Anatomy of the central nervous system. Structure and functions of the human nervous system Reflex as the basic principle of the nervous system

Second higher education in psychology in MBA format

item:Anatomy and evolution of the human nervous system.
Manual "Anatomy of the central nervous system"

1.1. History of the anatomy of the central nervous system
1.2. Research methods in anatomy
1.3. Anatomical terminology

Human anatomy is a science that studies the structure of the human body and the patterns of development of this structure.
Modern anatomy, being part of morphology, not only studies the structure, but also tries to explain the principles and patterns of the formation of certain structures. The anatomy of the central nervous system (CNS) is part of human anatomy. Knowledge of the anatomy of the central nervous system is necessary to understand the connection of psychological processes with certain morphological structures, both normally and in pathology.

1.1. History of the anatomy of the central nervous system
Already in primitive times, there was knowledge about the location of the vital organs of humans and animals, as evidenced by rock paintings. IN Ancient world , especially in Egypt, in connection with the mummification of corpses, some organs were described, but their functions were not always represented correctly.

Scientists had a great influence on the development of medicine and anatomy Ancient Greece . An outstanding representative of Greek medicine and anatomy was Hippocrates (c. 460-377 BC). He considered four “juices” to be the basis of the structure of the body: blood (sanguis), mucus (phlegma), bile (chole) and black bile (telaina chole). In his opinion, the types of human temperament depend on the predominance of one of these juices: sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric and melancholic. This is how the “humoral” (liquid) theory of the structure of the body arose. A similar classification, but, of course, with a different semantic content, has survived to this day.

IN Ancient Rome the most prominent representatives of medicine were Celsus and Galen. Aulus Cornelius Celsus (1st century BC) is the author of the eight-volume treatise “On Medicine,” in which he brought together the knowledge he knew about anatomy and practical medicine of ancient times. A great contribution to the development of anatomy was made by the Roman physician Galen (c. 130-200 AD), who was the first to introduce the method of animal vivisection into science and wrote the classic treatise “On the Parts of the Human Body,” in which he first gave an anatomical and physiological description of the whole body. Galen considered the human body to consist of dense and living parts, and based his scientific conclusions on observations of sick people and on the results of autopsies of animal corpses. He was also the founder of experimental medicine, conducting various experiments on animals. However, the anatomical concepts of this scientist were not without shortcomings. For example, Galen conducted most of his scientific research on pigs, whose body, although close to the human body, still has a number of significant differences from it. In particular, Galen attached great importance to the “wonderful network” (rete mirabile) he discovered - the vascular plexus at the base of the brain, since he believed that it was there that the “animal spirit” was formed, controlling movements and sensations. This hypothesis existed for almost 17 centuries, until anatomists proved that pigs and bulls have a similar network, but are absent in humans.

In the era Middle Ages all science in Europe, including anatomy, was subordinated to the Christian religion. Doctors of that time usually referred to the scientists of antiquity, whose authority was supported by the church. At this time, no significant discoveries were made in anatomy. The dissection of corpses, autopsies, and the production of skeletons and anatomical preparations were prohibited. The Muslim East played a positive role in the continuity of ancient and European science. In particular, in the Middle Ages, the books of Ibn Sipa (980-1037), known in Europe as Avicenna, the author of the “Canon of Medicine,” containing important anatomical information, were popular among doctors.

Anatomists of the era Renaissance obtained permission to conduct autopsies. Thanks to this, anatomical theaters were created to conduct public dissections. The founder of this titanic work was Leonardo da Vinci, and the founder of anatomy as an independent science was Andrei Vesalius (1514-1564). Andrei Vesalius studied medicine at the Sorbonne University and very soon realized the insufficiency of the then existing anatomical knowledge for the practical work of a doctor. The situation was complicated by the church's ban on dissection of corpses - the only source of study of the human body at that time. Vesalius, despite the real danger from the Inquisition, systematically studied the human structure and created the first truly scientific atlas of the human body. To do this, he had to secretly dig up the freshly buried corpses of executed criminals and conduct his research on them. At the same time, he exposed and eliminated numerous errors of Galen, which laid the foundation for the analytical period in anatomy, during which many discoveries of a descriptive nature were made. In his writings, Vesalius focused on a systematic description of all human organs, as a result of which he was able to discover and describe many new anatomical facts (Fig. 1.1).

Rice. 1.1. Drawing of a dissected brain from the atlas of Andrei Vesalius (1543):

For his activities, Andrei Vesalius was persecuted by the church, was sent to repentance in Palestine, was shipwrecked and died on the island of Zante in 1564.

After the work of A. Vesalius, anatomy began to develop at a faster pace, in addition, the church no longer so harshly persecuted the dissection of corpses by doctors and anatomists. As a result, the study of anatomy has become an integral part of the training of doctors in all European universities (Fig. 1.2).

Rice. 1.2. Rembrandt Harmens van Rijn. Anatomy lesson of Dr. Tulp (late 17th century):

Attempts to connect anatomical structures with mental activity gave rise to the science of phrenology at the end of the 18th century. Its founder, the Austrian anatomist Franz Gahl, tried to prove the existence of strictly defined connections between the structural features of the skull and the mental characteristics of people. However, after some time, objective studies showed the unfoundedness of phrenological statements (Fig. 1.3).

Rice. 1.3. Drawing from an atlas on phrenology depicting “mounds of secrecy, greed and gluttony” on a man’s head (1790):

The following discoveries in the field of the anatomy of the central nervous system were associated with the improvement of microscopic techniques. First, August von Waller proposed his method of Wallerian degeneration, which makes it possible to trace the paths of nerve fibers in the human body, and then the discovery of new methods of staining nerve structures by E. Golgi and S. Ramon y Cajal made it possible to find out that in addition to neurons in the nervous system there is also a huge number of auxiliary cells - neuroglia.

Remembering the history of anatomical research of the central nervous system, it should be noted that such an outstanding psychologist as Sigmund Freud began his career in medicine as a neurologist - that is, a researcher of the anatomy of the nervous system.

In Russia, the development of anatomy was closely connected with the concept of nervism, which proclaimed the primary importance of the nervous system in regulating physiological functions. In the middle of the 19th century, the Kiev anatomist V. Betz (1834-1894) discovered giant pyramidal cells (Betz cells) in the V layer of the cerebral cortex and revealed differences in the cellular composition of different parts of the cerebral cortex. Thus, he laid the foundation for the doctrine of the cytoarchitectonics of the cerebral cortex.

A major contribution to the anatomy of the brain and spinal cord was made by the outstanding neuropathologist and psychiatrist V. M. Bekhterev (1857-1927), who expanded the doctrine of the localization of functions in the cerebral cortex, deepened the reflex theory and created an anatomical and physiological basis for diagnosing and understanding the manifestations of nervous diseases . In addition, V. M. Bekhterev discovered a number of brain centers and conductors.

Currently, the focus of anatomical research on the nervous system has moved from the macroworld to the microworld. Nowadays, the most significant discoveries are being made in the field of microscopy not only of individual cells and their organelles, but also at the level of individual biomacromolecules.

1.2. Research methods in anatomy
All anatomical methods can be divided into macroscopic , which study the entire organism, organ systems, individual organs or parts thereof, and on microscopic , the object of which are tissues and cells of the human body and cellular organelles. In the latter case, anatomical methods merge with the methods of such sciences as histology (the science of tissues) and cytology (the science of cells) (Fig. 1.4).

Rice. 1.4. Main groups of methods for studying the morphology of the central nervous system :

In turn, macroscopic and microscopic studies consist of a set of various methodological techniques that make it possible to study various aspects of morphological formations in the nervous system as a whole, in individual areas of nervous tissue, or even in an individual neuron. Accordingly, we can distinguish a set of macroscopic (Fig. 1.5) and microscopic (Fig. 1.6) methods for studying the morphology of the central nervous system

Rice. 1.5. Macroscopic methods for studying the nervous system :

Rice. 1.6. Microscopic methods for studying the nervous system :

Since the task of anatomical research (from the point of view of psychology) is to identify connections between anatomical structures and mental processes, several methods from the arsenal of physiology can be connected to the methods of studying the morphology (structure) of the central nervous system (Fig. 1.7).

Rice. 1.7. General methods for physiology and anatomy of the central nervous system :

1.3. Anatomical terminology
To have a correct understanding of the structures of the brain and spinal cord, it is necessary to know some elements of anatomical nomenclature.

The human body is presented in three planes, horizontal, sagittal and frontal, respectively.
Horizontal the plane runs, as its name suggests, parallel to the horizon, sagittal divides the human body into two symmetrical halves (right and left), frontal the plane divides the body into anterior and posterior parts.

There are two axes in the horizontal plane. If the object is closer to the back, then it is said to be located dorsally, if closer to the stomach - ventrally. If an object is located closer to the midline, to the plane of symmetry of a person, then it is said to be located medially, if further - then laterally.

In the frontal plane, two axes are also distinguished: medio-lateral and rostro-caudal. If an object is located closer to the lower part of the body (in animals - to the back, or tail), then it is said to be caudal, and if it is located to the top (closer to the head), then it is located rostral.

There are also two axes in the human sagittal plane; rostro-caudal and dorso-ventral. Thus, the relative position of any anatomical objects can be characterized by their relative position in three planes and axes.

The main part of the nervous system of vertebrates and humans is the central nervous system. It is represented by the brain and spinal cord and consists of many clusters of neurons and their processes. The central nervous system performs many important functions, the main one of which is the implementation of various reflexes.

What is the CNS?

As we evolved, the regulation and coordination of all vital processes of the body began to occur at a completely new level. Improved mechanisms began to provide a very fast response to any changes in the external environment. In addition, they began to remember the effects on the body that occurred in the past and, if necessary, retrieve this information. Similar mechanisms formed the nervous system that appeared in humans and vertebrates. It is divided into central and peripheral.

So what is the CNS? This is the main department that not only unites, but also coordinates the work of all organs and systems, and also ensures continuous interaction with the external environment and maintains normal mental activity.

Structural unit

A similar path includes:

sensory receptor;
afferent, associative, efferent neurons;
effector

All reactions are divided into 2 types:

unconditional (innate);
conditional (acquired).

The nerve centers of a large number of reflexes are located in the central nervous system, but the reactions, as a rule, are closed outside its boundaries.

Coordination activities

This is the most important function of the central nervous system, implying the regulation of the processes of inhibition and excitation in the structures of neurons, as well as the implementation of responses.

Coordination is necessary for the body to perform complex movements that involve numerous muscles. Examples: performing gymnastic exercises; speech accompanied by articulation; the process of swallowing food.

Pathologies

It is worth noting that the central nervous system is a system whose dysfunction negatively affects the functioning of the entire organism. Any failure poses a health hazard. Therefore, when the first alarming symptoms appear, you should consult a doctor.

The main types of central nervous system diseases are:

vascular;
chronic;
hereditary;
infectious;
received as a result of injuries.

Currently, about 30 pathologies of this system are known. The most common diseases of the central nervous system include:

insomnia;
Alzheimer's disease;
cerebral palsy;
Parkinson's disease;
migraine;
lumbago;
meningitis;
myasthenia gravis;
ischemic stroke;
neuralgia;
multiple sclerosis;
encephalitis.

Pathologies of the central nervous system arise as a result of lesions in any of its departments. Each of the ailments has unique symptoms and requires an individual approach to choosing a treatment method.

Finally

The task of the central nervous system is to ensure the coordinated functioning of each cell of the body, as well as its interaction with the outside world. Brief description of the central nervous system: it is represented by the brain and spinal cord, its structural unit is the neuron, and the main principle of its activity is reflex. Any disturbances in the functioning of the central nervous system inevitably lead to disruptions in the functioning of the entire body.

Gray and white matter of the brain. White matter of the hemispheres. Gray matter of the hemisphere. Frontal lobe. Parietal lobe. Temporal lobe. Occipital lobe. Island.

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ANATOMY OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

ABSTRACT

Topic: "Grey and white matter of the brain"

WHITE MATTER HEMISPHERES

The entire space between the gray matter of the cerebral cortex and the basal ganglia is occupied by white matter. The white matter of the hemispheres is formed by nerve fibers connecting the cortex of one gyrus with the cortex of other gyri of its and the opposite hemispheres, as well as with underlying formations. Topographics in the white matter distinguish four parts, vaguely delimited from each other:

white matter in the gyri between the sulci;

area of white matter in the outer parts of the hemisphere - semi-oval center ( centrum semiovale);

radiant crown ( corona radiata), formed by radiating fibers entering the internal capsule ( capsule interna) and those leaving it;

central substance of the corpus callosum ( corpus callosum), internal capsule and long associative fibers.

Nerve fibers of white matter are divided into associative, commissural and projection.

Association fibers connect different parts of the cortex of the same hemisphere. They are divided into short and long. Short fibers connect neighboring convolutions in the form of arcuate bundles. Long association fibers connect areas of the cortex that are more distant from each other.

Commissural fibers, which are part of the cerebral commissures, or commissures, connect not only symmetrical points, but also the cortex belonging to different lobes of the opposite hemispheres.

Most of the commissural fibers are part of the corpus callosum, which connects the parts of both hemispheres belonging to neencephalon. Two brain adhesions Commissura anterior And commissura fornicis, much smaller in size belong to the olfactory brain rhinencephalon and connect: Commissura anterior- olfactory lobes and both parahippocampal gyri, commissura fornicis- hippocampi.

Projection fibers connect the cerebral cortex with the underlying formations, and through them with the periphery. These fibers are divided into:

centripetal - ascending, corticopetal, afferent. They conduct excitation towards the cortex;

centrifugal (descending, corticofugal, efferent).

Projection fibers in the white matter of the hemisphere closer to the cortex form the corona radiata, and then the main part of them converges into the internal capsule, which is a layer of white matter between the lenticular nucleus ( nucleus lentiformis) on one side, and the caudate nucleus ( nucleus caudatus) and thalamus ( thalamus) - with another. On a frontal section of the brain, the internal capsule looks like an oblique white stripe that continues into the cerebral peduncle. In the internal capsule the anterior leg is distinguished ( crus anterius), - between the caudate nucleus and the anterior half of the inner surface of the lentiform nucleus, the posterior peduncle ( crus posterius), - between the thalamus and the posterior half of the lentiform nucleus and genu ( genu), lying at the inflection point between both parts of the internal capsule. Projection fibers can be divided according to their length into the following three systems, starting with the longest:

Tractus corticospinalis (pyramidalis) conducts motor volitional impulses to the muscles of the trunk and limbs.

Tractus corticonuclearis- pathways to the motor nuclei of the cranial nerves. All motor fibers are collected in a small space in the internal capsule (the knee and the anterior two-thirds of its posterior limb). And if they are damaged in this place, unilateral paralysis of the opposite side of the body is observed.

Tractus corticopontini- paths from the cerebral cortex to the pontine nuclei. Using these pathways, the cerebral cortex has an inhibitory and regulatory effect on the activity of the cerebellum.

Fibrae thalamocorticalis et corticothalamici- fibers from the thalamus to the cortex and back from the cortex to the thalamus.

GRAY MATTER OF THE HEMISPHERE

Surface of the hemisphere, cloak ( pallium), formed by a uniform layer of gray matter 1.3 - 4.5 mm thick, containing nerve cells. The surface of the cloak has a very complex pattern, consisting of grooves alternating in different directions and ridges between them, called convolutions, gyri. The size and shape of the grooves are subject to significant individual fluctuations, as a result of which not only the brains of different people, but even the hemispheres of the same individual are not quite similar in the pattern of the grooves.

Deep, permanent grooves are used to divide each hemisphere into large areas called lobes. lobi; the latter, in turn, are divided into lobules and convolutions. There are five lobes of the hemisphere: frontal ( lobus frontalis), parietal ( lobus parietalis), temporal ( lobus temporalis), occipital ( lobus occipitalis) and a lobule hidden at the bottom of the lateral sulcus, the so-called islet ( insula).

The superolateral surface of the hemisphere is delimited into lobes by three grooves: the lateral, central and upper end of the parieto-occipital groove. Lateral sulcus ( sulcus cerebri lateralis) begins on the basal surface of the hemisphere from the lateral fossa and then passes to the superolateral surface. Central sulcus ( sulcus centralis) begins at the upper edge of the hemisphere and goes forward and down. The part of the hemisphere located in front of the central sulcus belongs to the frontal lobe. The part of the brain surface lying posterior to the central sulcus constitutes the parietal lobe. The posterior border of the parietal lobe is the end of the parieto-occipital sulcus ( sulcus parietooccipitalis), located on the medial surface of the hemisphere.

Each lobe consists of a number of convolutions, called in some places lobules, which are limited by grooves on the surface of the brain.

Frontal lobe

In the posterior part of the outer surface of this lobe there is sulcus precentralis almost parallel to the direction sulcus centralis. Two furrows run from it in the longitudinal direction: sulcus frontalis superior et sulcus frontalis inferior. Due to this, the frontal lobe is divided into four convolutions. vertical gyrus, gyrus precentralis, located between the central and precentral sulci. The horizontal gyri of the frontal lobe are: superior frontal ( gyrus frontalis superior), middle frontal ( gyrus frontalis medius) and inferior frontal ( gyrus frontalis inferior) shares.

Parietal lobe

On it there is located approximately parallel to the central groove sulcus postcentralis, usually merging with sulcus intraparietalis, which goes in the horizontal direction. Depending on the location of these grooves, the parietal lobe is divided into three gyri. vertical gyrus, gyrus postcentralis, goes behind the central sulcus in the same direction as the precentral gyrus. Above the interparietal sulcus is the superior parietal gyrus, or lobule ( lobulus parietalis superior), below - lobulus parietalis inferior.

Temporal lobe

The lateral surface of this lobe has three longitudinal gyri, delimited from each other sulcus temporalis superio r and sulcus temporalis inferior. stretches between the superior and inferior temporal grooves gyrus temporalis medius. Below it passes gyrus temporalis inferior.

Occipital lobe

The grooves on the lateral surface of this lobe are variable and inconsistent. Of these, the transverse one is distinguished sulcus occipitalis transversus, usually connecting to the end of the interparietal sulcus.

Island

This lobe has the shape of a triangle. The surface of the insula is covered with short convolutions.

The lower surface of the hemisphere in that part that lies anterior to the lateral fossa belongs to the frontal lobe.

Here, parallel to the medial edge of the hemisphere, runs sulcus olfactorius. On the posterior portion of the basal surface of the hemisphere two grooves are visible: sulcus occipitotemporalis, passing in the direction from the occipital pole to the temporal and limiting gyrus occipitotemporalis lateralis, and running parallel to it sulcus collateralis. Between them is located gyrus occipitotemporalis medialis. There are two gyri located medially from the collateral sulcus: between the posterior part of this sulcus and sulcus calcarinus lies gyrus lingualis; between the anterior section of this groove and the deep sulcus hippocampi lies gyrus parahippocampalis. This gyrus, adjacent to the brain stem, is already located on the medial surface of the hemisphere.

On the medial surface of the hemisphere there is a groove of the corpus callosum ( sulcus corpori callosi), running directly above the corpus callosum and continuing with its posterior end into the deep sulcus hippocampi, which is directed forward and downward. Parallel to and above this groove runs along the medial surface of the hemisphere sulcus cinguli. Paracentral lobule ( lobulus paracentralis) is called a small area above the ligular sulcus. Posterior to the paracentral lobule there is a quadrangular surface (the so-called precuneus, precuneus). It belongs to the parietal lobe. Behind the precuneus lies a separate area of the cortex belonging to the occipital lobe - the wedge ( cuneus). Between the lingular sulcus and the sulcus of the corpus callosum stretches the cingulate gyrus ( gyrus cinguli), which, through the isthmus ( isthmus) continues into the parahippocampal gyrus, ending in the uncus ( uncus). Gyrus cinguli, isthmus And gyrus parahippocampali s together form the vaulted gyrus ( gyrus fornicatus), which describes an almost complete circle, open only at the bottom and front. The vaulted gyrus is not related to any of the cloak lobes. It belongs to the limbic region. The limbic region is part of the neocortex of the cerebral hemispheres, occupying the cingulate and parahippocampal gyri; part of the limbic system. Pushing the edge sulcus hippocampi, you can see a narrow jagged gray stripe, representing a rudimentary gyrus gyrus dentatus.

L I T E R A T U R A

Big medical encyclopedia. vol. 6, M., 1977

2. Great medical encyclopedia. vol. 11, M., 1979

3. M.G. Prives, N.K. Lysenkov, V.I. Bushkovich. Human anatomy. M., 1985

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It consists of the thalamus, epithalamus, metathalamus and hypothalamus. ascending fibers from the hypothalamus from the raphe nuclei of the locus coeruleus of the reticular formation of the brain stem and partially from the spinothalamic tracts as part of the medial lemniscus. Hypothalamus General structure and location of the hypothalamus.

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Introduction

Thalamus (visual thalamus)

Hypothalamus

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

For a modern psychologist, the anatomy of the central nervous system is the basic layer of psychological knowledge. Without an understanding of the physiological functioning of the brain, it is impossible to qualitatively study mental processes and phenomena, as well as understand their essence.

Speaking about the thalamus and hypothalamus, we should first talk aboutdiencephalon(diencephalon ). The diencephalon is located above the midbrain, under the corpus callosum. It consists of the thalamus, epithalamus, metathalamus and hypothalamus. At the base of the brain, its anterior border runs along the anterior surface of the optic chiasm, the anterior edge of the posterior perforated substance and optic tracts, and posteriorly along the edge of the cerebral peduncles. On the dorsal surface, the anterior border is the terminal strip separating the diencephalon from the telencephalon, and the posterior border is the groove separating the diencephalon from the superior colliculi of the midbrain. In a sagittal section, the diencephalon is visible under the corpus callosum and fornix.

The cavity of the diencephalon is III ventricle, which communicates through the right and left interventricular foramina with the lateral ventricles located inside the cerebral hemispheres and through the cerebral aqueduct with the cavity IV cerebral ventricle. On the top wall III In the ventricle there is a choroid plexus, which, along with plexuses in other ventricles of the brain, participates in the formation of cerebrospinal fluid.

The thalamic brain is divided into paired formations:

thalamus ( thalamus);

metathalamus (zathalamic region);

epithalamus (suprathalamic region);

subthalamus (subthalamic region).

The metathalamus (zathalamic region) is formed by pairedmedial and lateral geniculate bodieslocated behind each thalamus. The geniculate bodies contain nuclei in which impulses going to the cortical sections of the visual and auditory analyzers are switched.

The medial geniculate body is located behind the thalamic cushion; together with the lower colliculi of the midbrain roof plate, it is the subcortical center of the auditory analyzer.

The lateral geniculate body is located inferior to the thalamic cushion. Together with the superior colliculus, it forms the subcortical center of the visual analyzer.

Epithalamus (suprathalamic region) includespineal body (epiphysis), leashes and triangles of leashes. The triangles of the leashes contain nuclei related to the olfactory analyzer. The leashes extend from the triangles of the leashes, go caudally, are connected by a commissure and pass into the pineal gland. The latter is, as it were, suspended on them and is located between the upper tubercles of the quadrigeminal. The pineal gland is an endocrine gland. Its functions have not been fully established; it is assumed that it regulates the onset of puberty.

Thalamus (visual thalamus)

General structure and location of the thalamus.

Thalamus, or thalamus, is a paired ovoid formation with a volume of about 3.3 cm 3 , consisting mainly of gray matter (clusters of numerous nuclei). Thalami are formed due to thickening of the lateral walls of the diencephalon. In front, the pointed part of the thalamus formsanterior tubercle,in which the intermediate centers of sensory (afferent) pathways running from the brain stem to the cerebral cortex are located. Posterior, expanded and rounded part of the thalamus - pillow - contains the subcortical visual center.

Picture 1 . Diencephalon in sagittal section.

The thickness of the gray matter of the thalamus is divided vertically Y -shaped layer (plate) of white matter into three parts - anterior, medial and lateral.

Medial surface of the thalamusclearly visible on the sagittal (sagittal - sagittal (lat. " sagitta" - arrow), dividing into symmetrical right and left halves) in a section of the brain (Fig. 1). The medial (i.e., located closer to the middle) surface of the right and left thalamus, facing each other, form the lateral walls III cerebral ventricle (diencephalon cavity) in the middle they are connected to each otherinterthalamic fusion.

Anterior (inferior) surface of the thalamusfused with the hypothalamus, through it, from the caudal side (i.e., located closer to the lower part of the body), pathways from the cerebral peduncles enter the diencephalon.

Lateral (i.e. side) surface thalamus borders oninternal capsule -a layer of white matter of the cerebral hemispheres, consisting of projection fibers connecting the cerebral cortex with the underlying brain structures.

Each of these parts of the thalamus contains several groupsthalamic nuclei. In total, the thalamus contains from 40 to 150 specialized nuclei.

Functional significance of the thalamic nuclei.

According to topography, the thalamic nuclei are divided into 8 main groups:

1. anterior group;

2. mediodorsal group;

3. group of midline nuclei;

4. dorsolateral group;

5. ventrolateral group;

6. ventral posteromedial group;

7. posterior group (nuclei of the thalamic cushion);

8. intralaminar group.

The nuclei of the thalamus are divided into sensory ( specific and nonspecific),motor and associative. Let us consider the main groups of thalamic nuclei necessary to understand its functional role in the transmission of sensory information to the cerebral cortex.

Located in the anterior part of the thalamus front group thalamic nuclei (Fig.2). The largest of them areanteroventral core and anteromedialcore. They receive afferent fibers from the mammillary bodies, the olfactory center of the diencephalon. Efferent fibers (descending, i.e. carrying impulses from the brain) from the anterior nuclei are directed to the cingulate gyrus of the cerebral cortex.

The anterior group of thalamic nuclei and associated structures are an important component of the limbic system of the brain, which controls psycho-emotional behavior.

Rice. 2 . Topography of thalamic nuclei

In the medial part of the thalamus there aremediodorsal nucleus And group of midline nuclei.

Mediodorsal nucleushas bilateral connections with the olfactory cortex of the frontal lobe and the cingulate gyrus of the cerebral hemispheres, the amygdala and the anteromedial nucleus of the thalamus. Functionally, it is also closely connected with the limbic system and has bilateral connections with the parietal, temporal and insular cortex of the brain.

The mediodorsal nucleus is involved in the implementation of higher mental processes. Its destruction leads to a decrease in anxiety, anxiety, tension, aggressiveness, and the elimination of obsessive thoughts.

Midline nucleiare numerous and occupy the most medial position in the thalamus. They receive afferent (i.e., ascending) fibers from the hypothalamus, from the raphe nuclei, the locus coeruleus of the reticular formation of the brain stem, and partially from the spinothalamic tracts as part of the medial lemniscus. Efferent fibers from the midline nuclei are sent to the hippocampus, amygdala and cingulate gyrus of the cerebral hemispheres, which are part of the limbic system. Connections with the cerebral cortex are bilateral.

The midline nuclei play an important role in the processes of awakening and activation of the cerebral cortex, as well as in supporting memory processes.

In the lateral (i.e. lateral) part of the thalamus there aredorsolateral, ventrolateral, ventral posteromedial And posterior group of nuclei.

Nuclei of the dorsolateral grouprelatively little studied. They are known to be involved in the pain perception system.

Nuclei of the ventrolateral groupanatomically and functionally differ from each other.Posterior nuclei of the ventrolateral groupoften considered as one ventrolateral nucleus of the thalamus. This group receives fibers from the ascending tract of general sensitivity as part of the medial lemniscus. Fibers of taste sensitivity and fibers from the vestibular nuclei also come here. Efferent fibers starting from the nuclei of the ventrolateral group are sent to the cortex of the parietal lobe of the cerebral hemispheres, where they carry somatosensory information from the whole body.

TO posterior group nuclei(nucleus of the thalamic cushion) there are afferent fibers from the superior colliculi and fibers in the optic tracts. Efferent fibers are widely distributed in the cortex of the frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal and limbic lobes of the cerebral hemispheres.

The nuclear centers of the thalamic cushion are involved in the complex analysis of various sensory stimuli. They play a significant role in the perceptual (related to perception) and cognitive (cognitive, thinking) activity of the brain, as well as in memory processes - storing and reproducing information.

Intralaminar group of nucleithe thalamus lies in the thickness of the vertical Y -shaped layer of white matter. The intralaminar nuclei are interconnected with the basal ganglia, the dentate nucleus of the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex.

These nuclei play an important role in the activation system of the brain. Damage to the intralaminar nuclei in both thalami leads to a sharp decrease in motor activity, as well as apathy and destruction of the motivational structure of the personality.

The cerebral cortex, thanks to bilateral connections with the nuclei of the thalamus, is capable of exerting a regulatory effect on their functional activity.

Thus, the main functions of the thalamus are:

processing of sensory information from receptors and subcortical switching centers with its subsequent transfer to the cortex;

participation in the regulation of movements;

ensuring communication and integration of different parts of the brain.

Hypothalamus

General structure and location of the hypothalamus.

Hypothalamus ) represents the ventral section (i.e., abdominal) of the diencephalon. It consists of a complex of formations located under III ventricle The hypothalamus is limited anteriorlyvisual cross (chiasm), laterally - the anterior part of the subthalamus, the internal capsule and the optic tracts extending from the chiasm. Posteriorly, the hypothalamus continues into the tegmentum of the midbrain. The hypothalamus includesmastoid bodies, gray tubercle and optic chiasm. Mastoid bodieslocated on the sides of the midline anterior to the posterior perforated substance. These are formations of irregular spherical shape, white. Anterior to the gray tubercle is locatedoptic chiasm. In it, a transition occurs to the opposite side of part of the optic nerve fibers coming from the medial half of the retina. After the decussation, the optic tracts are formed.

Gray tubercle located anterior to the mastoid bodies, between the optic tracts. The gray tubercle is a hollow protrusion of the lower wall III ventricle, formed by a thin plate of gray matter. The apex of the gray mound is elongated into a narrow hollow funnel , at the end of which is pituitary gland [ 4; 18].

Pituitary gland: structure and functioning

Pituitary (hypophysis) - an endocrine gland, it is located in a special depression at the base of the skull, the “sella turcica” and is connected to the base of the brain with the help of a pedicle. The pituitary gland contains the anterior lobe (adenohypophysis - glandular pituitary gland) and the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis).

Posterior lobe, or neurohypophysis, consists of neuroglial cells and is a continuation of the hypothalamic infundibulum. Larger share - adenohypophysis, built of glandular cells. Due to the close interaction of the hypothalamus with the pituitary gland, a single system functions in the diencephalonhypothalamic-pituitary system,controlling the work of all endocrine glands, and with their help, the vegetative functions of the body (Fig. 3).

Figure 3. The pituitary gland and its influence on other endocrine glands

There are 32 pairs of nuclei in the gray matter of the hypothalamus. Interaction with the pituitary gland is carried out through neurohormones secreted by the nuclei of the hypothalamus -releasing hormones. Through the system of blood vessels they enter the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland (adenohypophysis), where they contribute to the release of tropic hormones that stimulate the synthesis of specific hormones in other endocrine glands.

In the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland tropic ones are produced hormones (thyroid-stimulating hormone - thyrotropin, adrenocorticotropic hormone - corticotropin and gonadotropic hormones - gonadotropins) and effector hormones (growth hormones - somatotropin and prolactin).

Hormones of the anterior pituitary gland

Tropic:

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (thyrotropin)stimulates thyroid function. If the pituitary gland is removed or destroyed in animals, atrophy of the thyroid gland occurs, and the administration of thyrotropin restores its functions.

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (corticotropin)stimulates the function of the zona fasciculata of the adrenal cortex, in which hormones are formedglucocorticoids.The effect of the hormone on the zona glomerulosa and reticularis is less pronounced. Removal of the pituitary gland in animals leads to atrophy of the adrenal cortex. Atrophic processes affect all zones of the adrenal cortex, but the most profound changes occur in the cells of the reticular and fascicular zones. The extra-adrenal effect of corticotropin is expressed in stimulation of lipolysis processes, increased pigmentation, and anabolic effects.

Gonadotropic hormones (gonadotropins).Follicle stimulating hormone ( follitropin) stimulates the growth of the vesicular follicle in the ovary. The effect of follitropin on the formation of female sex hormones (estrogens) is small. This hormone is present in both women and men. In men, under the influence of follitropin, the formation of germ cells (spermatozoa) occurs. Luteinizing hormone ( lutropin) necessary for the growth of the vesicular follicle of the ovary in the stages preceding ovulation, and for ovulation itself (rupture of the membrane of a mature follicle and the release of an egg from it), the formation of the corpus luteum at the site of the burst follicle. Lutropin stimulates the formation of female sex hormones - estrogens. However, in order for this hormone to exert its effect on the ovary, a preliminary long-term action of follitropin is necessary. Lutropin stimulates the production progesterone yellow body. Lutropin is available in both women and men. In men, it promotes the formation of male sex hormones - androgens.

Effector:

Growth hormone (somatotropin)stimulates body growth by enhancing protein formation. Under the influence of the growth of epiphyseal cartilages in the long bones of the upper and lower extremities, bone growth occurs in length. Growth hormone increases insulin secretion through somatomedins, formed in the liver.

Prolactin stimulates the formation of milk in the alveoli of the mammary glands. Prolactin exerts its effect on the mammary glands after the preliminary action of the female sex hormones progesterone and estrogens on them. The act of sucking stimulates the formation and release of prolactin. Prolactin also has a luteotropic effect (promotes the long-term functioning of the corpus luteum and the formation of the hormone progesterone).

Processes in the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland

The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland does not produce hormones. Inactive hormones that are synthesized in the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei of the hypothalamus enter here.

The hormones are predominantly produced in the neurons of the paraventricular nucleus oxytocin, and in the neurons of the supraoptic nucleus -vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone).These hormones accumulate in the cells of the posterior pituitary gland, where they are converted into active hormones.

Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone)plays an important role in the processes of urine formation and, to a lesser extent, in the regulation of blood vessel tone. Vasopressin, or antidiuretic hormone - ADH (diuresis - urine output) - stimulates the reabsorption (resorption) of water in the renal tubules.

Oxytocin (ocytonin)increases uterine contraction. Its contraction increases sharply if it was previously under the influence of the female sex hormones estrogen. During pregnancy, oxytocin does not affect the uterus, since under the influence of the corpus luteum hormone progesterone, it becomes insensitive to oxytocin. Mechanical irritation of the cervix causes the release of oxytocin reflexively. Oxytocin also has the ability to stimulate milk production. The act of sucking reflexively promotes the release of oxytocin from the neurohypophysis and the secretion of milk. In a state of stress in the body, the pituitary gland releases additional amounts of ACTH, which stimulates the release of adaptive hormones by the adrenal cortex.

Functional significance of the hypothalamic nuclei

IN anterolateral part hypothalamus is distinguished anterior and middlegroups of hypothalamic nuclei (Fig. 4).

Figure 4. Topography of the hypothalamic nuclei

The anterior group includes suprachiasmatic nuclei, preoptic nucleus,and the largest -supraoptic And paraventricular kernels.

In the nuclei of the anterior group are localized:

center of the parasympathetic division (PSNS) of the autonomic nervous system.

Stimulation of the anterior hypothalamus leads to parasympathetic reactions: constriction of the pupil, a decrease in heart rate, dilation of the lumen of blood vessels, a drop in blood pressure, increased peristalsis (i.e., wave-like contraction of the walls of hollow tubular organs, promoting the movement of their contents to the intestinal outlets);

heat transfer center. Destruction of the anterior section is accompanied by an irreversible increase in body temperature;

thirst center;

neurosecretory cells that produce vasopressin (supraoptic core) and oxytocin ( paraventricular nucleus). In neurons paraventricular And supraopticnuclei, a neurosecretion is formed, which moves along their axons to the posterior part of the pituitary gland (neurohypophysis), where it is released in the form of neurohormones -vasopressin and oxytocinentering the blood.

Damage to the anterior nuclei of the hypothalamus leads to the cessation of the release of vasopressin, resulting in the development ofdiabetes insipidus. Oxytocin has a stimulating effect on the smooth muscles of internal organs, such as the uterus. In general, the water-salt balance of the body depends on these hormones.

In the preoptic The nucleus produces one of the releasing hormones - luliberin, which stimulates the production of luteinizing hormone in the adenohypophysis, which controls the activity of the gonads.

Suprachiasmaticnuclei take an active part in the regulation of cyclical changes in the body's activity - circadian, or daily, biorhythms (for example, in the alternation of sleep and wakefulness).

To the middle group hypothalamic nuclei includedorsomedial And ventromedial nucleus, nucleus of the gray tuberosity and the core of the funnel.

In the nuclei of the middle group are localized:

center of hunger and satiety. Destructionventromedialhypothalamic nucleus leads to excess food consumption (hyperphagia) and obesity, and damagekernels of gray mound- loss of appetite and sudden weight loss (cachexia);

sexual behavior center;

center of aggression;

the center of pleasure, which plays an important role in the processes of formation of motivations and psycho-emotional forms of behavior;

neurosecretory cells that produce releasing hormones (liberins and statins) that regulate the production of pituitary hormones: somatostatin, somatoliberin, luliberin, folliberin, prolactoliberin, thyreoliberin, etc. Through the hypothalamic-pituitary system they influence growth processes, the rate of physical development and puberty , the formation of secondary sexual characteristics, the functions of the reproductive system, as well as metabolism.

The middle group of nuclei controls water, fat and carbohydrate metabolism, affects blood sugar levels, the ionic balance of the body, the permeability of blood vessels and cell membranes.

Posterior part of the hypothalamus located between the gray tubercle and the posterior perforated substance and consists of the right and leftmastoid bodies.

In the posterior part of the hypothalamus, the largest nuclei are: medial and lateral nucleus, posterior hypothalamic nucleus.

In the nuclei of the posterior group are localized:

center that coordinates the activity of the sympathetic division (SNS) of the autonomic nervous system (posterior hypothalamic nucleus). Stimulation of this nucleus leads to sympathetic reactions: pupil dilation, increased heart rate and blood pressure, increased respiration and decreased tonic contractions of the intestines;

heat production center (posterior hypothalamic nucleus). Destruction of the posterior hypothalamus causes lethargy, drowsiness and decreased body temperature;

subcortical centers of the olfactory analyzer. Medial and lateral nucleusin each mastoid body they are the subcortical centers of the olfactory analyzer, and are also part of the limbic system;

neurosecretory cells that produce releasing hormones that regulate the production of pituitary hormones.

Features of the blood supply to the hypothalamus

The nuclei of the hypothalamus receive abundant blood supply. The capillary network of the hypothalamus is several times more branched than in other parts of the central nervous system. One of the features of the capillaries of the hypothalamus is their high permeability, caused by the thinning of the walls of the capillaries and their fenestration ("fenestration" - the presence of spaces - "windows" - between adjacent endothelial cells of the capillaries (from the Latin. " fenestra " - window). As a result, the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is weakly expressed in the hypothalamus, and hypothalamic neurons are able to perceive changes in the composition of the cerebrospinal fluid and blood (temperature, ion content, presence and amount of hormones, etc.).

Functional significance of the hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is the central link connecting the nervous and humoral mechanisms of regulation of the autonomic functions of the body. The control function of the hypothalamus is determined by the ability of its cells to secrete and axonally transport regulatory substances, which are transferred to other structures of the brain, cerebrospinal fluid, blood or pituitary gland, changing the functional activity of target organs.

There are 4 neuroendocrine systems in the hypothalamus:

Hypothalamic-extrahypothalamic systemrepresented by neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus, the axons of which extend into the thalamus, structures of the limbic system, and medulla oblongata. These cells secrete endogenous opioids, somatostatin, etc.

Hypothalamic-adenopituitary systemconnects the nuclei of the posterior hypothalamus with the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. Releasing hormones (liberins and statins) are transported along this pathway. Through them, the hypothalamus regulates the secretion of tropic hormones of the adenohypophysis, which determine the secretory activity of the endocrine glands (thyroid, reproductive, etc.).

Hypothalamic-metapituitary systemconnects the neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus with the pituitary gland. The axons of these cells transport melanostatin and melanoliberin, which regulate the synthesis of melanin, the pigment that determines the color of the skin, hair, iris and other body tissues.

Hypothalamic-neurohypophyseal systemconnects the nuclei of the anterior hypothalamus with the posterior (glandular) lobe of the pituitary gland. These axons transport vasopressin and oxytocin, which accumulate in the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland and are released into the bloodstream as needed.

Conclusion

Thus, the dorsal part of the diencephalon is phylogenetically youngerthalamic brain,being the highest subcortical sensory center in which almost all afferent pathways carrying sensory information from the body organs and sensory organs to the cerebral hemispheres are switched. The tasks of the hypothalamus also include the management of psycho-emotional behavior and participation in the implementation of higher mental and psychological processes, in particular memory.

Ventral section - the hypothalamus is phylogenetically older formation. The hypothalamic-pituitary system controls the humoral regulation of water-salt balance, metabolism and energy, the functioning of the immune system, thermoregulation, reproductive function, etc. Playing a regulatory role for this system, the hypothalamus is the highest center that controls the autonomic (autonomic) nervous system.

Bibliography

Human Anatomy / Ed. M.R. Sapina. - M.: Medicine, 1993.
Bloom F., Leiserson A., Hofstadter L. Brain, mind, behavior. - M.: Mir, 1988.
Histology / Ed. V.G. Eliseeva. - M.: Medicine, 1983.
Prives M.G., Lysenkov N.K., Bushkovich V.I. Human anatomy. - M.: Medicine, 1985.
Sinelnikov R.D., Sinelnikov Y.R. Atlas of human anatomy. - M.: Medicine, 1994.
Tishevskaya I.A. Anatomy of the central nervous system: Textbook. - Chelyabinsk: SUSU Publishing House, 2000.

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Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus

Educational institution

"Belarusian State University of Informatics

and radio electronics"

Department of Engineering Psychology and Ergonomics

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Toolkit

for students of specialty 1 –

"Engineering and psychological support of information technologies"

correspondence courses

Minsk BSUIR 2011

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………

Topic 1. The cell is the main structural unit of the nervous system……..….

Topic 2. Synaptic impulse transmission.…………………………………..

Topic 3. Structure and functions of the brain……..…………………….…..

Topic 4. Structure and functions of the spinal cord……………………………………………………

Topic 5. Telencephalon, structure and functions………………………………...

Topic 6. Motor centers……………………………………………………………………..

Topic 7. Autonomic nervous system………………………………………………………

Topic 8. Neuroendocrine system…………..……………………………..

Literature……………………………………………………………………….

INTRODUCTION

Studying the discipline “Anatomy and physiology of the central nervous system” − an important component of the basic training of systems engineers. The purpose of teaching this discipline is to acquire knowledge on the formation of the information system of the brain, the transmission of information to the central parts of the nervous system via afferent pathways, as well as its transmission and access to the “periphery” via efferent pathways. Therefore, this methodological manual provides an idea of the activity of the central nervous system (CNS) as the morphofunctional basis of neuropsychological processes; the structure and functions of the central nervous system, which is responsible for collecting, processing information, transmitting it to the higher parts of the cerebral cortex for making management decisions; − the basic mechanisms that ensure human life (metabolism, thermoregulation, neurohumoral regulation, systemogenesis) and are responsible for the reliable functioning of its systems are considered. After each topic discussed, test questions are given to consolidate and self-check students’ knowledge. At the end of the manual there is a list of tasks for the test. The literature provides a list of sources with rich illustrative material.

The knowledge gained will subsequently serve as the basis for the study of subsequent disciplines in the natural sciences (psychophysiology, psychology, etc.).

Topic 1. THE CELL IS THE BASIC STRUCTURAL UNIT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The entire nervous system is divided into central and peripheral. The central nervous system (CNS) includes the brain and spinal cord. From them nerve fibers spread throughout the body − peripheral nervous system. It connects the brain to the senses and executive organs − muscles and glands.

Anatomy of the central nervous system studies the structure of its component parts. Physiology studies the mechanisms of their joint work.

All living organisms have the ability to respond to physical and chemical changes in the environment. Stimuli from the external environment (light, sound, smell, touch, etc.) are converted by special sensitive cells (receptors) into nerve impulses − a series of electrical and chemical changes in a nerve fiber. Nerve impulses are transmitted through sensitive (afferent) nerve fibers in the spinal cord and brain. Here the corresponding command impulses are generated, which are transmitted via motor (efferent) nerve fibers to the executive organs (muscles, glands). These executive organs are called effectors.

Basic function of the nervous system − integration of external influences with the corresponding adaptive reaction of the body.

The central nervous system consists of two types of nerve cells: neurons and glial cells, or neuroglia. The human brain is the most complex of all systems in the Universe known to science. Weighing approximately 1,250 g, the brain contains 100 billion nerve neurons connected in an incredibly complex network. Neurons are surrounded by an even larger number of glial cells, which form a supporting and nutritional basis for neurons - glia (Greek "glia" − glue), which performs many other functions that have not yet been fully studied. The space between nerve cells (intercellular space) is filled with water with salts, carbohydrates, proteins, and fats dissolved in it. Smallest blood vessels − capillaries − located in a network between nerve cells.

Guidelines

The functions of neurons include processing information, which means perceiving it, transmitting it to other cells, and encoding this information. The neuron performs all these operations thanks to its special structure.

Despite some diversity in the shape of neurons, most of them have more a large part called body (soma), and several shoots. Usually there is one longer process called axon, and several thinner and shorter, but branching processes called dendrites. The neuron body size is 5-100 micrometers. The length of the axon can be many times greater than the size of the body and reach 1 meter.

The functions of a neuron for processing information are distributed among its parts as follows. Dendrites and the cell body perceive input signals. The cell body sums them up, averages them, combines them and “makes a decision”: to transmit these signals further or not, that is, it forms a response. The axon will transmit output signals to its endings (terminals). Axon terminals transmit information to other neurons, usually through specialized contact sites called synapses. The signals transmitted by neurons are electrical in nature.

Depending on the balance of impulses received by the dendrites of an individual neuron, the cell is activated (or not), and it transmits the impulse along its axon to the dendrites of another nerve cell with which its axon is connected. In this way, each of the 100 billion cells can connect to 100,000 other nerve cells.

The bodies of nerve cells tightly adjacent to each other are perceived by the naked eye as “gray matter”. Cells form folded sheets, such as the cerebral cortex, and organize them into clusters called nuclei and network-like structures. Under a microscope, the structural patterns of different areas of the cerebral cortex can be clearly distinguished. axons, or "white matter", form the main trunks, or "fiber tracts", connecting the cell bodies. The sizes of nerve cells range from 20 to 100 microns (1 micron is equal to a millionth of a meter).

Glial cells include stellate cells (astrocytes), very large cells (oligodendrocytes) and very small cells (microglia). Stellate cells serve as a support for neurons, an intermediary between the neuron and the capillary for the transfer of nutrients, and a reserve material for “repairing” damaged neurons. Oligodendrocytes form myelin − a substance that coats axons and promotes faster signal transmission. Microglia are needed when and where there is damage to the nervous system. Microglial cells migrate to damaged areas and, turning into macrophages, like protective blood cells, destroy waste products. Myelin is formed from a glial cell coiled around the axon.

Control questions:

1. What does the anatomy of the central nervous system study?

2. What does the physiology of the central nervous system study?

3. What is classified as the central nervous system and the peripheral?

4. What is the main function of the nervous system?

5. Name the types of nerve cells and indicate their ratio in the central nervous system.

6. What are the structure and functions of a neuron?

7. Name the types and functions of glial cells.

8. What are “gray matter” and “white matter”?

Topic 2. SYNAPTIC IMPULSE TRANSMISSION

Synapses on a typical neuron in the brain are either exciting, or brake, depending on the type of mediator released in them. Synapses can also be classified by their location on the surface of the receiving neuron - on the cell body, on the shaft or "spine" of the dendrite, or on the axon. Depending on the method of transmission, chemical, electrical and mixed synapses are distinguished.

Guidelines

The process of chemical transmission goes through a number of stages: synthesis of the mediator, its accumulation, release, interaction with the receptor and cessation of the action of the mediator. Each of these stages has been characterized in detail, and drugs have been found that selectively enhance or block a specific stage.

Neurotransmitter(neurotransmitter, neurotransmitter) is a substance that is synthesized in a neuron, contained in presynaptic terminals, released into the synaptic cleft in response to a nerve impulse and acts on special areas of the postsynaptic cell, causing changes in the membrane potential and cell metabolism. For a long time it was believed that the function of a neurotransmitter was only to open (or even close) ion channels in the postsynaptic membrane. It was also known that the same substance can always be released from the terminal of one axon. Later, new substances were discovered that appear in the synapse area at the time of excitation transmission. They were called neuromodulators. Studying the chemical structure of all discovered mediators and neuromodulators clarified the situation. All studied substances related to synaptic transmission of excitation were divided into three groups: amino acids, monoamines and peptides. All these substances are now called mediators.

There are “neuromodulators” that do not have an independent physiological effect, but modify the effect of neurotransmitters. The action of neuromodulators is tonic in nature - slow development and long duration of action. Its origin is not necessarily neural; for example, glia can synthesize a number of neuromodulators. The action is not initiated by a nerve impulse and is not always associated with the effect of a mediator. The targets of influence are not only receptors on the postsynaptic membrane, but different parts of the neuron, including intracellular ones.

In recent years, with the discovery of a new class of chemical compounds in the brain, neuropeptides, the number of known chemical messenger systems in the brain has increased dramatically. Neuropeptides represent chains of amino acid residues. Many of them are localized in axon terminals. Neuropeptides differ from previously identified mediators in that they organize such complex phenomena as memory, thirst, sexual desire, etc.

Control questions:

1. What is a synapse?

2. Name the types of synapses.

3. What is characteristic of electrical synaptic transmission?

4. What is characteristic of chemical signal transmission?

5. Define a neurotransmitter. What groups are synaptic transmitters divided into based on their chemical structure?

6. What are neuromodulators? What is their origin and action?

7. What are neuropeptides?

Topic 3. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE BRAIN

In Latin brain denoted by the word "cerebrit", and in ancient Greek - "cephalon". The brain is located in the cranial cavity and has a shape that generally corresponds to the internal contours of the cranial cavity.

The brain has three large parts: cerebral hemispheres, or hemispheres, cerebellum And brain stem.

The largest part of the entire brain is occupied by the cerebral hemispheres, followed by the cerebellum in size, and the rest is the brain stem. Both hemispheres, left and right, are separated from each other by a fissure. In its depths, the hemispheres are connected to each other by a large commissure - the corpus callosum. There are also two less massive commissures, including the so-called anterior commissure.

From the lower surface of the brain, not only the lower side of the cerebral hemispheres and cerebellum is visible, but also the entire lower surface of the brain stem, as well as the cranial nerves extending from the brain. From the side, mainly the cerebral cortex is visible.

Guidelines

Vital processes stop if any vital center of the brain is destroyed: cardiovascular or respiratory. If we compare hierarchically these centers with their corresponding higher and lower ones (in the spinal cord), then they can be called the main organizers of blood circulation and respiration. The spinal cord, i.e. its motor neurons going directly to the muscles, is the performer. And in the role of initiator and modulator are the hypothalamus (diencephalon) and the cerebral cortex (endbrain).

Located in the medulla oblongata cardiovascular center. The cardiovascular system includes the vagus nerve nuclei, which have parasympathetic effects on the heart, and the so-called vasomotor center, which has sympathetic effects on the heart and blood vessels. In the vasomotor center, two zones are distinguished: pressor (constricts blood vessels) and depressor (dilates blood vessels), which are in a reciprocal relationship. The pressor zone is “switched on” by chemoreceptors (react to the composition of the blood) and exteroceptors, and the depressor zone is activated by baroreceptors (react to the pressure experienced by the walls of blood vessels). The hierarchically highest center of parasympathetic and sympathetic innervation is the hypothalamus. It determines what effects will occur in the cardiovascular system. The hypothalamus determines this in accordance with the current need of the whole organism at a given moment.

Respiratory center partly located in the hindbrain pons and partly in the medulla oblongata. We can say that there is a separate inhalation center (in the pons) and an exhalation center (in the medulla oblongata). These centers are in a reciprocal relationship. Inhalation occurs when the external intercostal muscles contract, and exhalation occurs when the internal intercostal muscles contract. Commands to the muscles come from motor neurons in the spinal cord. The spinal cord receives commands from the inhalation and exhalation centers. The inhalation center is characterized by constant impulse activity. But it is interrupted by information coming from stretch receptors, which are located in the walls of the lungs. The expansion of the lungs from inhalation initiates exhalation. The respiratory rate can be modulated by the vagus nerve and higher centers: the hypothalamus and cerebral cortex. For example, when speaking, we can consciously regulate the duration of inhalation and exhalation, since we are forced to pronounce sounds of different durations.

In addition, the medulla oblongata contains the nuclei of several cranial nerves. In total, humans have 12 pairs of cranial nerves, of which four pairs are located in the medulla oblongata. These are the hypoglossal nerve (XII), accessory (XI), vagus (X) and glossopharyngeal (IX) nerve. Thanks to the nuclei of the glossopharyngeal nerve, movements of the muscles of the pharynx occur, which means that several reflexes that are important for the body are realized: coughing, sneezing, swallowing, vomiting, and phonation also occurs - the pronunciation of speech sounds. In this regard, it is believed that the corresponding centers are located in the medulla oblongata: sneezing, coughing, vomiting.

In addition, the medulla oblongata contains the vestibular nuclei, which regulate the function of balance.

TO hindbrain include the pons and cerebellum. The cavity of the hindbrain is the fourth cerebral ventricle (like a continuing and expanding spinal canal). The pons Varoliev is formed by powerful conductive pathways. The cerebellum is a motor center with numerous connections to other parts of the brain. The binding fibers are collected in bundles and form three pairs of legs. The lower legs provide communication with the medulla oblongata, the middle ones provide communication with the pons, and through it with the cortex, and the upper ones with the midbrain.

The cerebellum makes up only 10% of the brain's mass, but contains more than half of all neurons in the central nervous system. The motor functions of the cerebellum include the regulation of muscle tone, body posture and balance. The ancient cerebellum is responsible for this . The cerebellum coordinates posture and purposeful movements. The old and new cerebellum are responsible for this . The cerebellum is also involved in programming various goal-directed movements, which include ballistic movements, sports movements, such as throwing a ball, playing musical instruments, touch typing, etc. The assumption of the participation of the cerebellum in thinking processes is studied: the presence of common neural systems for control of movement and thinking.

At the bottom of the cerebral ventricle, which has a rhomboid shape (also called the rhomboid fossa), are located the nuclei of the vestibulocochlear (VIII), facial (VII), abducens (VI) and partially trigeminal (V) cranial nerves.

Midbrain is a very constant, evolutionarily low-variable part of the brain. Its nuclear structures are associated with the regulation of postural movements (red nucleus), with participation in the activity of the extrapyramidal motor system (substantia nigra and red nucleus), with indicative reactions to visual and sound signals (quadrigeminal). The superior colliculus is the primary visual center, and the inferior colliculus is the primary auditory center.

The so-called aqueduct of Sylvius passes through the midbrain, connecting the 4th and 3rd cerebral ventricles. Here are also the nuclei of the 3rd (oculomotor), 4th (trochlear) and one of the nuclei of the 5th (trigeminal) cranial nerves. The 3rd and 4th cranial nerves regulate eye movements. Considering that the superior colliculus, which receives information from vision receptors, is also located here, the midbrain can be considered the place where visual-oculomotor functions are concentrated.

Diencephalon represented by one formation - the thalamus. The thalamus has a round, ovoid shape. The historical name of the thalamus is the visual thalamus, or sensory thalamus. It received this name because of its main function, which was established a long time ago. The thalamus is the collector of all sensory information. This means that it receives information from all types of receptors, from all senses (vision, hearing, taste, smell, touch), proprioceptors, interoreceptors, vestibuloreceptors.

Instead of the name "diencephalon" the name "thalamus" is often used. The thalamus occupies the central part of the diencephalon. It forms the floor and walls of the 3rd cerebral ventricle. Anatomically, the thalamus has appendages: superior appendage (epithalamus) , inferior appendage (hypothalamus) , posterior part (metathalamus) , and optic chiasm. or visual chiasma.

Epithalamus consists of several formations. The biggest one is pineal gland, or pineal gland (pineal gland). This is an endocrine gland that secretes melatonin. Norepinephrine, histamine and serotonin are also found in the pineal gland. The participation of these substances in the regulation of circadian rhythms (daily rhythms of activity associated with illumination) has been proven.

Metathalamus consists of the lateral geniculate bodies (secondary visual centers) and the medial geniculate bodies (secondary auditory center).

Hypothalamus is at the same time the highest center of the autonomic nervous system, a “chemical analyzer” of the composition of blood and cerebrospinal fluid, and an endocrine gland. It is part of the limbic system of the brain. Part of the hypothalamus is pituitary- formation the size of a pea. The pituitary gland is an important endocrine gland: its hormones regulate the activity of all other glands.

Due to the fact that the hypothalamus has its own various osmo- and chemoreceptors, it can determine the sufficiency of the concentration of various substances in the body fluids passing through the hypothalamic tissue - blood and cerebrospinal fluid. In accordance with the result of the analysis, it can enhance or weaken various metabolic processes both by sending nerve impulses to all autonomic centers and by releasing biologically active substances - liberins and statins. Thus, the hypothalamus is the highest regulator of eating, sexual, aggressive and defensive behavior, that is, the main biological motivations.

Since the hypothalamus is an integral part of the limbic system, it is also the center for the integration of somatic (related to motor reactions in accordance with sensory organ data) and autonomic functions, namely: it provides somatic functions in accordance with the needs of the whole organism. For example, if for the body at the moment a biologically important task is defensive behavior, which, first of all, depends on the effective functioning of skeletal muscles and sensory organs (see, hear, move). But the effective work of muscles, in turn, depends not only on the speed of nerve impulses, but also on the provision of muscles and nerves with energy resources and oxygen, etc. Therefore, we can say that the hypothalamus provides “internal” support for “external” behavior.

The nuclei of the thalamus are divided functionally into three groups: relay (switching), associative (integrative) and nonspecific (modulating).

Switch cores- This is an intermediate link in long conducting pathways (afferent pathways) coming from all receptors of the trunk, limbs and head. These afferent signals are then transmitted to the corresponding analyzer zones of the cerebral cortex. It is this part of the thalamus that is the “sensitive tubercle”. This functionally includes both the lateral and medial geniculate bodies, since from them information is switched to the occipital and temporal cortex, respectively.

The associative nuclei of the thalamus connect with each other different nuclei within the thalamus itself, as well as the thalamus itself with the associative zones of the cerebral cortex. Thanks to these connections, for example, it is possible to form a “body diagram” and allow various types of gnostic (cognitive) processes to occur when a word and a visual image are connected together.

The nonspecific nuclei of the thalamus form the most evolutionarily ancient part of the thalamus. This nuclei of the reticular formation. They receive sensory information from all ascending pathways and from the motor centers of the midbrain. The cells of the reticular formation are not able to distinguish which modality the signal is received. But this is exactly how it comes into a state of excitement, as if “infected” with energy and, in turn, has a modulating effect on the cerebral cortex, namely, activating attention. That's why they call her reticular activating system of the brain.

The optic nerve, or the 2nd cranial nerve, passes through the diencephalon, starting from the receptors of the retina. Here, in the “territory” of the diencephalon, the optic nerve makes a partial decussation and then continues as a visual tract leading to the primary and secondary visual centers, and further to the visual cortex of the brain.

Control questions:

1. Name the main parts of the brain.

2. Where is the medulla oblongata located and what is it?

3. Name the functions of the medulla oblongata.

4. What is the hindbrain and what are its functions?

5. What is the midbrain and what are its functions?

6. What is the diencephalon?

7. What is the structure and purpose of the epithalamus?

8. What is the structure and purpose of the metathalamus?

9. What is the structure and purpose of the hypothalamus?

10.Give a description of each of the three groups of thalamic nuclei.

Topic 4. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE SPINAL CORD

The spinal cord is located in the spinal canal. It is approximately cylindrical in shape. Its upper end passes into the medulla oblongata, and the lower end into the filum terminale (cauda equina).

In an adult, the spinal cord begins at the upper edge of the first cervical vertebra and ends at the level of the second lumbar vertebra. The spinal cord has a segmental structure. It has 31 segments: 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral and 1 coccygeal. (Sometimes they say that there are 31-33 segments in total, and in the coccygeal region there are 1-3. The fact is that the coccygeal vertebrae are fused into one).

Each segment is designated by the vertebra near which its roots emerge. But this does not mean that each segment is located exactly opposite the corresponding vertebra. In the embryonic state, the length of the spinal cord is approximately equal to the length of the spine. But in the process of individual development, the spine grows faster than the brain. As a result, the spinal cord is shorter than the spine. Therefore, in the upper parts of the spinal cord, the segments correspond to the vertebrae, and their roots exit there, horizontally. In the lower sections, the spinal canal no longer contains brain matter, and the segments corresponding to the vertebrae are located higher. Therefore, at the bottom, the roots in the form of a bundle (cauda equina) descend down to the intervertebral foramina and then exit the spine.

Guidelines

The spinal cord is covered by three membranes. The outer meninges are called hard. The middle shell is called arachnoid. The space between these shells is called subdural. The inner shell is called vascular. The space between the arachnoid and choroid is called subarachnoid or subarachnoid. The choroid and arachnoid membrane form the pia mater of the brain. The spaces between the membranes are filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Synonyms for CSF are the names “cerebrospinal fluid” and “cerebrospinal fluid” .

The spinal cord and brain have the same membranes and communicating spaces between the membranes. In addition, the central canal of the spinal cord continues into the brain. Expanding, it forms the ventricles of the brain - cavities also filled with cerebrospinal fluid.

The meninges and cerebrospinal fluid protect the spinal cord from mechanical damage. Cerebrospinal fluid also serves to chemically protect brain tissue from the effects of adverse substances. CSF is formed by filtration from arterial blood in the choroid plexus of the 4th and lateral ventricles of the brain, and its outflow occurs into the venous blood in the region of the 4th ventricle. Various substances that easily pass from the digestive tract into the blood cannot penetrate into the cerebrospinal fluid as easily, due to blood-brain barrier, which works as a filter, selecting substances that are beneficial and “discarding” substances harmful to the central nervous system.

Control questions:

1. Describe the longitudinal structure of the spinal cord and its location.

2. What membranes surround the spinal cord, what are their functions?

3. What is cerebrospinal fluid, where is it located and what are its functions?

4. What is the function of the blood-brain barrier?

Topic 5. THE END BRAIN, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

The telencephalon anatomically consists of two hemispheres connected to each other by the corpus callosum , arch and anterior commissure. Each hemisphere functionally and anatomically consists of the cortex and subcortical (basal) nuclei. In the thickness of the cerebral hemispheres there are cavities of the 1st and 2nd cerebral ventricles, which have a complex configuration. These ventricles are also called the anterior (1st) and posterior (2nd) ventricles of the telencephalon.

The subcortical nuclei of the telencephalon include, firstly, three paired formations that are part of the striopallidal system, which is important in the regulation of movements: the caudate nucleus, the globus pallidus , fence . The striopallidal system is part of the extrapyramidal motor system.

Secondly, the “subcortex” includes the amygdala nucleus and the nuclei of the septum pellucidum and other formations. The functions of these nuclei are associated with the regulation of complex forms of behavior and mental functions, such as instincts, emotions, motivation, memory.

Most often, the above subcortical nuclei, or basal nuclei, that is, located at the base of the cortex, like the foundation of a house, are simply called “subcortex.” But sometimes the subcortex is called everything that is below the cortex, but above the brain stem, and then the thalamus with its appendages is also included in it.

In general, subcortical structures perform integrative functions.

In the brain, as in the spinal cord, there are three types of substance: gray, white And mesh. Accordingly, the first is formed by the bodies of neurons, the second by myelinated processes of neurons collected in ordered bundles, and the third by interspersed bodies and processes running in different directions.

The reticular substance, or reticular formation, is located more centrally. The cell bodies of neurons (gray matter) are arranged in clusters called nuclei. Sometimes instead of the word “nuclei” the word node or ganglion is used. Bundles of myelinated fibers, just like in the spinal cord, form pathways: short and long. There are two types of shortcuts: commissural and associative.

Guidelines

Cranial nerves are analogues of spinal nerves. In humans, there are 12 pairs of cranial nerves. They are usually designated by Roman numerals, and each has its own name and function.

The function of the spinal nerves is to transmit information from receptors located in various parts of the body to the central nervous system (via the dorsal roots of the spinal cord) and transmit information from the central nervous system to the muscles that carry out body movements, muscles of internal organs and glands (via the anterior roots spinal cord). Similar to the spinal nerves, the cranial nerves transmit information from receptors located in the head (sensory organs) to the brainstem and transmit information from the brain centers to the muscles and glands located in the head.

There is another analogy. The spinal nerves that control the skeletal muscles of the body are influenced by the higher motor centers of the brain. In the same way, the cranial nerves that control the skeletal muscles of the head are subject to the influence of the cortical motor zones, thanks to which voluntary movements of the tongue, nose, ear, eyes, eyelids, etc. are possible.

Thus, cranial nerves are peripheral nerves not related to the central nervous system. It seems incredible, but this is exactly how it is. It’s just that in the head area, everything – both the center (brain) and the periphery (receptors and cranial nerves) are geographically close to each other. It is because of this that the clear segmentation that is observed in the spinal nerves is disrupted, when the sensory roots of the nerves are located strictly on the posterior surface, and the motor roots are on the anterior surface of the spinal cord. Moreover, some cranial nerves generally have either only a sensory branch (optic nerve) or only a motor branch (oculomotor nerve).

To those organs (muscles, glands) that are located outside the skull, as well as from receptors located outside the skull, cranial nerves pass through certain openings of the skull: jugular, occipital, temporal, and ethmoid openings.

Reticular formation(RF) – the reticular substance is a collection of nerve cells that forms a network of densely intertwined processes running in different directions. The reticular formation is located in the central part of the brain stem and in separate inclusions in the diencephalon. RF cells are not directly connected to the ascending pathways going from the receptors to the cortex. But all sensory pathways ascending to the cortex send their branches to the RF. This means that the RF receives the same number of impulses as higher-level centers, although it does not distinguish between them “by origin.” But thanks to them, a constantly high level of excitation in the RF cells is maintained. In addition, the excitation of the RF depends on the concentration of chemicals (humoral factors) in the CSF. Thus, the RF serves as an energy accumulator, which it directs mainly to increasing activity, i.e., the level of wakefulness, of the cortex. However, RF also has an activating effect in the descending direction: controlling spinal cord reflexes through the reticulospinal tracts, changing the activity of alpha and gamma motor neurons of the spinal cord.

Control questions:

1. Describe the structure and location of the telencephalon.

2. Name three types of substance that make up the brain.

3. Describe the structure and location of the reticular formation.

4. What are the functions of the reticular formation?

Topic 6. MOTOR CENTERS

All motor functions (or simply movements) can be divided into two types: purposeful and posnotonic.

Purposeful movements– these are movements aimed at some goal associated with movement in space; these are labor movements associated with the need to take, lift, hold, let go of something, etc. These are also various manipulative movements that a person learns throughout his life. These are mainly voluntary movements. Although the protective flexion reflex can also be called goal-directed, since it aims to interrupt contact with a painful stimulus.

Postnotonic movements, or postural, provide a position in space that is usual for a given organism, that is, in the gravitational field of the Earth. For humans, this is a vertical position. Postural movements are based on innate reflex reactions. The name "postural" comes from the English word "posture" which means “pose, figure.”

The structures of the central nervous system responsible for the nervous regulation of motor functions are called motor centers. They are localized in various parts of the central nervous system.

Motor centers that regulate postural movements are concentrated in the structures of the brain stem. Motor centers that control purposeful movements are located at higher levels of the brain - in the cerebral hemispheres: subcortical and cortical centers.

Guidelines

The brainstem includes the medulla oblongata, part of the hindbrain, and the midbrain. At the level of the medulla oblongata the following motor centers are located: vestibular nuclei and reticular formation. Vestibular nuclei receive information from balance receptors located in the vestibule of the inner ear , and in accordance with it, excitatory signals are sent to the spinal cord along the vestibulospinal tract. The impulses are intended for the extensor muscles of the torso and limbs, thanks to the work of which a person who has slipped or stumbled is able to immediately react: straighten up, find support again, i.e., restore balance. From reticular formation The medulla oblongata also begins the lateral reticulospinal tract, which innervates the maximally located flexor muscles of the trunk and limbs.

Main motor function of the medulla oblongata–maintaining balance automatically, without the participation of consciousness.

The pons of the hindbrain contains the nuclei of the reticulospinal tract, which excites the motor neurons of the extensors. This means that these and the vestibulospinal centers act “at the same time.”

In the midbrain, several nerve centers are related to the regulation of movements: the red nucleus, the roof of the brain, or the quadrigeminal, the substantia nigra , as well as the reticular formation.

From red kernel the rubrospinal tract begins. Thanks to impulses transmitted along this path, body posture is regulated, for which the red nucleus is credited with the role of the main anti-gravity mechanism. The red nucleus increases the tone of the flexors of the upper extremities and ensures coordination of various muscle groups (this is called synergy) when walking, jumping, and climbing. However, the red nucleus itself is constantly under the control of centers higher in relation to it - the subcortical, or basal nuclei.

Four Hills consists of the superior and inferior colliculi, which are simultaneously not only motor centers, but also the primary centers of vision (superior colliculus) and hearing (inferior colliculus). From them begin the tectospinal tracts, along which, in accordance with visual and auditory information, a command is transmitted to turn the neck or eyes and ears in the direction of a perceived stimulus that is new for a given situation. This reaction is called the orienting reflex, or the “what is it?” reflex.

Black substance has synaptic connections with the basal subcortical nuclei. The transmitter at these synapses is dopamine. With its help, the substantia nigra has a stimulating effect on the basal ganglia.

Reticulospinal tract, starting from the reticular formation of the midbrain, has an exciting effect on gamma motor neurons of all muscles of the trunk and proximal limbs.

Cerebellum, like the motor centers of the brain stem, ensures the tone of skeletal muscles, regulation of postural functions, coordination of postural movements with purposeful ones. The cerebellum has bilateral connections with the cerebral cortex, and therefore it is a corrector of all types of movements. It calculates the amplitude and trajectory of movements.

TO basal ganglia, or nuclei, include several subcortical structures: the caudate nucleus, the fence and the globus pallidus. Another name for this complex is the striopallidal system. This system is part of an even more complex motor system - the extrapyramidal. The basal ganglia mainly perform the functions of controlling rhythmic movements and ancient automatisms (walking, running, swimming, jumping). They also provide a background that facilitates specialized movements and also provides accompanying movements.

Higher motor centers are located in the neocortex of the cerebral hemispheres. The motor centers of the cortex have a specific localization: these are precetral gyrus, located anterior to the central Rolland's fissure. Their localization was established experimentally by electrical stimulation of various points in the motor zone. When certain points were stimulated, movements of the contralateral limb were obtained. According to modern concepts, it is not individual muscles that are represented in the cortex, but entire movements performed by muscles. grouping around a specific joint. The motor cortex itself contains "higher order" motor neurons, or command neurons, which bring into action various muscles. This motor area is called the primary motor area. Adjacent to it is the secondary motor area, which is called premotor. Its functions are related to the regulation of motor functions that are of a social nature, for example, writing and speech. It is from here, from these motor areas, that both pyramidal descending tracts originate.

The higher motor centers are located next to the higher sensory centers, which are located in postcentral gyrus. Sensory areas(zones) receive information from skin receptors and proprioceptors located on all parts of the body. Here, similarly to the motor zones, all areas of the body and face are represented. Therefore, the postcentral region of the cortex is called somatosensory. However, the size of the representations does not depend on the size of the body part itself, but on the importance of the information coming from it. Therefore, the representation of the torso and lower limb is relatively small, but the representation of the hand is huge.

It has been shown that the motor and sensory areas partially overlap, so both zones are called the same word - the sensorimotor zone.

Control questions:

1. How are movements classified?

2. Name the brainstem and subcortical motor centers.

3. What are the functions of the red nucleus?

4. What are the functions of the quadrigeminal region?

5. What are the functions of the substantia nigra?

6. What are the functions of the basal ganglia?

7. Indicate the location and name the functions of sensorimotor centers.

Topic 7. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system is usually divided into somatic and autonomic. To tasks somatic system includes responding to external signals and, in accordance with data from the senses, carrying out motor reactions. For example, the task of avoiding the source of unpleasant, harmful influences and approaching the sources of pleasant, beneficial influences.

The name somatic nervous system comes from the word “soma,” which means “body” in Latin. Not only the cell, but also our microorganism has a body - this is our entire muscular membrane, consisting of skeletal (striated muscles), thanks to which the body is able to produce movements.

Guidelines

Autonomic nervous system(autonomic nervous system, visceral nervous system) - a section of the nervous system that regulates the activity of internal organs, endocrine and exocrine glands, blood and lymphatic vessels. The autonomic nervous system regulates the state of the internal environment of the body, controls metabolism and the associated functions of respiration, blood circulation, digestion, excretion and reproduction. The activity of the autonomic nervous system is mainly involuntary and is not directly controlled by consciousness. The main effector organs of the autonomic system are the smooth muscles of internal organs, blood vessels and glands.

Vegetative And somatic parts of the nervous system act cooperatively. Their neural structures cannot be completely separated from each other. Therefore, this division is analytical, since both skeletal muscles and internal organs are simultaneously involved in the body’s reactions to various stimuli (if only because they ensure the functioning of the muscles).

The vegetative and somatic systems have the following differences: in the location of their centers; in the structure of their peripheral parts; in the characteristics of nerve fibers; depending on consciousness.

There are two functional divisions of the autonomic nervous system: segmental-peripheral, providing autonomic innervation of individual body segments and related internal organs, and central (suprasegmental), which carries out integration, unification of all segmental apparatuses, subordination of their activities to the general functional tasks of the whole organism.

At the segmental-peripheral level of the autonomic nervous system, there are two relatively independent parts of it - sympathetic and parasympathetic, the coordinated activity of which ensures fine regulation of the functions of internal organs and metabolism. Sometimes the influence of these parts or systems on an organ is opposite in effect, and an increase in the activity of one system is accompanied by inhibition of the activity of another. In the regulation of some other functions, both systems act unidirectionally.

Sympathetic segmental spinal centers are located in the lateral horns of the thoracic and lumbar spinal cord. From the cells of these centers, vegetative fibers originate, heading to the sympathetic nodes or autonomic ganglia (preganglionic fibers). The ganglia are located in chains on both sides of the spine, making up the so-called sympathetic trunks, in which there are 2-3 cervical, 10-12 thoracic nodes, 4-5 lumbar, 4-5 sacral nodes. The right and left trunks at the level of the first coccygeal vertebra are connected and form a loop, in the middle of which there is one unpaired coccygeal node. Postganglionic fibers depart from the nodes and go to the innervated organs. Some of the preganglionic fibers, without interruption in the ganglia of the sympathetic trunks, reach the celiac and inferior mesenteric autonomic plexuses, from the nerve cells of which postganglionic fibers extend to the innervated organ.

Parasympathetic the nerve centers are located in the autonomic nuclei of the brain stem, as well as in the sacral part of the spinal cord, where parasympathetic preganglionic fibers begin; these fibers end in the vegetative nodes located in the wall of the working organ or in the immediate vicinity of it, and therefore the postganglionic fibers of this system are extremely short. Parasympathetic fibers pass from the autonomic centers located in the brain stem as part of the oculomotor, facial, glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves. They innervate the smooth muscles of the eye (except for the dilator muscle, which receives innervation from the sympathetic part of the autonomic nervous system), the lacrimal and salivary glands, as well as the vessels and internal organs of the thoracic and abdominal cavities. The sacral parasympathetic center provides segmental autonomic innervation of the bladder, sigmoid colon and rectum, and genitals.

Increased activity of the sympathetic nervous system is accompanied by dilation of the pupil, increased heart rate and increased blood pressure, dilation of small bronchi, decreased intestinal motility and contraction of the sphincters of the bladder and rectum. Increased activity of the parasympathetic system is characterized by constriction of the pupil, slowing of heart contractions, decreased blood pressure, spasm of the small bronchi, increased intestinal motility and relaxation of the sphincters of the bladder and rectum. The consistency of the physiological influences of these systems ensures homeostasis– harmonious physiological state of organs and the body as a whole at an optimal level.

The activity of sympathetic and parasympathetic segmental-peripheral formations is under control central suprasegmental autonomic apparatus, which include the respiratory and vasomotor stem centers, the hypothalamic region and the limbic system of the brain. In case of defeat respiratory And vasomotor stem centers respiratory and cardiac problems occur. Cores hypothalamic region regulate cardiovascular activity, body temperature, gastrointestinal tract function, urination, sexual function, all types of metabolism, endocrine system, sleep, etc. The nuclei of the anterior hypothalamic region are associated primarily with the function of the parasympathetic system, and the posterior region with the function of the sympathetic system . Limbic system not only takes part in the regulation of the activity of autonomic functions, but largely determines the autonomic “profile” of the individual, his general emotional and behavioral background, performance and memory, ensuring a close functional relationship between the somatic and autonomic systems.

Limbic the system is a functional association of brain structures involved in the organization of emotional and motivational behavior, such as food, sexual, and defensive instincts. This system is involved in organizing the wakefulness-sleep cycle.

Control questions:

1. What are the tasks of the somatic nervous system?

2. What are the tasks of the autonomic nervous system?

3. Name the main differences between the somatic and autonomic parts of the nervous system.

4. What is the simatic nervous system?

5. How does increased activity of the sympathetic nervous system manifest itself?

6. What is the parasimatic nervous system?

7. How does increased activity of the parasympathetic nervous system manifest itself?

8. What is homeostasis?

9. Which centers control the activity of the sympathetic system, and which control the parasympathetic system?

10. Is it true that the somatic and autonomic parts of the nervous system act completely independently of each other? Give reasons for your answer.

Topic 8. NEUROENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Endocrine, or according to modern data, neuroendocrine system regulates and coordinates the activity of all organs and systems, ensuring the body’s adaptation to constantly changing factors of the external and internal environment, resulting in the preservation of homeostasis, which, as is known, is necessary to maintain the normal functioning of the body. In recent years, it has been clearly shown that the neuroendocrine system performs the listed functions in close interaction with the immune system.

Guidelines

The endocrine system is represented endocrine glands, responsible for the formation and release of various hormones into the blood.

It has been established that the central nervous system (CNS) takes part in the regulation of the secretion of hormones from all endocrine glands, and hormones, in turn, influence the function of the CNS, modifying its activity and condition. Nervous regulation of the body’s endocrine functions is carried out both through hypophysiotropic (hypothalamic) hormones and through the influence of the autonomic (autonomic) nervous system. In addition, sufficient amounts of monoamines and peptide hormones are secreted in various areas of the central nervous system, many of which are also secreted in endocrine cells of the gastrointestinal tract.

Endocrine function of the body provide systems that include: endocrine glands that secrete hormones; hormones and their transport pathways, corresponding organs or target tissues that respond to the action of hormones and are provided by normal receptor and post-receptor mechanisms.

The endocrine system of the body as a whole maintains the constancy in the internal environment necessary for the normal course of physiological processes. In addition, the endocrine system, together with the nervous and immune systems, ensures reproductive function, growth and development of the body, formation, utilization and storage (“in reserve” in the form of glycogen or fatty tissue) of energy.

Mechanism of action of hormones

Hormone is a biologically active substance. This is a chemical informative signal that can cause rapid changes in the cell. The hormone, like other informative signals, is bound by cell membrane receptors. But unlike those signals that open ion channels in the membrane, the hormone “turns on” a chain (cascade) of chemical reactions that begin on the upper surface of the membrane, continue on its inner surface, and end deep inside the cell. One of the links in this chain of reactions are the so-called second messengers. Second intermediaries- These are “biological amplifiers” of biochemical processes. In all living organisms, from humans to single-celled organisms, only two second messengers are known: cyclic adenosine monophosphoric acid (CAMP) and inositol triphosphate (IF-3). The second mediators also include calcium (Ca). Thus, the second messenger is an intermediary in the transmission of an informative signal from the hormone to the internal systems of the cell. ( The first intermediaries- these are synaptic mediators known to us).

In the life of animals and humans, from time to time a state of psycho-emotional stress arises. It arises under the influence of three factors: the uncertainty of the situation (it is difficult to determine the likelihood of events, it is difficult to make a decision), lack of time, the significance of the situation (to satisfy hunger or save a life?).

Psycho-emotional stress (stress) is accompanied by both subjective experiences and physiological changes in all body systems: cardiovascular, muscular, endocrine.

At the onset of stress, the hypothalamus, through a nerve conduction pathway (sympathetic nervous system, nerve impulse), stimulates the release of adrenaline (anxiety hormone) from the adrenal glands. Adrenaline enhances the nutrition of muscles and the brain: it transfers fatty acids from fat depots into the blood (to nourish the muscles), and from liver glycogen it transfers glucose into the blood (to nourish the brain). But this is not energetically beneficial for the body during prolonged stress, because the muscle can “eat” glucose without leaving it for the brain.

Therefore, at the next stage of stress, the pituitary gland releases ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) and stimulates the release of cortisol from the adrenal cortex. Cortisol interferes with the absorption of glucose into muscle tissue. In addition, cortisol activates the conversion of protein into glucose. This is important because glycogen stores are low. But where does protein come from? (Remember that during stress, all digestion processes are inhibited). The body has a lot of structural protein - all cells are made of protein. But if you transfer it to “fuel”, that is, turn it into glucose, then you can destroy the entire body. Therefore, protein is taken from those tissues of the body that are quickly renewed and which can be temporarily dispensed with. Such tissue is lymphocytes, i.e. the protective cells of the body. Their protein is converted into glucose. But such an escape from stress has negative side effects, namely, after prolonged stress it is easy to get colds and viral diseases. Cortisol inhibits the activity of the “sexual” centers of the hypothalamus. Therefore, with prolonged stress (negative emotions), women experience menstrual irregularities, and men experience impaired sexual potency.

Control questions:

1. What processes is the neuroendocrine system responsible for?

2. What does the neuroendocrine system consist of?

3. What groups are glands divided into and on what basis?

4. Define the concept of “hormone” and describe the mechanism of action of hormones.

5. Name the factors contributing to the emergence of a state of psycho-emotional stress.

6. Describe the hormonal mechanism of stress.

Test assignments

1. Subject and methods of research of Higher Nervous Activity (HNA). The doctrine of the characteristics of GNI in humans and animals.

2. The human brain as a system of systems. Types of brain activity. The main functions of the human brain in the process of its phylogenesis.

3. Nervous system, anatomical structure, sections and types, nerve connections, sources of energy formation for information transmission.

4. Brain structure, regions, parts of the brain: thalamus, hypothalamus, intermediate mesencephalon, their topography, functional connections.

5. Organization of the nervous system. The structure of neurons, its functions. Neural connections in information transmission. Assistive systems.

6. The concept of “synapse”, its function and role in the transmission of information. Features of synapses at different levels of nerve connections.

7. Glial cells serving neurons, their role and functions in serving the entire central nervous system. Formation of pathways in the transmission of information.

8. Classification of nerve centers according to their functional characteristics. Afferent and efferent sections. They differ in communication functions.

9. Integrated activity of the spinal and medulla oblongata. Topography, structure, functions.

10. Integrated activity of the midbrain, activity of the cerebellum. Structure, topography, neural connections.

11. Integrated activity of the cerebral cortex. Frontal, occipital, parietal areas, right and left hemispheres, the main differences in their processing of information.

12. Physiological properties of the autonomic nervous system. Her participation in emotional reactions. Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system.

13. Reticular formation, its topography, influence on brain activity, connection with other areas of the brain. Controlling role in the transfer of information.

14. Conducting nervous stimulation in the body. The properties of nerve fibers in the conduction and transmission of information, the systemic organization of pathways. Conducting pathways of the brain and spinal cord.

15. Features and conditions that form synaptic transmission of information, stages and mechanisms of synaptic transmission. Features of synaptic connections of the brain, spinal cord, visceral system.

16. Fundamental principles of the theory of reflex activity. Conditioned and unconditioned (innate) reflexes. Difference between conditioned and unconditioned reflexes.

17. Processing of information in the central nervous system. The concept of "sensory system". The structure of connections that form sensory systems.

18. Conversion and transmission of signals to the sensory system. Receptor sensitivity. Coding of stimuli in the sensory system.

19. The structure of the visual analyzer, its physiological characteristics. Pathways for transmitting visual information to brain centers.

20. Visual reflexes: accommodation, photoreception. Features of the structure of the retina. Characteristics of photoreceptors.

21. Central visual pathways. Activity of the visual cortex. Technology of formation and transmission of visual information. Reaction of the cortex to visual drainage.

22. Anatomy and physiology of the hearing organs. Auditory system. Central auditory pathways. Characteristics of neurons that form sound perceptions.

23. Vestibular system (balance apparatus). Features of hair cells in the balance apparatus. Conducting system and centers of balance in the cortex.

24. General principles of the functioning of the body: correlation, regulation, self-regulation, reflex activity.

25. Functional systems. General systems theory. The concepts of “systemogenesis”, “system quantization”. Development of systems in phylogenesis.

26. Nervous regulation of the functions of internal organs. Hormonal regulation of physiological functions. Causes of hormonal regulation disorders.

27. Physiology of motor activity. Concepts, definitions. Features of motor activity in conditions of changing irritating factors. The role of motivating factors in the implementation of activity, the phenomenon of efferentation.

28. “Motor cortex”, its functions, topography. Classification of movements. Orientation and manipulation movements. Nervous pathways in the formation of motor reactions.

29. Mechanisms of initiation of motor acts. Emotional and cognitive brain, role in efferent reactions.

30. Thermoregulation of the body. Basic concepts. The body's response to external temperature. The influence of temperature on the human body. Regulators of temperature reactions.

31. Systemic mechanisms in the regulation of body temperature. Individual characteristics of reactions to temperature conditions. Daily fluctuations in body temperature.

32. Localization, features, properties of thermostats. Heat generation and heat transfer in various conditions of the body. Neuroregulation of heat.

33. Body fluids. Functions of water in the human body. Biological functions of water. The main “water depots” in the body.

34. Methods for determining liquid media in the body. Electrolyte composition of liquid media. Sources of entry and routes of release of water and electrolytes.

35. Blood as the main liquid medium. Hematopoietic organs and processes of destruction of blood elements. Blood composition, main depots. The “working” blood volume is normal.

36. Blood coagulation, hemostasis mechanisms. Fibrinolysis (dissolution) of blood. Causes and its consequences.

37. Transcellular (intercellular) fluids, composition, functions. The role of intercellular fluid in ensuring optimal turgor of the human body.

38. Osmotic pressure of tissues and organs (osmolality), tonicity of solutions. Causes of osmotic pressure disturbances, consequences for the body.

39. Metabolism and energy in the body. Types of metabolism, stages, phenomena of anabolism and catabolism. Metabolic disorders and their consequences for the body.

40. Mineral metabolism in the body, ionic composition of liquids. The physiological role of potassium, calcium, magnesium and other elements in mineral metabolism. Consequences of mineral metabolism disorders.

41. Metabolism of fats, their biological role, heat capacity, participation in metabolism. Energy value of fats. Fat deposits.

42. Metabolism of carbohydrates, mechanism of absorption, role in maintaining life, products of carbohydrate oxidation, energy cost. Consequences of excess carbohydrate deposition.

44. Thermodynamics of living systems. Factors influencing the formation, accumulation and consumption of thermal energy. Efficiency of a living cell. Heat limits in various tissues of the body.

45. Heat consumption in the body. Basic metabolism and energy expenditure. The influence of activities on energy expenditure. Acceptable limits of overheating and hypothermia of tissues and organs.

46. Functional asymmetry of the brain. Types of asymmetry by nature of manifestation, functional asymmetries. The role of asymmetry in the formation of individual functions.

47. Morphological asymmetry of the cerebral hemispheres. Forms of joint activity of the hemispheres: integration of information, control functions, interhemispheric transfer of information.

48. Left-handedness and right-handedness in brain activity. Origin of left-handedness. Types of left-handedness. Age-related features of the formation of left-handedness.

49. Information processing blocks in the central nervous system. Formation of blocks, their structures, actual nerve centers, their “support” connections in information processing.

50. Receptors as the main “receivers” of information from the external and internal environments. Information transmission systems that receive receptors. Reception levels by function.

51. The concept of “analyzers”. Their functions, specificity. Connections between analyzers. The principle of “divergence” and “convergence” in supporting the adoption of specific actions in response to the influence of a stimulus.

52. Level centers of the cerebral cortex. Primary, secondary and tertiary zone of the cortex. Functional features of each of these zones.

53. Block of regulation of tone and wakefulness in the cortex as a modeling system of the brain. The functions performed by this block, the connection with the reticular formation as a controlling system.

54. Block of programming, regulation and control of complex forms of activity. Functions of the motor analyzer, areas of the motor cortex. Neural network of motor analyzers.

55. Functional organization of the motor cortex. Motor pathways of the brain (pyramidal tract). Formation of motor programs for information transfer.

56. Structure of the spine. Departments, quantity and quality of vertebrae. The cross-sectional size of different parts of the vertebrae. "Styling" and protecting the spinal cord from damage.

57. Structures and functions of the spinal cord: topography, structure, dimensions. Nerve nuclei of the spinal cord, nerve afferent and efferent pathways.

58. White and gray matter of the spinal cord. Functions of individual sections of the gray matter of the spinal cord. Spinal nerves, their functions, topography of nerve trunks, their “service areas”.

59. Medulla oblongata. Internal structure, functions. Characteristics and functions of nuclei and exiting nerves. The structure of the information they process.

60. Hindbrain. Structure (pons, cerebellum). Outgoing nerves, nuclei, their role in the perception and processing of information, “controlling function”.

61. Midbrain and diencephalon. Structure and functions of the thalamus (visual thalamus). Nuclear neurons as centers for storing and processing information.

62. Telencephalon. Cerebral cortex, cortical lobes, right and left hemispheres, sulci. The role of the corpus callosum in the functional activity of the cerebral cortex.

LITERATURE

1. Anatomy. Physiology. Human psychology: a brief illustrated dictionary / ed. acad. . – St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2001. – 256 p.

2. Human anatomy. In 2 hours. Part 2 / ed. . – M.: Medicine, 1993. – 549 p.

3. Anokhin, and the neurophysiology of the conditioned reflex /. – M.: Medicine, 1968. – 547 p.

4. Danilova,: textbook. for universities/ . – M.: Aspect-Press. 2002. – 373 p.

5. Pribram, K. Languages of the brain / K. Pribram. – M.: Progress, 1975. – 464 p.

6. Sokolov, and the conditioned reflex. A New Look / . – M.: Moscow Psychological and Social Institute. 2003. – 287 p.

7. Physiology. Fundamentals and functional systems: a course of lectures / ed. . – M.: “Science”, 2000. – 784 p.

Holy plan 2011, pos. 19

Educational edition

Parkhomenko Daria Alexandrovna

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

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