Maintaining……………………………………………………………………………….3
New organization enlightenment. The development of science…………………………4
Breaking old traditions. Turn to secularism in the development of art ... 9
The birth of a new architecture………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Breaking old foundations in everyday life……………………………………………..15
Conclusion………………………………………………………………………… 18
Literature………………………………………………………………………….22
Introduction.
At present, our country is going through a period of reforming economic and socio-political relations, accompanied by contradictory results and polar opposite assessments in various strata of Russian society. This causes a heightened interest in the reforms in the past, in their origins, content and results. One of the most turbulent and most fruitful reform eras is the era of Peter I. Therefore, there is a desire to delve into the essence, the nature of the processes of a different period of breaking up society, to study in more detail the mechanisms of change in a huge state. Of particular interest are the reforms associated with the emergence in our country of a new culture and a new way of life under the influence of European influence. The purpose of the abstract is to analyze the process of breaking old traditions, to analyze the unprecedented rapid development of new cultural institutions, science, and changes in everyday life.
To solve the tasks, it is necessary:
Briefly analyze the state of the economic and spiritual life of Russia on the eve of the reign of Peter I
To study how outstanding thinkers and scientists of the time of Peter the Great ideologically substantiated the need for reforms.
Specifically show what has been done for specific transformations of culture, life, i.e. show the development of education, science, art, changes in the way of life of various strata of society.
To trace the influence of the cultural reforms of Peter the Great on the subsequent development of Russia, as well as to analyze the assessments of the reforms by Peter's contemporaries and subsequent generations. My work covers chronologically the years 1684-1725.
1. A new organization of education. Development of science.
Opening schools of various types. The emergence of vocational education.
The development of education and science under Peter I is closely connected with the needs of the development of the economy, the creation of an army and the transformation of the state apparatus. In the time of Peter the Great, teaching passed from the church to the state, theology gave way to applied sciences. Peter's greatest achievement is that he forced the Russian nobles to study, albeit mostly by violent means.
Reforms in the field of education were a logical continuation of the processes that took place in Muscovy even before the reign of Peter I. However, there were very few schools and some of them eked out a miserable existence. Already the initial stage of the transformation revealed difficulties with the training of specialists and literate people in general. It was impossible to be in constant dependence on foreigners in the recruitment of the army, naval crews, in meeting the colossal needs for masters of shipbuilding, mining, etc. There were practically no artillery specialists, fortifiers, doctors, miners, astronomers, geodesists, etc. Peter I was forced to turn to foreign specialists. But this had serious negative consequences. Foreign specialists had to pay salaries three to four times more than domestic ones. Often not the best, insufficiently qualified people came to the Russian service. Some officers were ready to serve anyone who paid the most, they were deprived of a sense of duty, patriotism and could not stand the first serious tests.
Practical measures to create domestic educational institutions date back to the time of Peter's stay in England, where he hired three teachers. These teachers were intended for the school of navigational sciences.
However, before the opening of the navigation school, it was necessary to use another method of education - to send Russian students abroad. At the same time, they were charged not so much with the assimilation of theoretical knowledge, but with the acquisition of practical skills in shipbuilding, in managing a ship during a battle, and navigation. Students comprehended sciences not so much at their desks, but with an ax in their hands at the shipyard, etc.
It should be especially emphasized that the sending of Russian people abroad for training produced a sharp upheaval in the minds of contemporaries. In pre-Petrine times, communication with foreigners was not encouraged. Only two categories of people received permission to travel abroad: persons who were part of embassies and merchants (guests). For merchants, this was a significant privilege: among the industrial and commercial population of the country, only guests had the right to leave the country to conclude commercial transactions. Now the sending of Russians abroad was not only not prohibited, but also encouraged and even carried out under compulsion. In the "History of the Swedish War" the author tells that in 1699 "the sovereign gave permission to all his subjects to travel to foreign European states for education, which had previously been prohibited by execution; and not only allowed, but also forced to do so."
This innovation was completely hostile to many. It is interesting to cite as an example the first student trained in Europe. It was an associate of Peter I, Peter Vasilyevich Postnikov. After studying at the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, he was sent to Italy to study medicine. At the University of Padua, he received two degrees - Doctor of Medicine and Philosophy.
His erudition and knowledge of European languages was useful to the king during his first trip abroad, he accompanied Peter in Amsterdam and London, advised the king on the acquisition of collections and medicines. It was later used in the diplomatic service.
The regular practice of sending juveniles to study abroad begins at the end of 1696, when a decree was published on sending 61 people to different states to study all kinds of sciences. Of these, 39 people went to Italy, 22 to Holland and England. Among those sent, 23 people were of a princely family.
Peter personally compiled instructions for these students, in which he outlined the training program. Among the sciences that the king had to overcome included navigation and shipbuilding. Certificates of foreign teachers were issued on the results of training, these were special diplomas. In addition to studying the stolnik, the messenger abroad was obliged to teach the attached soldier or sergeant the possessed specialty, as well as to hire two skillful shipbuilders for the Russian service. In this way, total number 122 people went abroad for training.
In the future, this practice of studying abroad became part of the system. However, this was not the main, but an auxiliary path for the development of enlightenment.
In the first quarter of the 18th century, a whole network of elementary schools was created. Digital schools were opened for nobles, clerks, deacon and clerk children aged 10-15. Soon there were 42 such schools, mostly in provincial towns.
The most important in the system of Petrine education are technical educational institutions. In Moscow in 1701, classes began at the Navigation and Artillery Schools, and later, instead of the Navigation School, the Naval Academy was established in St. Petersburg. In 1712 opened an engineering school in Moscow. Medical personnel were trained at the Medical School at the Moscow Hospital. The creation of a personnel training system made it possible to get rid of foreign mercenaries, and above all in the officer corps. Already after the Prut campaign, Peter dismissed over 200 foreign generals and officers. By the 20s of the 18th century, 90% of the officer corps consisted of Russians.
First textbooks. Introduction of civil type.
A variety of educational literature was produced for the opened schools - primers, manuals on mathematics, mechanics, etc. L. Magnitsky, a teacher at the navigation school, published the famous "Arithmetic". Since January 1703, the first printed newspaper "Vedomosti about military and other affairs worthy of knowledge and memory that happened in the Moscow state and other neighboring countries" began to appear in Moscow.
The introduction in 1710 of a new civil font, more simplified than the old Church Slavonic letters, contributed to the spread of printed literature.
Development of science. Institution of the Academy of Sciences.
Remarkable successes in the time of Peter the Great were achieved in the development of science: geography, physics, mechanics, in the search for new trade routes, in cartography, in the study of the country's fossil wealth. In 1697 V. Atlasov led an expedition to Kamchatka. At the beginning of the 18th century, the northern group of the Kuril Islands was discovered.
Great achievements are characteristic of this time in practical mechanics. Collections were collected on mineralogy and metallurgy, botany, biology, etc. an observatory was set up. For the development and dissemination of scientific knowledge in St. Petersburg, the Academy of Sciences was established.
The beginning of the museum business.
In 1714, the first natural science museum, the Kunstkamera, was organized in Russia. Subsequently, it was transferred to the Academy of Sciences along with the first public library in the country, located in the same building.
Peter I knew the exhibits of the Kunstkamera well. He either acquired them himself abroad, or, on his orders, they were delivered from various parts of Russia. Therefore, Peter was considered the best guide, he liked to show the exhibits of the museum and talk about them to both foreign ambassadors and Russian nobles.
Peter acquired the first exhibits for the museum during his first trip abroad in 1697-1698. The collection of rarities within the country is also associated with the initiative of Peter I. He gave instructions to officials in the provinces. He issued decrees calling on the population to bring everything that is "very old and unusual": - bones of extinct animals, birds, antiquities, ancient letters, manuscripts and printed books, as well as freaks. Remuneration was supposed for the exhibits, and if the official did not do this properly, the king threatened him with the loss of his rank. Expeditions sent to explore distant lands were charged with collecting and delivering samples of ores, plants, household items and all sorts of rarities. As a result, by the end of Peter's life, the collection of the Kunstkamera gained fame as almost the richest in Europe.
Ticket8 abolition of serfdom
The reasons for the abolition of serfdom in Russia were the following:
- firstly, serfdom held back the development of industry, the accumulation of capital was slow. Russia could move into the category of minor states;
- secondly, the peasant farms were ruined, as the landowners increased the corvée in the Black Earth region, and the quitrent peasants went to the factories, the basis of the serf economy, based on forced, extremely inefficient labor of serfs, was undermined;
- thirdly, the crisis of serfdom was one of the main reasons for the defeat of the country in the Crimean War, which showed the military-technical backwardness of Russia. The financial system was undermined; the peasants were ruined because of recruiting sets, the growth of duties. A mass exodus of peasants from the landowners began;
- fourthly, the growth in the number of peasant unrest (in 1860 there were 126 peasant uprisings) created real threat the transformation of disparate speeches into a new "Pugachevshchina";
- fifthly, the realization by the ruling circles that serfdom is a “powder magazine” under the state. From liberal landlords, scientists, even relatives of the king, in particular the younger brother of the Grand Duke Konstantin, proposals began to come to the government, projects for reforming land relations. Alexander II, speaking in 1856 to representatives of the Moscow nobility, said: “If we do not free the peasants from above, then they will free themselves from below”;
- sixth, serfdom, as a form of slavery, was condemned by all sections of Russian society.
In the 18th century, serfdom became the main obstacle to the development of Russia's productive forces, hindering cultural and social progress. In the first half of the 19th century, the solution of a whole range of social issues rested on the problem of the abolition of serfdom. The nobility's monopoly on the ownership of serfs was undermined. By decree of 1841, only persons who owned populated estates were allowed to have serfs. The development of capitalist relations led to the emergence of a layer of "capitalist" peasants who had the means to buy them out, who, however, were entirely dependent on the landowner. In the first half of the 19th century, projects began to be developed in Russia to limit and abolish serfdom. In 1808 it was forbidden to sell serfs at fairs, in 1833 - to separate members of the same family during the sale. The emancipation of an insignificant number of peasants was carried out on the basis of the laws on free cultivators (1803) and temporarily liable peasants (1842). Serfdom was completely abolished during the peasant reform on February 19, 1861 (under Alexander II).
The Manifesto for the Emancipation of the Peasants was signed on February 19, 1861. Per
his peasant reform, Alexander II was called the "Tsar Liberator".
Unlike other countries, peasants received land upon liberation. Per
the land they received from the landlords was paid by the state; state
the cost of the land had to be paid by the peasants themselves for 49 years.
85% of the peasants bought the land in 20 years. A piece of land was unequal for everyone, depending on the fertility of the soil. The most best land stayed with the landowner.
As a result, the peasants considered themselves deceived and continued to express their dissatisfaction.
Cultural transformations Petra 1
Peter I changed the beginning of the chronology from the so-called Byzantine era (“from the creation of Adam”) to “from the Nativity of Christ”.
After returning from the Great Embassy, Peter I fought against the outward manifestations of the "outdated" way of life (the most famous is the ban on beards. Secular educational institutions began to appear, the first Russian newspaper was founded, translations of many books into Russian appeared. Success in the service, Peter set for the nobles in dependence on education.
Under Peter in 1703 the first book appeared in Russian with Arabic numerals. Until that date, they were designated by letters with titles (wavy lines). In 1710, Peter approved a new alphabet with a simplified lettering (Church Slavonic font remained for printing church literature). Peter created new printing houses. Many English-language words have appeared in the Russian language.
Of particular importance was the construction of stone Petersburg, in which foreign architects took part and which was carried out according to the plan developed by the tsar. He created a new urban environment with previously unfamiliar forms of life and pastime (theatre, masquerades). The interior decoration of houses, the way of life, the composition of food, etc. have changed.
By a special decree of the tsar in 1718, assemblies were introduced, representing a new form of communication between people in Russia. At the assemblies, the nobles danced and mingled freely, unlike earlier feasts and feasts. Peter invited foreign artists to Russia and at the same time sent talented young people to study "arts" abroad, mainly to Holland and Italy.
On December 30, 1701 (January 10, 1702), Peter issued a decree ordering to write full names in petitions and other documents instead of pejorative ones (Ivashka, Senka, etc.), do not fall on your knees in front of the tsar, in winter, in the cold, wear a hat in front of the house in which the king is, do not shoot.
Peter tried to change the position of women in Russian society. He by special decrees (1700, 1702 and 1724) forbade forced marriage and marriage. Since 1702, the bride herself (and not just her relatives) was given the formal right to terminate the betrothal and upset the arranged marriage, and neither side had the right to “strike with a forfeit”. Legislative regulations 1696–1704 about public festivities introduced the obligation to participate in the celebrations and festivities of all Russians, including "female".
Gradually, among the nobility, a different system of values, worldview, aesthetic ideas took shape, which was fundamentally different from the values and worldview of most representatives of other estates.
24 Alexander 1 as a politician
The reign of Alexander I (1801-1825)
On March 12, 1801, as a result of a palace coup, Alexander I ascended the throne. As a child, Alexander was taken away from his parents and brought up by his grandmother, Catherine the Great. The Empress appointed the Swiss nobleman F. La Harpe as the tutor of the prince, who had a huge influence on the formation of the liberal views of the future autocrat. Trying to adapt to the confrontation between Catherine II and his father, Alexander Pavlovich was forced to maneuver between two opposing groups, which influenced the formation of such qualities of his character as cunning, insight, caution and duplicity. The fact that Alexander I knew about the impending conspiracy against Emperor Paul I, but due to weakness and thirst for power, could not prevent the murder of his father, contributed to the development of his suspiciousness and distrust of others.
Liberal reforms 1801-1815 gg.
Becoming emperor, Alexander I fully showed himself as a cautious, flexible and far-sighted politician, extremely prudent in his reform activities.
The first steps of the new emperor justified the hopes of the Russian nobility and testified to a break with the policy of Emperor Paul and a return to the reforming activities of Catherine the Great. Alexander I returned the disgraced nobles, lifted restrictions on trade with England, lifted the ban on the import of books from abroad. The emperor also confirmed the privileges to the nobles and cities indicated in Catherine's Letters of Complaint.
At the same time, Alexander I, in order to develop liberal reforms state structure created Unspoken Committee (May 1801 - November 1803), which included: P. Stroganov, A. Czartorysky, V. Kochubey and N. Novosiltsev. The secret committee was not an official state institution, but was an advisory body to the sovereign. The main issues discussed at the meetings of the Unspoken Committee were the reforms of the state apparatus in the direction of limiting autocracy, the peasant question and the education system.
The result of the activities of the Unofficial Committee of the camp reform of the highest state bodies. On September 8, 1802, the Manifesto was issued, according to which ministries were established instead of colleges: military, naval, foreign affairs, internal affairs, commerce, finance, public education and justice, as well as the State Treasury as a ministry.
In the decision peasant question, discussed in the Unspoken Committee, Alexander I was extremely cautious. The emperor considered serfdom a source of social tension, but was convinced that society was not ready for radical reforms. On February 20, 1803, a decree was issued on "free ploughmen", which provided the landlords with the opportunity to release peasants with land for ransom. The decree was advisory in nature and was not very popular with the landowners: for the entire period of the reign of Alexander I, less than 0.5% of the serfs passed into the category of "free cultivators".
From the autumn of 1803, the importance of the Private Committee began to decline, and the Committee of Ministers took its place. To continue the transformation, Alexander I needed new people who were personally devoted to him. A new round of reforms was associated with the name M. Speransky. Alexander G made Speransky his main adviser and assistant. By 1809, Speransky, on behalf of the emperor, prepared a plan for state reforms called "Introduction to the Code of State Laws." According to this plan, it was necessary to implement the principle of separation of powers (legislative functions were concentrated in the hands of the State Duma, judicial - in the hands of the Senate, executive - in the ministries). According to the plan of M. Speransky, the entire population of Russia was divided into three estates: the nobility, the “middle state” (merchants, petty bourgeois, state peasants) and the “working people” (serfs, artisans, servants). All estates received civil rights, and the nobles received political rights.
The emperor approved Speransky's plan, but did not dare to carry out large-scale reforms. The transformations affected exclusively the central system of state administration: in 1810, the State Council was established - a legislative advisory body under the emperor.
In 1810-1811. the reform of the ministerial administration system, begun back in 1803, was completed. According to the “General Establishment of Ministries” (1811), eight ministries were formed: foreign affairs, military, maritime, internal affairs, finance, police, justice and public education, as well as the Main Directorate post office, the State Treasury and a number of other departments. Strict monocracy was introduced. Ministers appointed by the king and accountable only to him formed Committee of Ministers whose status as an advisory body under the emperor was determined only in 1812.
At the beginning of 1811, the State Council refused to approve the draft of new reforms. The failure of the whole plan of Speransky became obvious. The nobility clearly felt the threat of the abolition of serfdom. The growing opposition of the conservatives became so threatening that Alexander I was forced to stop the transformation. M. Speransky was removed and then exiled.
Thus, the reforms of the beginning of the first period of the reign of Alexander I were of a very limited nature, but they sufficiently strengthened his position as an autocratic monarch, being the result of a compromise between the liberal and conservative nobility.
Conservative period of the reign of Alexander I
The second period of the emperor's reign is traditionally called "conservative" in the historical literature, despite the fact that at that time such liberal transformations were carried out as the introduction of the Polish constitution, the granting of autonomy to Bessarabia, and the alleviation of the position of the peasants in the Baltic states.
External events 1812-1815 relegated Russia's internal political problems to the background. After the end of the war, the question of constitutional reforms and serf relations again found himself in the center of attention of society and the emperor himself. A draft constitution was developed for the Polish lands that were part of Russia. This constitution became a kind of trial step, an experiment that was supposed to precede the introduction of a constitution in Russia.
In November 1815 The Polish constitution was approved. It retained the monarchy, but provided for the creation of a bicameral parliament (Sejm). The government had to be responsible to the Sejm, freedom of the press, equality of all classes before the law, and personal immunity were also guaranteed. And at the opening of the Sejm in 1818, in the speech of Alexander I, in fact, a promise was made to introduce a constitution in Russia as well. In March 1818, the emperor instructed a group of his advisers, headed by N. Novosiltsev, to develop a constitution for Russia. The constitution was developed, but was never implemented - Alexander I did not dare to go into direct confrontation with the opposition.
In April 1818, Alexander I was granted autonomous control of Bessarabia. According to the "Charter of Education of the Bessarabian Region", the highest legislative and executive power was transferred to the Supreme Council, part of which was elected from the nobility. Back in 1804 it was approved "Regulations on Livonian peasants", according to which the sale of serfs without land was prohibited, a fixed duty that freed the peasants from recruitment duty. In May 1816 the emperor signed "Regulations on the Estonian peasants", according to which they received personal freedom, but all land remained the property of the landowners. Peasants could rent land, and later buy it. In 1817, the "Regulations" were extended to Courland and Livonia (1819).
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Cultural reforms of Peter I
All Peter's transformations were interconnected. After all, quite often, one reform was necessary to support another. Since the Russian sovereign Peter the Great carried out comprehensive changes, their preparation and implementation required qualified personnel. This was one of the reasons for the opening of various educational institutions. And to achieve this goal, new textbooks and knowledge were needed.
The main milestones of the cultural reforms of Emperor Peter I
In 1708, the tsar signed a decree on the introduction of an updated civil font for printing political, educational, scientific and secular literature. In addition, new printing houses appear in St. Petersburg and Moscow. The rapid development of the book business led to the beginning of an active book trade and the opening of libraries. In the same period, the first Russian periodical, the Vedomosti newspaper, began to appear.
Prior to this, in 1703 in Russian Empire the first book in Russian appears, which contains Arabic numerals, which until that moment were usually denoted by wavy lines (letters with titles).
In 1710, the tsar approves a new alphabet, in the development of which he himself took part. It is worth noting that this played a large role in the writing of important historical works of that time.
The Kunstkamera created by Peter the Great became the first in the so-called collections, and the collection of chronicles and other written sources became the starting point for the formation of museums in the country.
In 1724, the ruler began preparatory work for the opening of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg. At the same time, the architecture of large cities is changing: palaces, buildings public institutions and mansions. A special place in this era is given to the construction of the new Petrine capital of St. Petersburg, in the construction of which both the tsar himself participated (the development of the project and the plan of the city), and foreign architects.
Features of the cultural reforms of Peter I
Formation of a new urban environment
In addition, a completely different form of life and urban environment was formed in the state. Pastimes, assemblies, masquerades, dances and theater visits, which were popular during this period in developed European countries, were introduced into fashion. The tsar became the founder of a new style of Russian art, which was later called "Peter's Baroque". This style harmoniously combined the best examples of Western European art with Russian traditions.
It was thanks to Peter the Great that the works of the Swedish architect Dominico Trezzini became widespread in Russia. The sovereign himself relied on monumental architecture. Huge sculptures were decorations of ships, triumphal arches, temples, obelisks, noble palaces, gardens and country residences! Festive fireworks, illuminations, naval and military parades, as well as theatrical performances and masquerades required bright and large-scale decoration.
Returning from Europe, the tsar introduces into fashion popular in Europe portraiture and a genre that is still called "battle painting" by art historians. In the first quarter of the eighteenth century, the foundation was laid for the Russian theater. During this period, the ruler attracts poets and writers to write dramatic domestic works.
Changing the life of Russia under Peter I
In everyday life, their own changes are introduced, affecting all spheres. public life. For example, the king forbids wearing clothes with long sleeves, replacing its standards with the European style. At the same time, old clothes are being replaced by wigs, shoes, stockings, wide-brimmed hats, as well as frills, ties and camisoles.
One of the most innovative reforms of the Petrine period, against which all sections of society were opposed, was the ban on wearing a beard. It is worth noting that the sovereign even introduced a "beard tax" with a mandatory copper sign on the actual payment.
Assemblies established
Peter the Great established the so-called assemblies, to which women also had to come without fail. This fact entailed following the rules of good manners, as well as the development of rules for "noble behavior in society" and the need to own foreign languages(as a rule, French was enough).
Even at the beginning of the mass transformations in culture, namely in 1702, Peter issued a decree prohibiting writing derogatory half-names in petitions and various documents (for example, Vanka, Senka, etc.), indicating a respectful attitude. This was also indicated by the words of the king that from now on "do not fall on your knees before the sovereign, do not take off your hat in front of the house with the king in the cold, etc."
Modern historians argue that Peter the Great’s visit to the Great Embassy of the developed European states was of great importance for the implementation of cultural reforms in the Russian Empire, where he could not only consider all the mechanisms of the reforms, but also take some of them into service.
Scheme: reforms of Peter I in the field of culture
The 19th-century historian Mikhail Pogodin wrote: “We are waking up. What day is it today? - September 18, 1840. Peter ordered to count the years from the Nativity of Christ, Peter the Great ordered to count the months from January. It's time to get dressed - our dress is sewn according to the style originally given by Peter, the uniform is according to his form. The cloth was woven in the factory he started, the wool was sheared from the sheep he bred. A book catches your eye - Peter the Great introduced this font and cut out the letters himself. You will begin to read it - under Peter this language became written, literary, displacing the former, ecclesiastical one. Newspapers are brought to you - Peter Great start their publication. You need to buy different things - all of them, from a scarf to a shoe sole, will remind you of Peter the Great. Some were written out by him, others put into use by him, improved, brought on his ship, to his harbor, along his canal, along his road. At dinner, from salted herring to potatoes, which he ordered to sow by the Senate decree, to grape wine, diluted by him, all the dishes will tell you about Peter the Great. After lunch, you go to visit - this is the assembly of Peter the Great. You meet ladies there, admitted to the men's company at the request of Peter the Great. Let's go to the university - the first secular school was founded by Peter the Great.<…>We cannot open our eyes, we cannot move, we cannot turn to either side without Peter meeting us: at home, on the street, in church, in school, in court, in the regiment, on a walk. , all of it, every day, every minute, at every step!
Nothing of the kind can be said about any later ruler of Russia. Even now, in the 21st century, we cannot refute Pogodin. We are still finding the beginnings, origins, causes that lead us to Peter - the true demi-urge, the founder of Russian cultural existence.
Many cultural phenomena were precisely initiated by Peter, they were introduced into Russian life at his will, at his initiative. Moreover, surveying everything that he created, established, changed in just a quarter of a century, noting this extraordinary accuracy, the density of cultural innovations introduced into Russian life, we cannot but admit that, having come into the world, Peter seemed to implemented a certain program. The first person to notice this was Pyotr Chaadaev, who wrote in his Apology of a Madman: “Our enormous development is only the realization of this magnificent program.<…>The lofty mind of this extraordinary man unmistakably guessed what our starting point should be on the path of civilization and the world's mental movement.
Already contemporaries were amazed, looking at Peter: externally and internally, he seemed to come from some other world, unusual for traditional Russia. To some, he seemed to be the Antichrist in general, to others - a non-Russian, a substitute, a foreigner. Meanwhile, his cultural initiatives were directly connected with the then life of Russia and Peter's personal experience.
Firstly, the political fate of young Peter was very dramatic, if not tragic. It brought him so many fears, disappointments, sorrows that he saw his own salvation in the cultural orientation to the West, in the rejection of the traditional Moscow order. And he saw the future of the power entrusted to him, the speedy overcoming of the lag visible to everyone. He said that it is easier to build something new than to repair the old, and he acted sharply, straightening the path of his country into history.
As the same Chaadaev expressively wrote, “... he understood well that ... we have no need to suffocate in our history and there is no need to trudge, like Western peoples, through the chaos of national prejudices, along the narrow paths of local ideas, along the pitted ruts of native tradition, that we must free by the impulse of our internal forces, by the energetic effort of the national consciousness, to master the destiny destined for us. And so he freed us from all these remnants of the past ... he opened our minds to all the great and beautiful ideas that exist among people ... ".
The cultural initiatives of Peter were the result of his resolute rejection of the culture of Muscovy, contemporary Russia with its characteristic deep respect for paternal antiquity, traditions, Orthodox faith, ancient customs. Hence Peter's habitual belittling of the Moscow, old Russian principle, ridiculing it as savagery, superstition. Hence his opposition of antiquity and newness, regular St. Petersburg with its straight streets and chaotic Moscow with its dead ends, which brought him danger, a threat, Russia - and the West. This opposition runs throughout his life.
Secondly, all his undertakings were imbued with the philosophy of rationalism popular in Europe, they were a consequence, a reflection of the then widespread cult of experimental knowledge. The beginnings of rationalism permeated Peter's transformations in many areas of Russian culture. It is enough to look at the traces of Peter's reforms - for example, the reform of the alphabet - and remember, for example, that memorable page, crossed out by Peter's sharp pen: from the numerous spellings of the letters of the Russian alphabet of the 17th century, he crossed out all those that were difficult, required effort to reproduce -Izvedenie, and left only those that were simple, convenient in everyday life. Sometimes it seems that this edit was made modern man- a man of the rational XX century. Introducing these principles of rationalism, accuracy, systemicity, he opposed them to what he did not like in Muscovite Russia, to what he called “Moscow maybe”, “Moscow immediately”.
Thirdly, many of Peter's cultural initiatives were colored by his personal tastes, his interests, his predilections - and he was a very passionate person. It is known that Holland was his eternal love, true passion. He dreamed of living there. He was seized by the dream to create on the banks of the Neva his beloved city, Amsterdam. That's what he called Petersburg - "the second Amsterdam". He wanted to build on dug canals a copy of this charming city with its half-timbered houses, spiers, and drawbridges. And this, of course, was reflected in the architecture of St. Petersburg and the life of its inhabitants. Yes, and in small things, he wanted to be like a rich Dutch burgher, to live in cozy low rooms with tiled walls and stoves, to read Dutch newspapers sitting in front of the fireplace, to smoke a Dutch pipe.
Sometimes it seems that there was no measure in this passion of Peter for everything Dutch. There is an anecdote that Peter himself made boots and wore them, but in fact we know that he ordered all this in Holland, and fabrics in France. Sometimes it seems that he ate only foreign food and did not drink, did not eat anything Russian. In 1712, during the Northern War with Sweden, he asked through Russian diplomats who met with the Swedes in Hamburg, so that the Swedes would allow at least one ship with provisions from Holland to pass to the new city of Petersburg - it’s so hard he suffered without Dutch herring, without oysters, eels, asparagus, and, most importantly, without Dutch cheese, which he adored.
All this - the philosophy of rationalism, and the attitude to antiquity, and love for Holland, for the same cheese - turned Peter towards the West, towards European culture, European tradition, which Peter already considered in many ways his own. This perception was not blind, thoughtless: as a rationalist, pragmatist and even a cynic, he did not idealize Western civilization, he did not really like the West with its democracy. He deliberately, purposefully and even busily selected in this huge store of Western cultural treasures what he thought was suitable for Russia. In a further historical perspective, Russia adopted many of Peter's cultural initiatives. And in this sense it is impossible not to say that, it seems, he guessed right.
Peter did a lot to transfer to Russia the cultural and intellectual values that she absolutely needed, starting with the purchase of some important items, works of art, and ending with sending young people abroad to receive both naval and art education. And this later became a widespread custom: every graduate of the Academy of Arts was obliged to go to Italy and train there.
We must not forget that Peter invited many foreign masters and scientists to Russia. There were whole, as they wrote in the literature, "landing forces" - French, Dutch, German. The great mathematician Leonard Euler wrote that if it were not for the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, to which he was invited, he would have remained a scribbler in the West. Because Russia was terra incognita, an unknown land that no one knew about - no geographical maps, no collections. And a lot of scientists went here the way they went to America. And it's all thanks to Peter.
Without a doubt, St. Petersburg played a special role in introducing Russia to culture. It was generally built as a western city. The status of the administrative, military, maritime capital made inevitable the concentration in St. Petersburg of various educated specialists with connections in the West, with broad cultural needs, with extensive knowledge. In addition, almost immediately the city became the largest center of education. Already in the 18th century, the quarters close to the Neva, on Vasilyevsky Island, were called "French Settlement" and resembled the university campuses of the West.
Here you can see a variety of students. In addition to the cadets of the land and naval corps, here one could see students of the Academy of Arts, students of the gymnasium, the Academy of Sciences. Students of the Mining School from the 22nd line met here (everyone spoke only German there), teachers' seminary; there were students of Blagoveshchensk and other schools from Bolshoy Prospekt. There are also many private educational institutions. It is no coincidence that here, in the habitat of the Russian intelligentsia, the St. Petersburg intelligentsia, St. Petersburg University was opened, and then the famous Maya gymnasium, Bestuzhev women's courses.
Thus, a nutrient medium was formed for the development of Russian culture and science. And thanks to Peter, this humus of culture grew, without which the development of the nation is impossible. You can bring books, instruments, but it is important that there are people who can use them, who are imbued with the ideas of culture. The emanation of this Petersburg subculture spread in waves from the banks of the Neva throughout the Russian Empire, forming the whole Russian national culture, which was already unthinkable without Peter, his beloved capital, without the imperial period in the history of Russia.
With Peter and his cultural initiatives came new era Russian national and imperial culture. But, clinging to the sources of other cultures, he violently destroyed his own culture, inherited from his ancestors, which by this time was already almost a thousand years old.
It is safe to say that Peter hated Moscow. He even abandoned the royal palace in the Kremlin (as a result, it collapsed, and the Russian empresses who later came to stay in Lefortovo or Golovinsky Palace), because he hated this Kremlin, these boyars, these archers, whose name he generally forbade to mention . And, of course, the reign of his sister Sophia, when she actually seized power in 1682 and ruled Russia for seven years. These seven years were filled for Peter with fear for his physical and political existence, so it was natural to reject these long beards, these long dresses, everything that was connected with Moscow. In addition, this happened due to the circumstances of his political life: he was thrown out of the closed world of the traditional Kremlin, he settled in Preobrazhensky - and did not go through the school that was held in this closed space of the Kremlin, in this forbidden city, all his predecessor-vein-nickname. Petersburg for him was an alternative to Moscow, an alternative to everything old Russian.
For Peter, antiquity was synonymous with everything harmful, bad, funny, uncomfortable, irregular. From his reforms in the public consciousness imprinted (and this, I must say, largely due to his propaganda) the idea that pre-Petrine culture is bad, primitive, of little interest.
In fact, until recently, before the collections of icons by the artists Grabar and Korin, before Soloukhin’s story Black Boards, before the film Andrei Rublev by Tarkovsky, before the studies of academician Dmitry Likhachev, the belief prevailed everywhere that ancient Russian culture was secondary and dead end.
Moreover, such an attitude towards pre-Petrine antiquity from the Russian Empire migrated to the Soviet empire. And there were still people alive who remember the "discovery" of Andrei Rublev or Dionisy - after all, these murals, these icons were smeared, "corrected" by synodal bogomass. The Sino-distant period of the Russian Orthodox Church caused serious damage to the culture that was inherited from the ancestors.
And most importantly, many cultural traditions and initiatives that were the essence of Russian culture were interrupted. It seems that Peter - and this is clearly seen from his decrees - seemed to break Russian culture through the knee, acted with it like a conqueror. It is enough to read his decrees: it is like the commandant of an occupied city.
In a sense, even the Reformation in the West was not as radical in terms of culture as Peter's cultural policy in Russia. And, somehow involuntarily comparing Russia and Japan from the times when grandiose reforms took place, which, in essence, made Japan modern, you understand that by modernizing the country, its economy, army, creating a fleet and actively communicating with foreigners, adopting the achievements -zhenie their culture, Peter still probably had the opportunity to preserve the traditional, ancient forms of clothing, customs, songs.
But even this is not the most important thing. The fact is that in the Petrine era and thanks to Peter, that important tectonic break occurred in the culture, in the mentality of the Russian people, which has been haunting us for centuries. Earlier, before Peter the Great, folk culture was widespread in Russian society, including its upper classes. Songwriters, storytellers, jesters were entered into the house of both the boyar and the commoner, the king and the serf. Common holidays and customs of the ancestors were equally revered at all levels, in all strata of Russian society. Now, since Peter, with the introduction of Western clothes, holidays, customs, the intellectual and power elite, part of Russian society, moved further and further away from the people, became alien to him, causing rejection, mockery with their wigs, incomprehensible reprimand, first in German, and then in French.
At the same time, a very important turning point was taking place: the cultural upheaval of Peter, combined with the tightening of serfdom, separated the elite from the people. Yes, they met under the vaults of the church, but, interestingly, they stood apart. The consequences of this cultural split were generally dramatic. Because the people, deprived of their leaders-intellectuals, often staged terrible riots - the same ones, as Pushkin wrote, "senseless and merciless." And the elite - at least that part of it that reflected, which understood the problems of the people - had an inferiority complex, a kind of guilt in front of its people, who suffer, who live in filth - and we, they say, are such educated, we live much better than him. That terrible thing happened, which is called a break in the continuity of culture.
This was largely due to the church reform of Peter, who simply abolished the patriarchate and introduced the collective management of the Church - the Holy Synod. This synodal period, which lasted almost 200 years and ended in 1917 with the election of a new patriarch, is generally considered a dark period in the history of the Russian Church: it became in many ways such a “spiritual office” under the autocratic regime. True, there are also problems in discussing this topic: the Byzantine system of Orthodoxy was arranged in such a way that the basileus appointed patriarchs and bishops, and this was transferred to Russia.
But the most important thing is different. Peter in many ways made the Russian state secular. And there was an unprecedented religious tolerance, which was not there before. On the main street of St. Petersburg, on Nevsky Prospekt, there are many churches of other faiths - there is nothing like it in any capital of the world. And this religious tolerance was connected not only with the Western predilections of Peter. He, in principle, was close to the introduction of Protestantism in Russia - in his desire to make the Church not only a conductor of his political views, but also a center for the dissemination of culture. He looked with bitterness at the Russian priests - uneducated, unable to read sermons, and a sermon is one of the most important components of the Church's activity.
He sought to educate priests: for this, he invited Church leaders from the Kiev-Mohyla Academy and gave them first places. But this institutionalization of the Russian Church (its “victory”) ultimately played a bad joke on the Church itself: it ceased to be a medium, a bearer of spiritual values that are characteristic of Christianity.
But even this does not seem to be the saddest consequence of Peter's reforms, including cultural ones. Changing culture, introducing new things into it, Peter consistently rejected many social institutions, sources that nourished Western culture. He spent great government reforms, he changed the social image of Russian society - but, choosing in the West what he wanted to bring to Russia, he, as it were, neatly cut off from the Western models of the state and social structure everything that was connected with the two most important elements, on on which European culture is based—parliamentarism and local self-government.
Even in one of the decrees, when he was asked to introduce the Swedish system of local government, in which the pastor and the wealthiest peasants played the main role, this draft was written: “There are no smart Russian men among them.” And this is about the people who, a hundred years before, essentially saved Russia, about the land that was headed by Minin and Pozharsky and gave rise to a new dynasty.
Peter liked Western newspapers, he adopted them, brought them along with the printing presses - but left the freedom of the press on the Western counter. Realizing that he could not cope with the English and Hamburg newspapers, he found various ways to put pressure on them - well, for example, limiting the Hamburg merchants in St. Petersburg. Or seeking to have some articles banned from publication - especially those that, as it seemed to him, discredited his rule (far from humane, as we know).
To many Western laws, which Peter himself crossed out, he, as it were, hung a club or whip, which were not in these charters and laws, in order to warn those who violated them with threats and cruel punishments.
Peter called all this "to let down with the Russian custom." And he knows the Russian custom: the immutability of autocracy, etatism, dirigisme, that is, the management of the economy, the state. And in various forms - serfdom.
Even the Russian nobility, which was largely created by Peter, at first was also a form of serfdom, slavery. The young Russian nobleman did not have any rights: he had to study, he was forbidden to marry, there were a lot of all sorts of restrictions.
And, of course, we regret to admit that Peter, with his reforms, contributed to the conservation of many phenomena of the Middle Ages, which began to erode before the beginning of his reign. Still, the Russian 17th century was in many ways freer than the Petrine era. I will give you an example: Peter's legislation forbade the words "free", "free". And this, as you understand, means a lot.
We are talking about a sharp increase in serfdom, about the formation of a rigid political system in which unlimited autocratic power and bureaucracy dominated. In general, the Petrine period is characterized by the fact that a powerful state, autocratic, developed outside the field of law. And so it was subject to and palace coups, and everything that was associated with favoritism. In the field of law, the monarch could be protected by laws - but here this was not the case.
In general, it can be said that the Petrine era, taking into account all the social, state transformations, sharply narrowed the possibilities for the non-autocratic, non-serf, non-imperial, non-police development of Russia. Thanks to Peter's "progress through violence" (this term is often used in the literature), out of many options for moving into the future, Russia has only one path left, which, in essence, it is still following. Peter, as it were, trampled down the entire glade of alternatives - bifurcation points along which Russia could develop. And this, of course, affected Russian culture, which in many ways was both servile and suppressed by the authorities.
In general, Russia was very upset by the changes introduced by Peter. Some of his cultural initiatives remained only good wishes and dried up in the bud; theirs, ours.
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ESSAY
By: Culturology
on the topic:"Transformations of PeterIin the field of culture"
Is done by a student:
Butrinov A.A.
Checked by teacher:
Iskhakova O.A
Introduction
1. Culture of Russia in the era of Peter the Great
2. Reforms of Peter I in the field of culture
3. The significance of Peter's transformations in the field of culture
Conclusion
Bibliographic list
Introduction
The reforms of Peter I were global. The history of Russia before Peter and after him knew many reforms. The main difference between the Petrine reforms and the reforms of the previous and subsequent times is that they covered all aspects of the life of the people, while others introduced innovations relating only to certain aspects of the life of society and the state. IN. Klyuchevsky, who developed the ideas of SM. Solovyov, wrote about the role of Peter and his personal contribution to the organization of reforms: “reformations were prepared in general, and not Peter’s reforms ... The reform was his personal affair, an unprecedentedly violent affair, and, however, involuntary and necessary” [Klyuchevsky 1993: 57] . The cultural heritage of Peter the Great remained the most durable, many cultural institutions, monuments of art and architecture, which the country is proud of today, have been preserved.
Relevance This work consists in posing the problem itself - the study of the issues of transformations in the field of culture in Russia in the era of Peter the Great.
Target The proposed work is to study and describe the reforms of Peter the Great in the field of culture.
Tasks research:
1) study scientific, educational literature, as well as historical sources on this issue;
2) describe the culture in Russia in the era of Peter I;
3) reveal the significance of Peter's reforms in the field of culture.
Material this essay was scientific works, textbooks, historical reference books on this issue.
In this work, the following research methods: method of theoretical analysis of sources and literature on the topic, method of synthesis, concretization, generalization.
« I have a presentiment that the Russians someday, and perhaps in our lifetime, will shame the most enlightened peoples with their success in the sciences, tireless work and the majesty of firm and loud glory. " Peter the Great .
1. Culture of Russia in the era of Peter the Great
AT last years In the 17th century, Russia still largely retained the appearance and values of ancient and medieval Russia. Russia's economic and, consequently, military lag behind European countries was growing, which posed a serious threat to national sovereignty. The spiritual crisis of society, caused by the secularization of consciousness and intensified by the split of the church, gave rise to the need for qualitative transformations in the sphere of culture. Ancient Russian life has completely exhausted itself. In the 17th century our state has reached the point of complete bankruptcy, moral, economic and administrative, and could only get on the right track through a drastic reform.
In the first quarter of the 18th century, transformations were carried out in Russia that were directly related to the “Europeanization” of Russian culture. The main content of the reforms in this area was the formation and development of secular national culture, secular education, serious changes in everyday life and customs carried out in terms of Europeanization. The transformation of Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century is associated with the name of Peter 1, the son of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and his second wife, Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina. At the end of the 17th century, when the young Tsar Peter I was on the Russian throne, our country was going through a turning point in its history. In Russia, unlike the Western European countries, there were almost no large industrial enterprises capable of providing the country with weapons, fabrics, and agricultural implements. She had no access to the seas - neither the Black nor the Baltic, through which she could develop foreign trade. Therefore, Russia did not have its own fleet. The land army was built according to outdated principles and consisted mainly of noble militia.
Peter the Great led Russia out of this crisis onto a new path. Peter's transformations seem to be a natural historical necessity. Introduction to the European, more civilized way of life, became the main task of Peter in the field of culture.
The transformations of the first quarter of the 18th century in the field of education and culture gave new life to Russia. Schools are being opened, textbooks, dictionaries, primers are being published. People are getting educated. The main features of the development of culture in the era of Peter 1 were the strengthening of its secular principles and the active penetration of Western European images.
The famous historian and publicist M.M. Shcherbatov believed that the path traversed by the country under Peter I would have to be overcome for two centuries without him. Karamzin at the beginning of the 19th century believed that this would take six centuries.
The 18th century was significant for Russia with significant changes and achievements in the field of art. Its genre structure, content, character, means of artistic expression have changed. And in architecture, and in sculpture, and in painting, and in graphics, Russian art entered the pan-European path of development.
The 18th century was a time conducive to the development of Russian culture, defining its two main lines: professional, oriented towards the all-European path, and local, continuing to develop the traditions of folk art.
It should be noted that throughout the XYII century, there was an active penetration of Western European culture into Russia. However, in the era of Peter the Great, the direction of Western European influence changes, and new ideas and values are forcibly introduced, implanted in all spheres of life of the Russian nobility - the main object of the transformative policy of Peter I. This kind of situation was largely explained by state goals - Peter needed achievements and experience Europe for carrying out, first of all, industrial, administrative, military, financial reform, to solve the problems of foreign policy. Peter associated the success of these reforms with the formation of a new worldview, the restructuring of the culture and life of the Russian nobility in accordance with European values.
In 1711, instead of the former numerous Boyar Duma (up to 900 people), Peter 1 established the Senate, consisting of 9 people appointed by the tsar himself. The criterion for selection to the Senate was only business qualities, and the former hereditary privileges were not taken into account. The Senate acted as the highest body for legislation and public administration.
Of exceptional importance was the reform of the Church, which significantly limited the place and role of religion and the Church in the life of society. Major loss Orthodox Church in the life of society. The main loss of the Orthodox Church is the abolition of the patriarchate. His place was taken by the Theological Board, or the Holy Synod, headed by the Chief Procurator, appointed by the Tsar. In fact, the Synod differed little from other state institutions.
The 18th century was the time for the creation in Russia of a system of secular education and science, which were practically absent before. The profound transformations taking place in all areas of public life sharply posed the problem of raising the cultural and educational level of the population, which could not be solved without a wide network of new educational institutions. In 1701, the Navigation School was opened on the Sukharev Tower in Moscow, which in 1715 was transferred to St. Petersburg, where the Naval Academy was created on its basis. A little later, according to the type of Navigatskaya, several more schools appear - Engineering, Artillery and Medical.
The St. Petersburg Academy, founded on the initiative of Peter the Great and opened in 1725, played an important role in the formation and development of science. The most important milestone in the formation and development of Russian science was the foundation in 1755 of Moscow University. Initially, it had three faculties: philosophy, medicine and law. Then it quickly became the largest center for training specialists in all branches of knowledge. In 1783, the Russian Academy of Sciences was created, with Princess Dashkova as its first president.
According to Peter's decree, instead of the previous counting of the years from the "Creation of the World", it was now prescribed to count the years from the Nativity of Christ, that is, from January 1, 1700, as was customary in European countries. True, Europe used the Gregorian calendar, and the Julian one was introduced in Russia. According to Peter's decree, a new tradition was also established - to celebrate the "New Year and the Centenary Age" by decorating the gates of houses with pine, spruce and juniper branches, arranging shooting, games and fun.
By decree of Peter, a new form of communication between people was introduced - assemblies. They gathered representatives of the upper strata of society for recreation and fun in dancing, casual conversations, playing chess and checkers. The tradition of bilingualism also enters into the daily life of the court nobility. Under Peter and Anna, the German language spread, and starting with Elizabeth, French. The influence of French culture was also manifested in the fact that the ladies of the noble society began to play music on the harpsichord. Peter visited the French drawing rooms, where outstanding figures of science, politics, and art gathered and held conversations, and he came up with a plan for organizing assemblies in Russia. Introducing a new form of communication and entertainment, Peter pursued two main goals - to accustom Russian nobles to the secular lifestyle common in Europe, and to introduce Russian women to public life. When organizing assemblies, the converter used not only practical, but also theoretical achievements of Western Europe.
Significant changes are taking place in clothing. Old Russian long robes are giving way to German caftans, short and narrow European clothes. Men of the upper strata of society are losing their beards. Among the court nobility are approved European rules etiquette and social manners. The rules of good manners among the children of the nobility are promoted by the book “An Honest Mirror of Youth, or an Indication for Worldly Behavior”, popular at that time.
2. Reforms of Peter I in the field of culture
Global reforms touched architecture, literature and art.
Petersburg is the only city that was born and formed in the bowels of the all-European culture of the Enlightenment. Both foreign and Russian architects took part in the development of the plan. He created a new urban environment with previously unfamiliar forms of life and pastime. The interior decoration of houses, the way of life, the composition of food, etc. have changed.
The main architectural dominant in St. Petersburg was the Peter and Paul Cathedral, crowned with a gilded spire, the height of which reached 45 m. Peter the Great built St. Petersburg as a European city, although his personal tastes, special geographical position and climatic conditions were decisive for shaping the style of the new capital. At the very beginning of the construction of the city, Peter was guided by Amsterdam [Kagan 2006].
Architects from different national schools worked in the new capital. Russian, Italian, Dutch, German and French architects erected palaces, churches and state buildings in the Russian capital, the architecture of which had common artistic features, defining the architectural style, usually called the Russian Baroque of the first third of the 18th century or the Petrine Baroque. The new capital was radically different from the traditional ancient Russian city - straight streets intersecting at right angles, avenues, standard house designs, European appearance of architecture.
Until the 18th century, church prohibitions hindered the development of sculpture in Russia. The most common was flat carving on stone and wood. In the XVIII century in Russia there was an unprecedented scope for the development of sculpture, the appearance of a new, Western European type of sculpture, which Russia had not yet known.
At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, many factors - economic, political and, especially, cultural - brought the country to a new level of development. The culture of St. Petersburg, remaining faithful to certain principles of the Enlightenment, acquired a significantly different look.
Russian painters painted only icons, but they also needed solemn battles glorifying military victories, and portraits of the tsar and his entourage. Russian engravers knew how to make illustrations for church books, but they needed views of St. Petersburg under construction, images of victories on land and at sea, engravings for textbooks on architecture, naval and artillery.
Russian culture had to finally free itself from the power of the church, to finally catch up with the European countries that had gone ahead.
Peter's reform, global changes in the life of Russian society gave a strong impetus to the development of art. At the turn of two centuries, a sharp transformation of the artistic tradition takes place. Russia joins the Western school of painting.
Peter's transformations in culture aimed not only to attract foreign artists, but also to educate the domestic public, to bring into Russian art the best traditions of European artistic creativity. The period of apprenticeship was short-lived for Russian masters, and already in the second half of the century, the artists who returned from Italy and Holland proved to the world their own talent, acquired skill, creating unsurpassed masterpieces.
The position of the portrait genre testified that the center of attention of the culture that was being formed in St. artistic image. Thus, the meaning of the word image itself changed - from an iconic image, from the image of God, it turned into an image of a specific person. literature petrovsky transformation art
A special place in the fine arts of the first half of the 18th century. occupied engraving. It was the most accessible form of art to the general public, quickly responding to the events of the time. Types of naval battles, cities, solemn holidays, portraits of great people - such was the range of subjects that the masters of engraving worked on. The face of Russian engraving of the 1st quarter of the 18th century. determined by the masters who combined in their works Western technique and the national character of Russian engraving Ivan and Alexei Zubov, Alexei Rostovtsev. The favorite theme of A.F. Zubov's works was views of St. Petersburg, which necessarily included water landscapes with ships.
The transformations and familiarization of Russia with European traditions, culture, and everyday life at the end of the 17th - 18th centuries were also reflected in the products of Russian jewelry art. The very word "jeweler", so familiar now, came at the beginning of the 18th century to replace the old Russian name "gold and silversmith". Moreover, this is not just a replacement of one term by another, but an indicator of the presence of new trends associated with European trends in Russian life, culture and art.
In 1700, by decree of Peter I, a new mandatory costume was introduced in the Western European manner; new suit, of course, demanded new jewelry - brooches, tiaras, buckles for shoes and dresses, cufflinks, etc., which were widespread at that time in Europe, first appeared among Russian jewelry.
In 1702, a public theater was opened in Moscow, in the building. Built on Red Square. The German actors of the group I. Kupst, O. Furst played there. The repertoire consisted of German, French, Spanish plays. However, such a theater was still rare. More common were private theaters, which started to know for a narrow circle of spectators. In the Petrine era, students of various academies, theological seminaries, etc. were fond of the theater.
3. The significance of Peter's transformations in the field of culture
“On the one hand, his reforms, with every undertaking and at every moment, provided for the country and its population multiple new rows of opportunities with a huge strain of forces and sacrifices both in wars and in construction, etc., which is well known. But it is pointless to evaluate Peter's reforms in terms of the ratio of successes and sacrifices, such historical "economy" is meaningless, because it ignores the very level of meaning (values, ideological shifts and spiritual changes). This "meaning" is provoked by personal ideas and suggestions of a particular historical hero, on the one hand, and objective, i.e. in our case, the general cultural arrangement of the “luminaries” (values prevailing at that time) for the country and its surroundings, on the other hand, as well as what L.N. Gumilyov had in mind under the picture of the distribution of energy of different ethnic groups in a particular era. There are many other factors, probably adding various shades to the overall picture of the event” [Lyubimova 1990].
Culture in general, science and even art, Peter I evaluated from the standpoint of usefulness. The huge role of the state, its interference in the sphere of culture led to its bureaucratization: the work of a writer, artist, actor, architect turned into a kind of public service, provided with a salary. Culture has become state, performing certain service functions. It began to have a powerful impact on people whose lifestyle and thinking was leveled and unified in accordance with the interests of the autocracy.
Peter's transformations in the sphere of culture, life and customs were of a pronounced political nature, often introduced by violent methods. At the forefront of these reforms were the interests of the state, which was built according to the strict plan of the monarch's will. The purely external attributes of the Petrine era, manifested in the introduction of European customs and mores, in isolation from the centuries-old traditions of Russian culture, should have emphasized the fundamental differences of the Russian Empire created in a quarter of a century - a great state of the European type.
Under Peter I, a radical restructuring of the entire system of education and science in the country was carried out. Textbooks are published: "The Primer" by F. Polikarpov, "The First Teaching for the Youths" by F. Prokopovich, the famous "Arithmetic" by L. Magnitsky. This book, like the first printed grammar of M. Smotrytsky, M.V. Lomonosov called "the gates of his scholarship." Dictionaries, various manuals on mechanics, technology, architecture, history, etc. were published. At that time, more than 600 titles of books and other publications, including translated ones, were published. To this end, in the first quarter of the 18th century. several new printing houses were opened.
Significant changes in the Petrine era also occurred in everyday life. The patriarchal way of life gradually gave way to secularism and rationalism. Europeanization of everyday life can be traced.
According to the Petrine decree, in 1722, the collection of materials on the history of Russia began, including V.N. Tatishchev (1686-1750), who later wrote the five-volume Russian History from the Most Ancient Times, republished in our time.
The rapid flourishing of court jewelry in the 18th century was facilitated by the organization of domestic cutting factories and the involvement of a large number of experienced Western European jewelers to fulfill expensive orders of the St. Petersburg nobility. In 1721, Peter I founded the "Diamond Mill" in Peterhof for processing precious and ornamental stones, and diamonds were also cut there.
Peter I created a modernization of the very concept of culture for Russia, henceforth culture and faith were two different phenomena that were somewhat intertwined, but not completely merged. The religious part of culture was attributed to the national-historical development, and the secular part to the center of social and cultural life. Also, Peter I carried out a full-fledged church reform, after which not only religious goals, but also other important social, political, scientific and artistic phenomena mattered in the life of Russians. The results of such cardinal reforms were the emergence of libraries and public theaters, park culture, palace sculpture and the navy. Russian culture began to be imbued with the important principle of historicism, the events of the past were now presented as an illustration of the movement from the past to the future and the laws of human development.
This led to a more tangible awareness not only of the nobility, but also of the common people. The concepts of social and cultural progress are becoming closer to the common people, who are now beginning to realize a different, more cultural and knowledge-rich world.
“In Russia, as on a battlefield, one consciousness collided with another: not tradition and Western civilization, but one utopia (Orthodox, withered by that time, mired in material interest and discord associated with it) with another utopia (enlightenment). From a sociological point of view, both utopias are equal, but situationally they were located at different levels of decay, both in this capacity were quite tenacious, neither, of course, had in mind either the country or the people, but only domination and self-preservation; it is clear that we are talking about those who exploited this or that ideology, about the bearers of this consciousness” [Lyubimova 1999].
Initiation in the proper sense is not limited to the performance of a particular ritual. The essence is in the transition from one state to another, from one state of all human abilities to another, in the discovery of a new order of possibilities. The reverse process is initiation along the descending line, i.e. closing opportunities is usually seen as deviant behavior, as a crime, a violation, or, at best, a degradation. In Hinduism and Jainism, for example, the downward direction is equivalent to the upward direction: all beings ascend to the state of God and descend to the opposite, eternally and inevitably; the way out of this "wheel" is his awareness.
Foreign culture was actively introduced into the literature of the time of Peter the Great, and basically it enriched the creativity of the elite. This gave rise to a split: folk art had almost no contact with the work of noble people. The number of printed books that had nothing to do with religion increased, fiction and just books that had an everyday purpose developed. This marked the beginning of the entry of Russian literature into the era of classicism, but nevertheless, many literary phenomena, and even everyday speech, have now become subject to the enormous influence of the West.
Historians and writers assessed the personality of Peter I and the significance of his reforms in different, sometimes directly opposite ways. Peter's contemporaries were already divided into two camps: supporters and opponents of his reforms. The dispute continues to this day.
In the XVIII century M.V. Lomonosov praised Peter, admired his activities, considered him an ideal monarch, devoid of any shortcomings. For Radishchev, the Decembrists, Peter was truly a Giant with a capital letter.
The personality of Peter I occupies a special place in the work of A.S. Pushkin. The poet treated Peter I with deep respect. Such works as "Poltava", "The Bronze Horseman", "Arap of Peter the Great" are dedicated to Peter I. Pushkin intended to write a historical study about Peter I. But at the same time, the poet also saw the toughness of the tsar, who "raised Russia with an iron bridle."
A very high assessment of the activities of Peter I was given by a contemporary of Pushkin, historian M.N. Pogodin in 1841, that is, almost a century and a half after the great reforms of the first quarter of the 18th century
However, as mentioned above, Peter's activities were subject to doubts and criticism, and sometimes even cruel blasphemy. The well-known and authoritative historian Karamzin accused Peter I of betraying the “true Russian” principles of life, he called his reforms a “brilliant mistake”. Many examples could be given negative attitude to Peter I among the Slavophiles, a number of writers of the subsequent period. But it is most interesting to note the explosion, the surge of conflicting assessments of Peter I and his reforms in modern conditions. It would seem that during the period of reforms, his activities should be an example, but there are many politicians and representatives of the creative intelligentsia who have a negative attitude towards this reformer.
Peter dealt primarily with "mixing", everything was a forced coexistence of mutually exclusive, incompatible, heterogeneous, united only formally by religion, and even then undermined by a split, shackled by material interests.
“If we qualify the transformations of Peter as the beginning of the Enlightenment in Russia, then, obviously, the ideology of the Enlightenment is to give way to the rationalization of all, if possible, aspects of life. This ideology is aimed primarily against the "traditional type of action", to use the term of M. Weber, i.e. this type of action, which is built on a mythological pattern and the result of which is the correctness of performance, ritual. It is clear that a real shift to a rationalized type of community could not take place in Russia in the 18th century, therefore, the external forms of rationalization introduced by Peter can, of course, be called pseudo-metamorphoses, as O. Spengler did. However, if we look at this whole situation not only from the point of view of empiricism, even a comparative historical one, but act in the opposite way, reveal which mythological pattern determines the historical situation itself and which spiritual event can be an analogue for describing this transition, the historical crossroads, in where Russia was at that time, then we will get a different picture, and many aspects of Peter's activities, his successes and failures will become more understandable, at least they will find their place" [Lyubimova 1999]
Conclusion
Russia of the 17th century historical development faced with the need for fundamental reforms. Already before Peter, a program of necessary transformations was looming, largely coinciding with his reforms.
The transformations of the first quarter of the 18th century in the field of education and culture gave new life to Russia.
The main difference between the Petrine reforms and the reforms of the previous and subsequent times is that they covered all aspects of the life of the people, while others introduced innovations relating only to certain aspects of the life of society and the state. Peter's reforms were more focused on the inclusion of Russia in the world community, the introduction of its culture to Western Europe and the general westernization of cultural life in Russia.
On the one hand, these reforms were necessary for the country in order to develop and move on, to keep up with the times. But on the other hand, such decisive changes have acquired a rather contradictory and burdensome character for Russian society.
The cultural heritage of Peter the Great remained the most durable, many cultural institutions, monuments of art and architecture, which the country is proud of today, have been preserved.
Bbibliographic list
1. Buganov V.I. Peter the Great and his time / V.I. Buganov.- M., 1989
2. Kagan M.S. City of Petrov in the history of Russian culture / M.S. Kagan. - St. Petersburg, 2006
3. Klyuchevsky V.O. Russian history / V.O. Klyuchevsky.- Prince. 3. - M: Thought, 1993.: - S. 57 - 58.
4. Klyuchevsky V.O. Historical portraits: Figures of historical thought / V.O. Klyuchevsky. - M.: Pravda, 1990.
5. Knyazkov S. Essays from the history of Peter the Great and his time. M.: Culture. 2004.
6. Tatishchev V.N. Scientific heritage / V.N. Tatishchev. - M., 1990. T.14.
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