviously something happened. And suddenly he directly came across her (A.N. Tolstoy).
The words obviously something happened are improperly direct speech, since the author and the reader know that nothing happened to Dasha, but Ivan Ilyich does not know this.
There are also cases when another character “doesn’t know” something that is conveyed in the form of improperly direct speech:
- Oh, a lamp? She hasn’t worked for a long time, I put her somewhere under the sofa. Let's get some tea first, I'm dying to drink!
(It was impossible to admit that the lamp was in perfect working order...)
The lamp could not be repaired. By the end of the tea party, Nizvetsky remembered the purpose of his coming. But Faina said that she wanted to sleep, and asked Nizvetsky to come tomorrow evening: in fact, we need to fix the lamp, without a lamp she, Faina, is like without hands. . . (V. Panova).
But such a discrepancy may not exist, although it is quite obvious that along with the author’s voice, the character’s voice begins to sound in the narrative:
She stood up, took off the expensive dress in which she saw him off, and put on an old blue T-shirt, mended at the elbows. The key is to the manager. Another key is Katya Gryaznova. There's no point in sitting here. Just need to put everything away carefully: what if he returns before her? She cleaned up, left her paradise and went to the military registration and enlistment office (V. Panova).
If the other layer of speech, conveyed by the form of improperly direct speech, is not emotionally marked, is not clearly split, there are usually words of the author introducing it:
In that case,” Julie continues in the same long, long tone of official notes, “she will send the letter on two conditions. . . (N. Chernyshevsky).
This method of creating a multifaceted narrative is sometimes called a lexical-phraseological variety of improperly direct speech. This variety is closely related to a fundamentally different phenomenon - citation.
Quote (from Latin cito - I call, I quote) is a verbatim excerpt from any text or someone’s exact words quoted.
Quotations are used to support the stated thought with an authoritative statement, to criticize the quoted thought; in linguistic research, quotations play the role of illustrative material, and in dictionaries, grammars and other scientific works they are given as examples of literary speech.
The words of ordinary participants in the conversation can also be quoted: One of the favorite places in the garden was the “birch circle.” This is what we called a small area in the depths of the garden. . . (M. Beketova). A quotation is usually highlighted with quotation marks, because words given without quotation marks may not be perceived as a quotation.
Quotes that are used in scientific and popular science works must be accompanied by a bibliographic reference, based on which you can quickly find the source and the cited place. If the quotation is not given in full, then the omission is indicated by an ellipsis: V.V. Vinogradov wrote: “Language is enriched along with the development of ideas. . . ".
The verbs by which quotations are introduced are isolated from the broad class of verbs of speech (speak, write, quote, state, expound, answer, notify, formulate, etc.), but quotations can also be introduced by some verbs that do not have the meaning of speech (compare, contrast, contrast, distinguish, outline, etc.). Often verbs that introduce quotations also give an assessment of what is being quoted (to mix, to broadcast, to utter, to reproach, etc.).
Quoting is a phenomenon that intersects in complex and diverse ways with direct, indirect and improperly direct speech, as with certain syntactic patterns, and, functioning in the author’s narration, takes part in the formation of the type of statement.
Thus, elements of direct speech can be included in the subordinate clause of indirect speech:
The prince, who firmly adhered to differences in status in life and rarely allowed even important provincial officials to the table, suddenly proved to the architect Mikhail Ivanovich, who was blowing his nose into a checkered handkerchief in the corner, that all people are equal, and more than once inspired his daughter that Mikhail Ivanovich was nothing worse than you and me (L. Tolstoy).
In fact, this is a mixture of the signs of indirect speech with the signs of direct speech, i.e., a syncretic way of transmitting someone else's speech. The term “semi-direct speech” is sometimes used to refer to it. But if we ignore aspects of a formal nature and base the qualification of this phenomenon on the fact that in this way a fragment of another person’s speech is literally conveyed, then such cases can be considered a type of quotation, as is done in linguistic research in recent years.
A type of citation is considered to be cases when subordinate clause indirect speech includes bright figurative words and expressions (often this phraseological units) from the speech of the heroes, which are not usually characteristic of indirect speech. But there are no formal signs of direct speech, such as the use of pronouns showing the point of view of those persons whose speech is being conveyed:
The guys [the craftsmen] suspected me of being a religious sectarian and good-naturedly made fun of me, saying that even my own father had abandoned me, and then they told me that they themselves rarely looked into the temple of God and that many of them had not been in the spirit for ten years, and they justified such dissipation by the fact that a painter among people is like a jackdaw among birds (A. Chekhov); She consulted with her husband, with some neighbors, and finally everyone decided that, apparently, this was Marya Gavrilovna’s fate, that you can’t beat your betrothed with a horse, that poverty is not a vice, that living not with wealth, but with a person, and the like ( A. Pushkin).
This type of transmission of someone else's speech is sometimes called “artistic indirect speech.” Unlike traditional quotations, the elements of the transmitted speech of others are not highlighted in quotation marks.
The same words and expressions from the characters’ speech, not highlighted in quotation marks, are often used in the author’s narration:
Seryozha really didn’t want to get off, he grabbed the bike with his hands and feet and said:
- I want more! This is my bike!
But now Shurik scolded him, as one would expect:
- Greedy!
Being a greedy beef is very shameful; Seryozha silently got down and walked away (V. Panova).
Sometimes the author himself highlights such words from the speech of other persons in font, and there may be direct indications that these are quoted words:
We have already said that, despite her coldness, Marya Gavrilovna was still surrounded by seekers. But everyone had to retreat when the wounded hussar colonel Burmin appeared in her castle, with George in his buttonhole and with an interesting pallor, as the local ladies said (A. Pushkin); Lizaveta Ivanovna looked at him, and Tomsky’s words resounded in her soul: this man has at least three crimes in his soul! (A. Pushkin); Her agility and minute-by-minute pranks delighted her father and drove her madam, Miss Jackson, into despair, a forty-year-old prim girl who bleached herself and raised her eyebrows, re-read Pamela twice a year, received two thousand rubles for it and died of boredom in this barbaric Russia ( A. Pushkin).
If such words and expressions, foreign to the author’s narrative, are not introduced into the text by any instructions and are not highlighted in quotation marks or in font, formally quoting merges with another phenomenon - with the so-called lexical-phraseological variety of improperly direct speech. But quotation and improperly direct speech in any of its varieties are phenomena that are fundamentally different from the point of view that when quoting, the author seems to convey his voice to the hero, and with improperly direct speech the artistic effect is that the voices of the author and the hero are heard together. This common sound is revealed due to the fact that the divergence in the points of view of the author and the hero on what is being discussed, the nature of their perception of the same events is quite obvious: The storeroom was located, undoubtedly, distant lands, in the thirtieth kingdom, because Varya it's been forever. While she was missing, that guy managed to buy an accordion, and Korostelev bought a gramophone (V. Panova).
Quoting is the basis of a special stylistic device - mimesis (from the Greek - imitation, mimicking). Mimesis is used both in everyday colloquial speech and in fiction: Derzhimorda: Was by order. . . Mayor: Shh! (Closes his mouth.) Ek, the crow cawed! (Teases him.) Was on orders! (N. Gogol). The concept of tale is also associated with quotation. A tale is defined as a form of authorial speech in which, throughout the entire work, the presentation is carried out in the spirit of the language and character of the person on whose behalf the story is being told. Thus, a tale is a quotation taken to the limit: formally it is the speech of the narrator, i.e., as if the author, but in essence the author is hidden behind a continuous quotation. Many of N. Leskov’s stories are written in the manner of skaz, for example “Lefty”.
It is not the other person’s speech itself that can be transmitted, but only its theme. The theme of someone else's speech, its subject can be expressed in a simple sentence using additions to verbs with the meaning of speech or thought: Korostelev told him about the war (V. Panova). But the theme, the subject of someone else’s speech can also be conveyed in the structure of a complex sentence: Seryozha told the guys about his illness and how Korostelev talks about the war (V. Panova).
Often the general meaning or content of someone else’s speech is conveyed in sentences with introductory words that indicate the fact of someone else’s speech, its source: according to (such and such), as they say, as they say, etc.: According to the aunt, Zhenya is in the craft the school was accepted (V. Panova).
Particles are also used that indicate the subjectivity of conveying someone else’s speech or its topic: they say, de, they say, and some others: He didn’t know the roads (V. Panova).
Dialogue (from the Greek dialogos) is a conversation, a conversation between two or more persons.
The main sphere of functioning of dialogue is oral speech in any conditions, and above all everyday Speaking. In direct communication, dialogue is carried out in the form of direct speech:
1st l. – Now I gave money for a refrigerator.
2nd l. - How much did you give?
3rd l. – 210.
The conditions in which spontaneous dialogic speech occurs (situation, gestures, facial expressions, intonation) determine its features and, above all, the tendency to save speech means. Thus, dialogue responses most often represent incomplete sentences that contain only “new”; Speakers often do not finish sentences and interrupt each other:
1st l. – Are you going fishing? No?
2nd l. - Necessarily.
1st l. - When?
2nd l. - Well, when is it... . . Here. . .
1st l. – No, I’m asking so simply. Because now I'm leaving. We are leaving. . .
2nd l. - At all?
1st l. – . . . relax.
1st l. “We’ll go, perhaps, to the same place where we went, to this very island.”
In dialogues, individual lines can be very extensive, so the distinction between dialogues and monologues is often very arbitrary. In works of art, the form of direct speech is also generally used to convey dialogue, and lines of dialogue may be introduced in the words of the author, but there may not be any words from the author:
-Are we all going to die?
They were embarrassed as if he had asked something indecent. And he watched and waited for an answer.
Korostelev replied:
- No. We won't die. Aunt Tosya does as she pleases, but we will not die, and in particular you, I guarantee you.
“Will I never die?” asked Seryozha.
- Never! - Korostelev (V. Panova) firmly and solemnly promised.
But the ways of conveying dialogue in works of art are very diverse. So, sometimes some dialogue lines are omitted:
“I don’t feel capable of making her happy.”
“It’s not your grief that’s her happiness.” What? Is this how you respect your parents’ will? Good!
– As you wish, I don’t want to get married and I won’t get married (A. Pushkin).
There are cases when only one stimulus cue or reaction cue is transmitted, and to convey dialogues, not only the form of direct speech is used, but also the forms of indirect and improperly direct speech in full or in different combinations:
Korsakov showered Ibrahim with questions: who is the first beauty in St. Petersburg? who is famous for being the first dancer? what dance is in fashion now? Ibrahim was very reluctant to satisfy his curiosity (A. Pushkin);
Prokhor pulled out rock samples from his property from his suitcase. Engineer Protasov looked carefully. This is copper pyrite, it seems to be mestizo-azure, wonderful, this is amber - wow! And this is gold-bearing sand. From what quantity by volume? Percentage? Prokhor doesn't know. It's a pity. In any case, this is wealth. Yep, a golden nugget! Fabulous. Wow, Prokhor Petrovich has a lot of samples! .
“I’m exploring them,” said the engineer (V. Shishkov).
Often in works of art, internal dialogued monologues of characters are conveyed, including with themselves:
Seeing nothing, she returned home. There were things standing and lying around the room. . . You don't need anything when it's not there. How long will the war last? About two years, he said. Two years! When not a single minute lived without him has any value. She will die of sadness. What to live with? You can suffocate (V. Panova).
“It’s true,” I say.
The reader is not limited to such easy conclusions - after all, a man’s thinking ability is naturally stronger and much more developed than a woman’s; he says - the reader probably also thinks this, but does not consider it necessary to say, and therefore I have no reason to argue with her - the reader says: “I know that this gentleman who shot himself did not shoot himself.” I grab the word “know” and say: you don’t know this, because this has not been told to you yet, and you only know what they will tell you; You yourself know nothing, you don’t even know that by the way I began the story, I insulted and humiliated you. You didn’t know this, did you? - well, just know that (N. Chernyshevsky).
Thus, various methods of dialogizing the author’s text, including journalistic ones, are used. See, for example, the critical article by N. G. Chernyshevsky about A. Ostrovsky’s comedy “Poverty is not a vice”:
Readers now see that almost the entire play consists of a series of incoherent and unnecessary episodes, monologues and narratives. . . How can we explain this? Firstly, the author’s disregard for the requirements of art. . .
Of course, you say, fiery Mitya immediately read the decision of his fate? A. Ostrovsky does not consider this necessary. . .
Table 3
Scale of transitivity of methods of transmitting someone else's speech
On this scale, between the 1st person narration and the 3rd person narration, there are those methods of transmitting someone else’s speech that are implemented in certain syntactic constructions, and below are those that do not have their own syntactic template and can be used as in the author’s narration, and when transmitting someone else's speech in other ways. In real linguistic reality and in fiction, all these methods alternate, combine with each other in a variety of ways, and the boundaries between them are very fluid.
LECTURE NOTES 9
1. Type of text according to the purpose of the statement.
3. Number of components (sentences).
4. Connection between sentences: chain, parallel, mixed type.
5. Ways of expressing semantic relations: lexical, grammatical. Name it.
5. Paragraph (German indent) - this is the red line, the indent at the beginning of the line and the segment writing from one red line to another. It is used to separate dialogue lines or compositional and semantic segments of a monologue text from each other in writing, which may include one or more complex syntactic wholes, may consist of parts of the STS or individual sentences (see: works of literature!)
3. Sentences with indirect speech.
4. Constructions with improperly direct speech.
5. Conveying the content of someone else’s speech in sentences... (independently: R.N. Popov et al. - P. 448).
6. Principles of Russian punctuation. Punctuation marks and the main cases of their use.
1. Beloshapkova V.A. and others. Modern Russian language. Textbook allowance for philologist specialist. Univ.-M.: Education, 1989. –800 p.
2. Valgina N.S. and others. Modern Russian language. –M.: Higher. school, 1987. –480 p.
3. Vinogradov V.V. Modern Russian language. –M.: Higher. school, 1986. –640 p.
4. Galkina-Fedoruk E.M. Modern Russian language. –Part 1. – M.: MSU, 1962. – 344 pp.; Part 2 – 638 p.
5. Graudina L.K. and others. Grammatical correctness of Russian speech. –M.: Russian language, 1976. –232 p.
6. Dudnikov A.V. Modern Russian language. – M.: Higher. school, 1990. –424 p.
7. Kasatkin L.L. and others. Russian language. Textbook for students ped. Inst. –Part 2. –M.: Education, 1989. –287 p.
8. Lekant P.A. Modern Russian language. –M.: Higher. school, 1982. –400 p.
9. Modern Russian language. Textbook for universities/Under the editorship of D.E. Rosenthal. – M.: Higher. school, 1984. –736 p.
10. Shapiro A.B. Modern Russian language. –M.: Education, 1966. –156 p.
1 . In the Russian language there are sentences in which, in addition to one’s own, the author’s speech, the speech of another person is conveyed.
In someone else's speech- is called the statement of another person conveyed in the author’s narration (someone else’s speech can be the statement of the author himself, if this statement is reproduced as a fact that has become extraneous to the moment of speech).
Someone else's speech can be transmitted different ways. If it is necessary to accurately reproduce it, sentences with direct speech are used. If it is necessary to convey only the content of someone else's speech, sentences with indirect speech are used. In works of fiction, constructions with improperly direct speech are used, combining the characteristics of direct speech and indirect speech, when the author’s statement and someone else’s speech merge together. The content or general meaning of someone else's speech can be conveyed using introductory words indicating the source of the message. The topic, the subject of someone else's speech, can only be named and expressed with the help of an addition.
(Attention! The author's narration may include the speech of another person or the statements and thoughts of the author himself, expressed in a certain situation and conveyed verbatim or in content. The statements of other persons (less often the author himself), included in the author's narration, form someone else's speech. Depending on how such a statement is conveyed, a distinction is made between direct speech and indirect speech).
The main criterion for distinguishing between direct and indirect speech is, first of all, that the first, as a rule, literally conveys someone else’s statement, preserving its lexical and phraseological composition, grammatical structure and stylistic features, while the second usually reproduces only the content of the statement, and the original words and expressions speaker, the nature of the construction of his speech changes under the influence of the author's context.
From a syntactic point of view, direct speech retains significant independence, being connected with the author’s words only in meaning and intonation, and indirect speech acts as a subordinate clause as part of a complex sentence, in which the role of the main sentence is played by the author’s words. These are the most important differences between both methods of transmitting someone else's speech. However, their clear distinction in a number of cases gives way to their convergence, close interaction and crossing.
Thus, direct speech may not convey someone else’s statement verbatim. We sometimes find an indication of this in the author’s words themselves: He said something like this...; He replied something like this... It is clear that in such cases someone else's speech is reproduced with greater or lesser approximation to accuracy, but not verbatim.
Naturally, not a literal transmission, but accurate translation we find in cases where the speaker expresses himself in foreign language, and the direct speech belonging to him is conveyed in Russian: - What? What are you saying? - said Napoleon. - Yes, give me a horse.
On the other hand, indirect speech can literally convey someone else’s words, for example, in an indirect question corresponding to an interrogative sentence of direct speech: He asked when the meeting would start. He asked, “When will the meeting start?”
Sometimes indirect speech differs lexically from direct speech only by the presence of a function word - a conjunction that subordinates the subordinate clause to the main one: He said that the manuscript had already been edited. - He said, “The manuscript has already been edited”; He asked if everyone was ready to leave. He asked: “Are everyone ready to leave?” ).
2. Direct speech is the transmission of someone else’s statement, accompanied by the author’s words. Direct speech is called someone else's speech, transmitted on behalf of the speaker (the person whose speech is reproduced).
Sentences with direct speech consist of two parts, united in meaning and structure, one of which (the author's speech) contains a message about the fact of someone else's speech and its source, and the other - direct speech - reproduces someone else's speech without changing its content and linguistic form.
Direct speech can convey:
1) a statement by another person, i.e. literally someone else’s words: “Iran, you’re crying again,” Litvinov began with concern;
2) the words of the speaker himself, spoken earlier: “Why aren’t you going?” - I asked the driver impatiently;
3) unspoken thoughts: “It’s good that I hid the revolver in the crow’s nest,” thought Pavel.
1) precede direct speech: The delighted mother confidently replied: “I’ll find something to say!” ;
2) follow direct speech: “I will, I will fly!” - it rang and rang in Alexei’s head, driving away sleep;
3) engage in direct speech: “We’ll have to spend the night here,” said Maxim Maksimych, “you can’t cross the mountains in such a snowstorm”;
4) include direct speech: To my question: “Is the old caretaker alive?” - no one could give me a satisfactory answer.
Direct speech is most often associated with verbs of utterance or thought contained in the author's words ( speak, say, ask, answer, exclaim, utter, object, think, decide ...), less often - with verbs indicating the nature of speech, its connection with the previous statement ( continue, add, conclude, finish, complete, interrupt, interrupt ...), with verbs expressing the purpose of speech ( ask, order, explain, confirm, complain, agree ...), as well as with phrases with nouns similar in meaning or formation to verbs of speech ( asked a question, an answer was heard, exclamations were heard, words were spoken, a whisper was heard, a cry was heard, a voice was heard... ), or with nouns indicating the occurrence of a thought ( a thought arose, flashed through the consciousness, appeared in the mind... ). Author's words may contain verbs indicating the action that accompanies the statement; verbs denoting movements, gestures, facial expressions ( run, jump up, shake your head, shrug your shoulders, spread your arms, make a grimace... ), expressing feelings, sensations, internal state speaker ( to be happy, to be sad, to be offended, to be indignant, to be surprised, to laugh, to smile, to sigh... ).
The order of words in direct speech does not depend on its place in relation to the author’s words, and the order of words in the author’s remark is associated with the place it occupies in relation to direct speech, namely:
1) if the author’s words precede direct speech, then in them there is usually a direct order of the main members of the sentence (the subject precedes the predicate): Zhukhrai, standing on the training machine gun platform and raising his hand, said: “Comrades, we collected you for a serious and responsible matter”;
2) if the author’s words come after direct speech or are included in it, then the order of the main members of the sentence in them is reversed (the predicate precedes the subject): “Fire! Fire" - rang out downstairs desperate scream ; “Gather, brothers, material for the fire,” I said , picking up some kind of block of wood from the road. “We’ll have to spend the night in the steppe.”
3. Indirect speech - is the transmission of someone else's speech in the form of a subordinate clause.
For example: Gurov said, What he is a Muscovite, a philologist by training, but works in a bank; I once prepared to sing in a private opera, but gave up, and has two houses in Moscow.
The subordinate clause containing indirect speech follows the main one and is attached to the predicate of the latter using conjunctions and relative words characteristic of explanatory subordinate clauses: what, in order, as if, as if, who, what, which, which, whose, how, where, where, from, why, why …
Union What indicates transmission real fact and is used when replacing a narrative sentence of direct speech: They said, What Kuban is preparing an uprising against the Volunteer Army...
Unions as if And as if give indirect speech a tinge of uncertainty, doubt about the truth of the conveyed content: ...Some said, as if he is the unfortunate son of rich parents... .
Union to used when replacing an incentive sentence of direct speech: ... Tell the groom, to did not give oats to his horses. Also in some cases, with a negative predicate of the main sentence: No one could say to ever seen him at some party.
Relative words who, what, which, food, where ... are used when replacing an interrogative sentence of direct speech, i.e. interrogative pronominal words are retained in the role of interrogative-relative: Korchagin repeatedly asked me, When he can check out. Such a subordinate clause is called an indirect question. An indirect question is expressed using a conjunction particle whether, if the question in direct speech was expressed without pronominal words: Mother asked a worker working in the field, far whether to the tar factory.
In indirect speech, personal and possessive pronouns and persons of the verb are used from the point of view of the author (i.e. the person conveying the indirect speech), and not the person to whom the direct speech belongs. Addresses, interjections, emotional particles present in direct speech are omitted in indirect speech; the meanings they express and expressive coloring speech is conveyed only approximately by other lexical means. Introduction to indirect speech of modal particles say, de,
they say... allows it to retain some shades of direct speech: The servant... reported to his master that, they say , Andrei Gavrilovich did not listen and did not want to return.
Sometimes in indirect speech the literal expressions of someone else’s speech are preserved (in writing this is shown with the help of quotation marks): From Petrushka they heard only the smell of living quarters, and from Selifan that “he performed government service and previously served at customs,” and nothing more.
4. Improperly direct speech.
Someone else's speech can also be expressed special welcome, the so-called improperly direct speech .
Improper direct speech - this is speech, the essence of which lies in the fact that it, to one degree or another, preserves the lexical and syntactic features of someone else’s statement, the manner of speech speaking person, emotional coloring, characteristic of direct speech, but it is conveyed not on behalf of the character, but on behalf of the author, the narrator. In this case, the author expresses the thoughts and feelings of his hero, merges his speech with his own speech. As a result, a two-dimensionality of the statement is created: the “inner” speech of the character, his thoughts, moods are conveyed (and in this sense he “speaks”), but the author speaks for him.
Indirect speech is similar to indirect speech in that it also replaces the persons of the verb and pronouns; it can take the form of a subordinate clause.
The difference between direct, indirect and improperly direct speech is shown by the following comparison:
1) direct speech: Everyone remembered this evening, repeating: “How good and fun we had!”;
2) indirect speech: Everyone remembered this evening, repeating, What they felt good and had fun;
3) improperly direct speech: Everyone remembered that evening: how good and fun they had!
From a syntactic point of view, improperly direct speech is:
1) as part of a complex sentence: The fact that Lyubka remained in the city was especially pleasant for Seryozhka. Lyubka was a desperate girl, at her best.
2) as an independent, independent proposal: When my grandmother died, they put her in a long, narrow coffin and covered her eyes, which did not want to close, with two nickels. Before her death, she was alive and carried soft bagels sprinkled with poppy seeds from the market, but now she is sleeping, sleeping ... .
The most characteristic type of improperly direct speech is the form of interrogative and exclamatory sentences, which stand out in emotional and intonation terms against the background of the author’s narration: She could not help but admit that he liked her very much; Probably, he too, with his intelligence and experience, could have already noticed that she distinguished him: how come she had not yet seen him at her feet and had not yet heard his confession? What was holding him back? Shyness, pride or coquetry of a cunning red tape? It was a mystery to her; Nikolai Rostov turned away and, as if looking for something, began to look at the distance, at the water of the Danube, at the sky, at the sun. How beautiful the sky seemed, how blue, calm and deep! How tenderly and glossily the water shone in the distant Danube!
The interaction of individual methods of transmitting someone else's speech allows, for stylistic purposes, to combine them in one text: He [the provincial] is angrily silent when making such comparisons, and sometimes he ventures to say that such and such material or such and such wine can be obtained from them better and cheaper, and what about the overseas rarities of these large crayfish and shells, and red fish, there and they won’t look, and that it’s free, they say, for you to buy various materials and trinkets from foreigners. They rip you off, and you are happy to be idiots... .
Attention! In sentences with improperly direct speech, someone else’s speech is not distinguished from the author’s speech, it is not introduced special words, warning about the fact of someone else’s speech, and merges with the author’s.
5. Conveying the content of someone else's speech in sentences... (independently: R.N. Popov et al. - P. 448).
6. Punctuation (Latin – dot) – this is 1). A collection of rules for placing punctuation marks. 2).Punctuation marks in the text.
Punctuation marks are called graphic signs used in writing to separate semantic segments of text, syntactic and intonational division of speech.
The Russian punctuation system is based on semantic, grammatical and intonation principles, being in relationship with each other.
For example, in the sentence: I did not want death for the eagle, nor for the predators of the thicket - I shot an arrow of unjust malice at my friend...- all punctuation marks delimit semantic sections of the text: a comma separates designations of homogeneous concepts from each other (bird of prey, beast of prey); the dash expresses the opposition of phenomena; The dot indicates the completeness of the thought. All punctuation marks also divide sentences into structural and grammatical segments: a comma separates homogeneous members, a dash separates two parts of a non-union sentence, and a period completes a declarative sentence. Each of the characters carries a certain intonation: the comma conveys the uniformity of the enumeration homogeneous members offers; a dash conveys the intonation of comparison, a dot conveys the completeness of a statement with a lowering of the voice (See: R.N. Popov et al. - P. 453-455).
Punctuation marks include: period, exclamation point, question mark, comma, semicolon, colon, dash, ellipsis, parentheses, and quotation marks.
According to the function that punctuation marks perform, they are divided into:
1. separating - These are punctuation marks that serve to separate one part of the text from another. These include single characters: periods, question and exclamation marks, commas, semicolons, colons, ellipses, dashes.
2. Highlighting - These are punctuation marks that serve to highlight parts of the text. These include paired characters: two commas, two dashes, brackets, quotation marks.
The norms for the use of punctuation marks were defined in a special code in 1956.
The point is put : at the end of a declarative and motivating non-exclamatory sentence; at the end of the listing headings.
A question mark is placed: at the end of an interrogative sentence: after separate homogeneous questions in order to separate them; inside or at the end of a quote to express bewilderment or doubt (put it in parentheses).
An exclamation point is placed: at the end of an exclamatory sentence; if necessary, intonationally highlight each of the homogeneous members of the exclamatory sentence; inside or at the end of a quote to express the attitude towards it (put it in brackets).
A comma is placed : between parts of complex sentences; between homogeneous members of a sentence; to highlight detached members sentences, introductory and inserted constructions, addresses, interjections.
A semicolon is placed: between parts of a complex sentence, if the sentences are complicated and have punctuation marks; between IF groups in BSP and SSP; between common homogeneous members of a sentence; at the end of the listing headings, if the headings are common and have punctuation marks.
The colon is placed : before listing homogeneous members of the sentence; in non-conjunctive complex sentences with explanatory relationships.
A dash is placed : between subject and predicate, pronounced nouns or the infinitive of a verb; after homogeneous members of the sentence before the generalizing word; to highlight homogeneous members in the middle of a sentence; between the predicates or the IF of a complex sentence to express opposition, unexpected addition, result or conclusion from what has already been said; If necessary, highlight a common sentence; to separate the author’s words from direct speech; to indicate the omission of any member of the sentence; to highlight input and plug-in structures; to indicate spatial, temporal or quantitative limits; at the beginning of dialogue lines.
The ellipsis is placed: to indicate the incompleteness of a statement, a break in speech; to indicate an omission in a quotation.
Parentheses are placed : to highlight input and plug-in structures; to highlight the name of the author and the work from which the quotation is taken; to highlight stage directions in dramatic works.
Quotes are placed : when highlighting direct speech and quotes; to highlight words used ironically or in unusual meaning; to highlight the names of works, newspapers, magazines, enterprises...
