Anatomical structure of the distal limb of animals. The structure of the skeleton of the limb girdles. Sesamoid bones

Target:

To study the structure and specific features of the bones forming the shoulder girdle: the shoulder blades.

To study the structure and specific features of the bones of the free part of the limb: humerus.

Educational visual aids

1. Tables - bones of the peripheral skeleton of domestic animals and birds.

2. Skeletons of domestic animals and birds.

3. Shoulder blade and humerus of a dog, pig, cattle, horse.

Teaching Methodology

1. There are four sets of study materials on the students’ tables.

2. On the teacher’s table there are demonstration preparations and a set of training preparations.

3. Tables are posted on the board and a record of Latin terms is made.

4. The teacher explains the content of the lesson (35 min).

5. Independent work students (30 min).

6. Checking the quality of assimilation of the studied material (20 min).

7. Answers to questions and homework (5 min).

1. Familiarize yourself with the general structure of the bones of the thoracic limb.

2. Study the structure of the scapula and humerus, as well as species characteristics in various species of domestic animals and birds.

Shoulder blade – scapula

lamellar, triangular bone

Costal surface – faсies costalis.

1. Serrated roughness – tuberositas serrata.

2. Subscapular fossa – fossa subscapularis.

Lateral surface – faсies lateralis.

1. Spine of the scapula – spinae scapulae.

2. Tubercle of the spine of the scapula – tuber spinae scapulae.

3. Acromion - acromion.

4. Prespinatus fossa – fossa supraspinata.

5. Infraspinous fossa – fossa infraspinata.

Edges: cranial, dorsal, caudal - margo cranialis, dorsalis, caudalis.

Angles: cranial, caudal, ventral – angulus cranialis, caudalis, ventralis.

Cartilage of the scapula – cartilago scapulae.

Scapula notch – incisura scapulae.

The neck of the scapula is collum scapulae.

The glenoid cavity is cavitas glenoidalis.

1. Supraarticular tubercle – tuberculum supraglenoidale.

2. Caracoid process – processus carаcoideus.

Species features:

Dog. The acromion hangs over the neck of the scapula and has uncinate process - hamatus, the cartilage of the scapula is poorly developed, the cranial angle of the scapula is rounded.

Pig. The tubercle of the spine of the scapula is strongly developed and hangs over the infraspinous fossa, the acromion is absent, and the scapular cartilage is small.

Cattle. The infraspinous fossa is three times wider than the prespinous fossa, the acromion reaches the neck of the scapula, the cartilage is small.

Horse. The tubercle of the spine and the caracoid process are well defined, the acromion is absent, the glenoid cavity has a notch, the scapular cartilage is highly developed, and the prespinatus fossa is narrow.

Humerus – os humerus

long, tubular bone

I. Proximal epiphysis – epiphisis proximalis.

1. Head of the humerus – caput humeri.

2. Neck of the humerus – collum humeri.

3. Greater tubercle – tuberculum majus.

The ridge of the greater tubercle is crista tuberculi majus.

The surface for the infraspinatus muscle is faсies musculi infraspinati.

Small round roughness – tuberositas teres minor.

The line of the three heads of the muscle is lineia musculi tricipitis.

4. Lesser tubercle – tuberculum minor.

5. Intertubercular groove – sulcus intertubercularis.

II. The body of the humerus is corpus humeri.

1. Surfaces: cranial, caudal, lateral, medial – faсies cranialis, caudalis, lateralis, medialis.

2. Large round roughness – tuberositas teres major.

3. Deltoid roughness – tuberositas deltoidea.

4. The crest of the humerus is crista humeri.

III. Distal epiphysis – epiphysis distalis.

1. Block of the humerus – trochlea humeri.

2. Radial fossa – fossa radialis.

4. Lateral and medial condyle – condylus lateralis, medialis.

5. Lateral and medial epicondyle – epicondylus lateralis, medialis.

Species features:

Dog. The bone is long, thin, there is supratrochlear foramen– foramen supratrochleare, the greater tubercle does not protrude above the head.

Pig. The bone is short, part of the greater tubercle hangs over the intertubercular groove.

Cattle. The bone is short, the greater tubercle is extended proximally, part of it hangs over the intertubercular groove.

Horse. Available intermediate tubercle– tuberculum intermedium, two intertubercular grooves, the crest of the greater tuberosity and the deltoid roughness are large, there are synovial fossa - fossa synovialis.

Questions to reinforce learned material

1. What parts is the thoracic limb divided into?

2. Name the components of the lateral and medial surfaces of the scapula.

3. By what signs can you determine whether you have a right or left shoulder blade?

4. Name the animals that have an acromion of the scapula.

5. Name the specific features of the bones of the shoulder girdle of a dog, pig, cattle, horse.

6. What is located on the epiphyses and diaphysis of the humerus.

7. How to distinguish the right from the left humerus.

8. Name the specific features of the humerus of a dog, pig, cattle, horse.

Literature

Akaevsky A.I. “Anatomy of Domestic Animals” M. 1975. pp. 82-85.

Klimov A.F. "Anatomy of Domestic Animals", 2003. pp. 176-179.

Khrustaleva I.V., Mikhailov N.V. and others. “Anatomy of Domestic Animals” M. Kolos. 1994. pp. 128-154.

Popesco P. “Atlas of topographic anatomy of agriculture. animals." "Bratislava". 1961 T. 3.

Yudichev Yu.F. "Comparative Anatomy of Domestic Animals". Volume 1. Orenburg-Omsk. 1997. pp. 128-132.

Yudichev Yu.F., Efimov S.I. “Anatomy of Domestic Animals” Omsk. 2003. pp. 122-126.

Appendix, Fig. 22 - 23.

Spatula– scapula – a lamellar bone of a triangular shape, there are three angles on it: cranial, caudal and ventral with an articular cavity for connection with the head of the humerus. Between the angles are three edges: cranial, caudal and dorsal or base of the scapula. At the base of the scapula is the scapular cartilage. Near the ventral angle, the scapula narrows and forms the neck of the scapula; near it there is a tubercle of the scapula with a coracoid (coracoid) process. The biceps brachii muscle is attached to the tubercle of the scapula.

The lateral surface of the scapula is divided scapular spine, which descends from the base to the ventral angle, into two fossae: prespinous and postospinous. Prespinous fossa narrower, located cranially, it contains the prespinatus muscle, which extends the shoulder joint. Postospinous fossa wider, located caudally, it contains the infraspinatus muscle of the shoulder joint. In some animals, the spine of the scapula ends in a protrusion - acromion. On the medial surface of the scapula is subscapular fossa, which serves to strengthen the muscle of the same name. Closer to the base of the scapula there is a jagged line that separates serrated roughness for attachment of the serratus ventral muscle. The scapula lies obliquely: the base is directed dorso-caudally, and the articular angle is directed cranioventrally.

Types of scapula:

horse- located on the scapular spine tubercle of spine, the scapular cartilage is powerful, the acromion is absent, the articular cavity in front has an articular notch;
cattle– the scapular spine ends with the acromion, reaching the neck; the prespinatus fossa is significantly narrower than the postospinous fossa, the scapular cartilage is large;
pig– the scapula is short and wide, on the scapular spine there is a powerful tubercle of the spine, curved caudally and overhanging the infraspinous fossa; there is no acromion, the scapular cartilage is poorly developed, the cranial angle is cut off.

Rice. Skeleton of the proximal thoracic limb
large cattle from the lateral surface (according to P. Popescu)

A – shoulder blade; B – humerus; C – radius; D – ulna

1 – scapular cartilage; 2 – prespinatus fossa; 3 – postospinous fossa; 4 – spine of the scapula; 4" - tubercle of the scapula; 5 - acromion; 6 - cranial edge; 7 - caudal edge; 8 - tubercle of the scapula; 9 - neck of the scapula; 10 - head of the humerus; 11 - cranial part of the greater tuberosity; 12 - caudal part of the greater tuberosity ; 13 – neck of the humerus; 14 – roughness for the infraspinatus muscle; 15 – deltoid roughness; 16 – trochlea of the humerus; 17 – ulnar fossa; 18 – lateral epicondyle; 19 – ulnar tubercle; 20 – olecranon; 21 – proximal interosseous space .

Brachial bone– humerus (os brachii) – a long tubular bone, consists of two epiphyses (proximal and distal) and a diaphysis (body). Located on the proximal (upper) epiphysis humeral head. It connects to the glenoid cavity of the scapula at the shoulder joint. Passes under the head neck humerus. Lateral and medial from the head are big And small tubercles. Between them passes intertubercular groove for the biceps tendon. On the lateral surface of the greater tubercle there is a roughness for the attachment of the retrospinatus muscle. From the greater tubercle to the body of the humerus descends crest, on which it is located deltoid roughness for attachment of the muscle of the same name. Located on the medial surface of the bone rounded roughness for attachment of the teres major and latissimus dorsi muscles.

Located on the distal (lower) epiphysis humerus block. It forms the elbow joint with the bones of the forearm. Using a ridge, the block is divided into two condyles: lateral And medial. The lateral condyle is smaller than the medial one. On the sides of the block there are ligamentous fossae or tubercles. Lies above the block coronoid (supratrochlear) fossa. On the opposite, palmar, surface of the distal epiphysis there is a deep cubital fossa, limited by two epicondyles. Lateral epicondyle has a ridge to which the muscles that extend the wrist joint and fingers are attached. TO medial epicondyle flexors of the wrist and fingers are attached.

Types of features of the humerus:

horse– on the proximal epiphysis there are three tubercles: the large, middle and small, therefore the intertubercular groove is double; the deltoid and rounded roughness, as well as the crest of the greater tubercle, are highly developed; there is a synovial fossa on the trochlea;
cattle– the humerus is relatively short; the greater tubercle is extended proximally;
pig– the bone is short and thick; the powerful large tubercle is divided in two and strongly bent towards the medial one, causing the intertubercular groove to almost turn into an opening; the deltoid, rounded roughness and ridge are poorly developed.

Muscles shoulder girdle (m. cinguli membri thoracici) attach the thoracic limb to the body (synzarcosis). These muscles are mainly lamellar and are located on the neck, shoulder blade and chest. They have one attachment point on the torso, and the other on the scapula and humerus. The muscles of the shoulder girdle ensure that the pectoral limbs are carried forward or pulled back, and also help flexion, extension and rotation of the limb in the shoulder joint. Based on their location, these muscles can be divided into dorsal (attached along the supraspinous and nuchal ligaments) and ventral (attached to the costal cartilages and sternum).

The dorsal muscles descend from the head, neck and torso to the scapula (trapezius, rhomboid, brachioatlas) and humerus (brachiocephalus, latissimus dorsi). The brachiocephalic m. and its parts (sternomandibular and sternomastoid m.) participate in the formation jugular groove (sulcus jugularis), in which the external jugular vein(blood from animals is usually taken from it). It is formed in the horse and cow by the brachiocephalic and sternomandibular m., and in the pig and dog - by the brachiocephalic and sternomastoid m.

The ventral muscles rise from the sternum and side wall of the body to the humerus (superficial and deep pectoralis) and scapula (ventral serratus).

Question No. 40

Shin bones– ossa cruris – represented by the tibia and fibula. In all farm animals, only the tibia is highly developed, while the fibula has undergone varying degrees of reduction.

Tibia– tibia is a massive long tubular bone with a body and two epiphyses: proximal and distal. The proximal epiphysis is thickened and expanded due to highly developed condyles and the anterior edge, which has the appearance of a ridge. Lateral and medial condyles separated intercondylar eminence, which distinguishes between a higher medial and a lower lateral intercondylar tubercles. Between the tubercles there is a fossa for the cruciate ligament. The proximal epiphysis has an extensor groove in front, and a popliteal notch in the back. Each condyle bears an articular surface.

Body The tibia has a triangular shape. From the medial condyle a powerful crest. On the caudal surface of the body is the line of the popliteus muscle. On the distal epiphysis there is an articular block limited to the right and left ankles, lateral and medial. The block has grooves and ridges running along the articular surface.

Fibula– fibula – has a body, a proximal epiphysis with a head and articular surface and a distal epiphysis, forming the lateral malleolus.

Brachial bone– humerus (os brachii) – a long tubular bone, consists of two epiphyses (proximal and distal) and a diaphysis (body). Located on the proximal (upper) epiphysis humeral head. It connects to the glenoid cavity of the scapula at the shoulder joint. Passes under the head neck humerus. Lateral and medial from the head are big And small tubercles. Between them passes intertubercular groove for the biceps tendon. On the lateral surface of the greater tubercle there is a roughness for the attachment of the retrospinatus muscle. From the greater tubercle to the body of the humerus descends crest, on which it is located deltoid roughness for attachments of the muscle of the same name. Located on the medial surface of the bone rounded roughness for attachment of the teres major and latissimus dorsi muscles.

Types of features of the humerus:

· horse– on the proximal epiphysis there are three tubercles: the large, middle and small, therefore the intertubercular groove is double; the deltoid and rounded roughness, as well as the crest of the greater tubercle, are highly developed; there is a synovial fossa on the trochlea;

· cattle– the humerus is relatively short; the greater tubercle is extended proximally;

· pig– the bone is short and thick; the powerful large tubercle is divided in two and strongly bent towards the medial one, causing the intertubercular groove to almost turn into an opening; the deltoid, rounded roughness and ridge are poorly developed.

Bones of the forearm– ossa antebrachii – long and tubular, represented by the ulna and radius bones. Radius– radius – consists of the body, proximal and distal epiphyses. On the proximal epiphysis there are head, on which there is an elongated articular surface, divided into two or three sections. Under the head there is a weakly defined neck. On it in front there is the roughness of the radius, and on the sides there are ligamentous tubercles. The body of the bone in cross section has the shape of an oval with a more convex cranial and flat rear surfaces. On the distal epiphysis there is an articular block for articulations with the bones of the wrist. The lateral and medial edges of the trochlea are pointed and are called styloid processes

Elbow bone– ulna – highly reduced, has a body and two epiphyses. The proximal epiphysis is better developed than the other parts. It has a well-defined olecranon With trochlear notch and ulnar tubercle. Overhangs the block cutout uncinate process. The body of the bone is narrow, triangular, thinning distally. All that remains of the distal epiphysis is a slate-shaped process with an articular surface for the carpal bones.

Types of forearm bones:

· horse– the radius is well developed; the ulna is reduced, there is only a proximal epiphysis, which fuses with the help of bone tissue to the radius, with one proximal space remaining between them;

· cattle– only the radius is well developed; the body of the ulna is partially reduced; displaced to the lateral edge of the radius, fused with it bone tissue; there are two interosseous spaces: proximal and distal; at the distal end of the ulna there is a powerful styloid process;

· pig– the radius is short and massive; the body of the ulna is also massive, triangular in shape, well developed throughout; both bones are fused together using fibrous connective tissue.

· Hand bones– ossa manus – includes the bones of the wrist, metacarpus and fingers.

· Carpal bones – ossa carpi – are represented by two rows of small asymmetrical bones: proximal and distal. The bones are counted from the medial (inner) side. The proximal row is formed by four bones: the radial carpal (located medially), the intermediate carpal (in the middle), the ulnar carpal (located laterally), and the accessory (posterior) carpal. The distal row includes four bones: I, II, III and IV. The fourth bone is formed by the fusion of the IV and V carpal bones. The horse has four bones in the distal row: I (often absent), II, III and IV. Cattle have two bones in the distal row: II+III, as well as IV+V, fused together; there is no I bone. A pig has four bones: I, II, III and IV.

· Metacarpal bones – ossa metacarpi – have a tubular structure, they distinguish between a proximal epiphysis with an articular surface for articulation with the distal row of the wrist, a body and a distal epiphysis with an articular block for connection with the first phalanges of the fingers.

· The horse has three metacarpal bones (II, III and IV), of which the III metacarpal bone is well developed, and the II IV is rudimentary and is called the stifle bones. In cattle, metacarpals I and II are absent; The III and IV metacarpal bones fuse into one bone. At the border of their fusion there are dorsal and palmar longitudinal grooves. The proximal epiphysis has an articular surface, and the distal epiphysis has an articular block. The pig has four metacarpal bones: II, III, IV and V. Of these, the II and V are short, and the III and IV are well developed.

· Finger bones – ossa digitorum – consist of three phalanges in each finger: proximal, middle and distal. The number of toes varies among farm animals. The horse has one third toe; its proximal phalanx is called fetlock, middle phalanx – coronoid bone and distal phalanx - coffin bone. Cattle have two developed fingers: the third and fourth. Their proximal phalanges are called fetlocks, the middle ones are called coronal phalanges, and the distal ones are called claw bones. The pig has four toes: the third and fourth are long, reaching the ground, and the second and fifth toes are short, hanging. Each finger has three phalanges, their names correspond to the phalanges of cattle.

Sesamoid bones of the fingers– there are proximal and distal. Proximal - paired on each finger, lying on the palmar surface of the metacarpal fetlock joint. The distal sesamoid bone is one on each digit, located on the palmar surface of the ungulate (in the horse) or claw (in cattle and pigs) joint. In the horse, the distal sesamoid bone is elongated and is called the navicular bone.

Limb Belt, parts of the skeleton

In vertebrates and humans; They connect the paired limbs with the body, serve as a support for them and as a place of attachment for a number of muscles that control the movement of the limbs.

skeleton

The skeleton of the third link of the limb, the paw, includes the wrist (of two rows of short bones), metacarpus (the longest middle section of the paw) and fingers. Of the once five separate bones of the horse's pastern, only one remains developed, namely the third bone; to the right and left of it there are remains of the metacarpal bones (second and fourth), which are often called styli.
Based on paleontological finds, scientists suggest that the number of rays in some animals reached up to seven. Adapting to endlessly changing living conditions, gradually, from millennium to millennium, from century to century, seven-toed animals turned into five- or four-toed animals, up to one-toed animals (single-hoofed). In a word, long-term evolution as a whole led to the simplification of the complex links of the limbs, to the formation of simple strong levers that ensure speed of movement due to the loss of grasping functions. This, apparently, gave certain advantages in the struggle for existence: in search of pasture and watering places, in flight from the enemy over rough terrain, etc. This was established, in particular, by V. O. Kovalevsky, who managed to trace more or less completely the historical past of the modern one-toed horse (its ancient ancestors were no larger in size than the modern fox).
The dog has all five bones, of which the third and fourth are longer than the others, and the first bone on the medial (inner) side is the shortest, underdeveloped, and, moreover, it is apparently fused with the first phalanx of the finger. Pigs have four metacarpal bones. In ruminants (cattle, sheep, goats), the third and fourth metacarpal bones are fused into one massive bone with two epiphyses - articular ends. In horses, the third metacarpal bone is highly developed - the bone of the runners; the first and fifth are absent, the second and fourth fuse with the third with age.
The bones of the fingers are a continuation of the rays of the metacarpus, and they are always counted from the medial edge to the right or left side outward: 1st finger, 2nd index finger, 3rd middle finger, 4th ring finger, 5th little finger. Each finger, with the exception of the first, consists of three phalanges. Not all mammals rest all their toes on the ground. Therefore, fingers are divided into fully developed and working when the animal rests on the ground; they are more massive and longer than the others, which do not reach the support area and are called hanging or reduced.

Links

The free limb is divided into links: stylopodia, zeigopodia and autopodium.

Belt of the thoracic limb. Spatula - scapula - is a girdle of the thoracic limb. Lamellar bone is triangular in shape. The base is located at the proximal end of the scapula (basis scapulae), on the distal side - the articular cavity ( cavitas glenoidalis), cranially from which the scapular tubercle is located, the scapular spine runs along the lateral surface of the scapula (spina scapulae), which divides it into prespinatus (fossa supraspinata) and postosteal (fossa infraspinata) pits. The subscapular fossa is located on the medial surface (fossa subscapu/aris), where the serrated line runs closer to the base of the scapula (linea serrata). The narrowest area above the glenoid cavity is called the neck of the scapula (colum scapulae)(Fig. 2.27).

Rice. 2.27. Shoulder:

A- horses; b- cows; V- pigs; G- dogs;

1 - cranial angle (angulus cranialis); 2- caudal angle (,angulus caudalis); 3 - ventral angle (angulus ventralis);
4 - cranial edge ( margo cranialis)-, 5- dorsal edge ( margo dorsalis); 6- caudal edge ( margo caudalis); 7- spine of the scapula ( spina scapulae); 8- tubercle of the spine of the scapula (tuber spinae scapulae); 9- acromion (acromion); 10- prespinatus fossa (fossa supraspinata); eleven- postospinous fossa (fossa infraspinata); 12- neck of the scapula (collum scapulae); 13- shoulder blade cutting (incisura scapulae); 14- supraglenoid tubercle (tuberculum supraglenoidale); 15- subarticular tubercle (tuberculum infraglenoidale);
16 - glenoid cavity (cavitas glenoidalis); 17- glenoid notch (incisura glenoidalis); 18- scapular cartilage (cartilage scapulae)

Kyiv: Agrarian Osvita, 2001, P. 26]

Species characters are differentiated by the shape of the scapular spine and the topography of its acromion (Table 2.8).

Species characteristics of the bones of the skeleton of the thoracic limb

Table 2.8



The spine of the scapula ends in a pronounced process - the acromion - approximately at the level of the neck of the scapula	The spine of the scapula is flat, rises smoothly and gradually tapers off	The spine of the scapula is triangular in shape, ends in a tubercle, directed caudally	The spine of the scapula ends at the acromion, at the level of the glenoid cavity or behind it
Brachial bone
The lateral tubercle is higher than the medial one, directed proximally; single intertubercular groove	The intertubercular groove is double, the greater tubercle is divided by the middle one, the tubercles are located at the same level	The tubercles are directed towards each other, as a result of which the intertubercular groove is almost closed; the bone itself is short and massive	The bone is thin, long, cranially curved, the lateral tubercle does not protrude above the head, there is a supratrochlear foramen
Bones of the forearms
The ulna fuses with the radius along its entire length; there are proximal and distal interosseous spaces between both bones	The ulna fuses with the radius in all proximal thirds; there is only a proximal interosseous space	Both bones of the forearm are developed approximately equally	The bones of the forearm are connected movably; there are two small tubercles on the ulnar tubercle
Carpal bones
There are four bones in the proximal row, two in the distal row; The radius is extended from front to back; intermediate bone with two volar branches; the ulna has a saddle-shaped facet; pineal accessory bone	There are four bones in the proximal and distal rows; the radius is cuboid-shaped; the ulna is polygonal; intermediate bone sphenoid; accessory bone flat	There are four bones in the proximal and distal rows. The radius is laterally compressed; accessory bone lamellar, long; the volar branches of the intermediate bone are poorly expressed	There are three bones in the proximal row, the radius is fused with the intermediate into the radius-intermediate; in the distal row there are four bones, the accessory bone is cylindrical
Metacarpal bones
III and IV bones have fused into one; their cross-section has an oval outline	There is only III metacarpal bone, II and IV (slate) are rudimentary, have an oval outline in cross-section	III and IV bones are developed, have a triangular contour in cross-section, II and V are poorly developed and curved	Bones III and IV are the longest, tetrahedral in cross-section; II and V are shorter, triangular in cross-section; I - the shortest

Brachial bone. Brachial bone - about bgasii - a long tubular bone, characterized by the presence on the proximal epiphysis of a head facing mediocaudally, a large muscular tubercle (lateral to the head) and an intertubercular groove. On the distal epiphysis there is a transverse articular block for articulation with the bones of the forearm, and volar to it is the ulnar fossa, limited by the epicondyles. On the lateral surface of the diaphysis, approximately in its middle, there is a deltoid roughness (Fig. 2.28, 2.29).

a B C D)

Rice. 2.28. Humerus of cow and dog: A- cows, rear view; 6 - cows, front view; V- dogs, rear view; G- dogs, front view;

1 - body of the humerus ( corpus ossis humeri)-, 2- head of the humerus (caput ossis humeri); 3- greater tubercle (tuberculum majus); 4- cranial part (pars cranialis); 5 - caudal part ( pars caudalis); 6- crest of the greater tubercle ( crista tuberculi majoris); 7- small tubercle ( tuberculum minoris);
8 - ridge of a small tubercle ( crista tuberculi minoris); 9- intertubercular groove ( sulcus intertubercularis); 10 (facies musculi infraspinati); eleven- tuberosity of the teres major muscle ( tuberositas musculi teretis majoris); 12- tuberosity of the teres minor muscle ( tuberositas musculi teretis minoris); 13- deltoid tuberosity ( tuberositas deltoidea);
14 - line of the triceps muscle - crest of the humerus ( crista ossis humeri); 16- process of the humerus ( condylus ossis humeri); 17- humerus block (trochlea ossis humeri); 18- lateral epicondyle (epicondylus lateralis); 19- crest of lateral epicondyle - medial epicondyle ( epicondylus medialis); 21- cubital fossa (fossa olecrani); 22 - radial fossa (fossa radialis); 23- nutrient opening (foramen nutritium); 24- supratrochlear hole (foramen supratrochlcare); 25- humeral head (capitulum humerale)

Rice. 2.29.

A- horses, rear view; 6 - horses, front view; V- pigs, rear view; G- pigs, front view;

1 - body of the humerus (corpus ossis humeri); 2- head of the humerus (caput ossis humeri); 3- greater tubercle (tuberculum majus); 4- cranial part (pars cranialis); 5 - caudal part (pars caudalis); 6 - crest of the greater tubercle (crista tuberculi majoris); 7 - small tubercle (tuberculum minoris); 8 - crest of the lesser tubercle (crista tuberculi minoris);
9 - interbutoral groove (sulcus intertubercularis); 10- surface of the infraspinatus muscle (facies musculi infraspinati);
11 - tuberosity of the teres major muscle (tuberositas musculi teretis majoris); 12 - tuberosity of the teres minor muscle (tuberositas musculi teretis minoris); 13- deltoid tuberosity (tuberositas deltoidea); 14- line of the triceps muscle (linea musculi tricipitis); 15- crest of humerus (crista ossis humeri); 16 - condyle of the humerus (condylus ossis humeri);
17 - humerus block (trochlea ossis humeri); 18 - lateral epicondyle (epicondylus lateralis); 19- crest of the lateral epicondyle (crista epicondyli lateralis); 20- medial epicondyle (epicondylus medialis); 21- cubital fossa (fossa olecrani); 22- radial fossa (fossa radialis); 23- nutrient opening (foramen nutritium); 24- intermediate

tubercle (tuberculum intermedium); 25- synovial fossa (fossa synovialis)

[Kostyuk B.K. Atlas of the anatomy of our creatures. Osteology. Kyiv: Agrarian Osvita, 2001, S. ZO]

Species characteristics are differentiated by the degree of development of the tubercles, the massiveness of the diaphysis, and the presence of holes (see Table 2.8).

Bones of the forearm. Bones of the forearm - ossa antebrachii- represented by a more developed radius (os radius) and poorly developed, located latero-caudally, ulna (os ulna), at the proximal end of which the olecranon process protrudes. On the proximal epiphysis of the ulna there is a semilunar notch into which the humerus block is placed (Fig. 2.30-2.33).

Rice. 2.30. Horse forearm bones: A- lateral surface; b- caudal surface;

1 - radius (radius); 2- head of the radius ( caput radii); 3- radius block ( trochlea radii); 4- transverse ridge (crista transversa);
5 - tuberosity of the radius ( tuberositas radii); 6- articular circumference (circumferentia articularis); 7 (faci?s articularis carpea); 8 (processus styloideus medialis);
10 - medial coronoid process
11 - lateral coronoid process (processus coronoideus lateralis);
12 - olecranon (processus anconeus); 13
14 - ulna (ulna); 15- olecranon ( olecranon); 16- olecranon tubercle (tuber olecrani); 17 - block cut ( incisura trochlcaris)

[Kostyuk V.K. Atlas of the anatomy of our creatures. Osteology.

Kyiv: Agrarian Osvita, 2001, P. 32]

Rice. 2.31. Cow forearm bones: A- caudal surface; b- medial surface; i - radius bone ( radius); 2 - head of the radius ( caput radii);

Z- radius block (trochlea radii)-,

4 - transverse ridge ( crista transversa);
5 - tuberosity of the radius ( tuberositas radii);
6 - articular circumference ( circumferentia articularis);
7 - articular surface of the wrist (facies articularis carpea);
8 - medial styloid process ( processus styloideus medialis);
9 - lateral styloid process (processus styloideus lateralis);
10 - medial coronoid process ( processus coronoideus medialis);
11 - lateral coronoid process ( processus coronoideus lateralis);
12 - olecranon ( processus anconeus);
13 - proximal interosseous space of the forearm (spatium interosseum antebrachii proximale);
14 (spatium interosseum antebrachii distale);
15 - elbow bone ( ulna);
16 - olecranon ( olecranon);
17 - olecranon tubercle ( tuber olecrani);
18 - block cutting ( incisura trochlearis)

Rice. 2.32. Pig forearm bones, lateral surface: 1 - radius (radius);

2 - head of the radius (caput radii);

Z- articular circumference ( circumferentia articularis);

4 - radius block ( trochlea radii); 5- articular surface of the wrist ( facies articularis carpea); 6- medial styloid process (processus styloideus medialis); 7- lateral styloid process (processus styloideus lateralis); 8- elbow bone (ulna); 9- olecranon (olecranon); 10- olecranon tubercle (tuber olecrani); eleven- block cutting (incisura trochlearis); 12- olecranon (processus anconeus);
13 - proximal interosseous space of the forearm (spatium interosseum antebrach? proximale); 14- distal interosseous space of the forearm (spatium interosseum

antebrachii distale)

[Kostyuk B.K. Atlas of the anatomy of our creatures. Osteology. Kyiv: Agrarian Osvita, 2001, P. 34]

Rice. 2.33. Dog forearm bones: A- caudal surface; b- lateral surface; 1 - radius (radius);

2 - head of the radius (caput radii);

Z- tuberosity of the radius (tuberositas radii); 4- articular circumference (circumferentia articularis); 5- transverse ridge (crista transversa); b- radius block (trochlea radii); 7- articular surface of the wrist (facies articularis carpea); 8- medial styloid process (processus styloideus medialis); 9- lateral styloid process (processus styloideus lateralis); 10- elbow bone (ulna); eleven- olecranon (olecranon); 12- olecranon tubercle (tuber olecrani); 13- medial coronoid process (processus coronoideus medialis);

14 - lateral coronoid process (processus coronoideus lateralis); 15- block cutting (incisura trochlearis); 16- olecranon (processus anconeus); 17- head of the ulna (caput ulnae)

Species characteristics are differentiated by the degree of development of the ulna and the nature of the connection of the bones of the forearm (see Table 2.8).

Skeleton of the hand. In the structure of the hand, the bones of the wrist, metacarpus and phalanges of the fingers are distinguished (Fig. 2.34).

Rice. 2.34. Skeleton of the hand of a dog and a pig, front view:

A- dogs; b- pigs;

1 - intermediate radial bone of the wrist (os carpi intermedioradiale (os scapholunatum)); 2 carpi radiale (os scaphoideum)); 3 - intermediate carpal bone (os carpi intermedium (os lunatum)); 4- ulna of the wrist (os carpi ulnare (os triquetrum))-,
5 - accessory carpal bone (os carpi accessorium(os pisiforme));
6 - I carpal bone (os carpale 1 (primum)(os trapezium))-, 7- II carpal bone (os carpale II (secundum) (os trapezoideum)); 3 - III carpal bone (os carpale III (tertium) (os capitatum)); 9 carpale IV (quartum) et V (quintum) (os hamatum)); 10 - I metacarpal bone (os metacarpale 1 (primum)); eleven- II metacarpal bone (os metacarpale II (secundum)); 12- III metacarpal bone (os metacarpale III (tertium));
13 - IV metacarpal bone (os metacarpale IV (quartum)); 14- V metacarpal bone (os metacarpale V (quintum)); 15- proximal (closest) phalanx (phalanx proximalis); 16- middle phalanx (phalanx media); 17- distal (distant) phalanx (phalanx distalis (os unguiculare, os ungulare));
18 - radius (radius); 19- elbow bone (ulna)

Carpal bones - ossa carpi- consist of two rows of short asymmetrical bones. The proximal row contains the radius, intermediate, ulna and accessory carpal bones. In the distal - 1, II, III, and IV carpal bones. The bones are counted from the medial side. The volar surface of the bones is tuberous due to the attachment of the volar ligaments (Fig. 2.35, 2.36).

Rice. 2.35. Carpal bones of a cow, top view: A- distal row; b- proximal row;

1 - II and III carpal bones (fused) - (os carpale 11 (secundum) et 111 (tertium) (os trapezoideocapitatum)); 2 - IV and V carpal bones (fused) (os carpale IV (quartum) et V (quintum) (os hamatum)); 3 - radius bone of the wrist (os carpi radiale (os scaphoideum)); 4- intermediate carpal bone (os carpi intermedium (os lunatum)); 5 - ulna bone of the wrist (os carpi ulnare (os triquetrum)); 6 - accessory carpal bone
(os carpi accessorium (os piriforme))

[Kostyuk V.K. Atlas of the anatomy of our creatures. Osteology.

Kyiv: Agrarian Osvita, 2001, P. 36]

Rice. 2.36. Carpal bones of a horse, top view: A- distal row); b- proximal row;

1 - II carpal bone (os carpale II (secundum) (os trapezoideum));
2 - III carpal bone (os carpale III (tertium) (os capitatum)); 3- IV and V carpal bones (fused) (os carpale IV (quartum) et V (quintum)
(os hamatum)); 4- radius carpal bone (os carpi radiale (os scaphoideum)); 5- intermediate carpal bone (os carpi intermedium(os lunatum));
6 - ulna of the wrist (os carpi ulnare (os triquetrum));
7 - accessory carpal bone (os carpi accessorium(os pisiforme))

Species characteristics are differentiated by the number of bones and their shape (see Table 2.8).

Metacarpal bones - ossa metacarpi- by type of structure, long tubular, with a block that is divided by a ridge at the distal end of the metacarpal bone. At the proximal end there is an articular surface for articulation with the distal row of carpal bones (Fig. 2.37).

Rice. 2.37. Metacarpal bones (I, b, c) and metatarsals (Where) horses: a, d- view from above; b, d- back view; c, e- on a cross section;

1 - II metacarpal (metatarsal) bone (os metacarpale (metatarsale) II);
2 - III metacarpal (metatarsal) bone ((metatarsale) III); 3- IV metacarpal (metatarsal) bone (os metacarpale (metatarsale) IV (quartum)); 4- the basis (basis); 5- articular surface (facies articularis); 6- body (corpus os metacarpale); 7- head (caput (tertium)); 8- block (trochlea)

[Kostyuk V.K. Atlas of the anatomy of our creatures. Osteology.

Kyiv: Agrarian Osvita, 2001, P. 41]

Species characteristics are differentiated by the number of metacarpal bones and their shape (see Table 2.8).

Finger bones - ossa digitorum - consist of three phalanges, the number of fingers corresponds to the number of metacarpal bones (Fig. 2.38).

Rice. 2.38. Finger bones:

A- cows, rear view; b- cows, front view; V- horses, rear view; G- horses, front view;

1 - proximal (nearest) phalanx (fetlock) ( phalanxproximalis (os compedale)); base of the proximal (nearest) phalanx ( basis phalangis proximalis); 2 - body of the proximal (nearest) phalanx (corpus phalangis proximalis)-, 3- head of the proximal (nearest) phalanx (caput phalangis proximalis); 4- triangle of the proximal (nearest) phalanx (trigonum phalangis proximalis) -, 5- glenoid fossa (fovea articularis);
6 - middle phalanx (coronoid bone) (phalanx media (os coronale));
7 - base of the middle phalanx (basis phalangis mediae)-, 8- head of the middle phalanx (caput phalangis mediae)-, 9- extensor process (processus extensorius); 10- flexor tuberosity (tuberositasflexoria);
11 - distal (remote) phalanx (coffin bone) (phalanx distalis (os ungulare)); 12- wall surface (facies parietalis); 13- axial surface (facies axialis); 14- plantar surface (facies solearis);
15 - sesamoid articular surface (facies articularis sesamoidea);
16 - coronal edge (margo coronalis) -, 17 - plantar edge (margo solearis)-, 18- proximal (closest) sesamoid bones (ossa sesamoidea proximalia); 19 - distal (removed) sesamoid bone (os sesamoideum distale)-, 20- flexion surface (facies flexoria) -,
21 - articular surface (facies articularis); 22- proximal (closest) edge (margo proximalis); 23- distal (remote)

edge (margo distalis)

Proximal phalanx I - phalanx prima - represented by the fetlock bone, at the proximal end it has a groove for the metacarpal bone. The length of the phalanx is almost 2 times the width.

Species characteristics are differentiated by the shape of the phalanges (Table 2.9).

Table 2.9

Species characteristics of human bones


Proximal (І) faishnga
The phalanges of the third and fourth fingers are asymmetrical	The phalanx has a symmetrical structure, with a large medial section; on the polar surface there are oblique, rough lines for ligaments	The phalanges of the III and IV fingers are asymmetrical, the phalanges of the II and V fingers are similar in structure to the middle ones, but smaller in size	Phalanges are thin, long, cylindrical
Average(II) phalanx
Asymmetrical structure	Symmetrical structure	Asymmetrical structure	Symmetrical structure
Distal(III) phalanx
Each bone has the shape of a triangular pyramid; the bone has a plantar and two wall surfaces; at the proximal end there is an articular surface, and behind it there are facets for the sesamoid bone	The bone has on the proximal part an articular surface with medial and lateral sections, a plantar surface with plantar foramina, and a wall surface with many vascular foramina	The bone has the shape of a triangular pyramid; it has a plantar and two wall surfaces. In this case, the plantar surface merges with the interdigital surface	The proximal end of the bone is widened, at the distal end there is a claw hook separated by a groove; at the proximal end there is an articular surface for connection with the second phalanx and a flexor tubercle for the deep flexor of the digitorum

Middle phalanx II - phalanx secunda - at the proximal end it has an articular grooved surface, at the distal end there is a block divided by a groove. Called the coronoid bone, it is almost 2 times shorter than the fetlock bone.

Species characters are differentiated in the same way as according to the first phalanx (see Table 2.9).

Distal phalanx III - phalanx tertia - in different species of animals it is different in shape and structure: in ruminants and pigs - the claw bone, in the horse - the coffin bone, in carnivores - the claw bone.

Species characteristics are differentiated by the shape of the bone and the structural features of its surfaces (see Table 2.9).

STRUCTURE OF THE SKELETON OF THE LIMB BELT

In domestic animals (ungulates and carnivores), only one dorsal bone of the girdle is preserved in the shoulder girdle - the scapula. The two ventral bones of the girdle - the clavicle and the coracoid bone - have undergone reduction in digitally and hoof-walking animals and can remain in the form of processes on the tubercle and acromion of the scapula.

All three bones are preserved on the pelvic girdle: the dorsal - ilium - os ilium and the ventral - ischium - os ischii (back) and pubic - os ilium (front) bones.

Shoulder girdle - girdle of the thoracic limb - cingulum membri thoracici.

The shoulder blade - scapula - is a large lamellar bone, attached to the body with the help of muscles (Fig. 53). Located in the area of the first ribs. Triangular shape. The wide base of the scapula is directed upward, and in ruminants and horses it is complemented by a wide scapular cartilage - cartilago scapulae. The caudal and cranial edges of the scapula go from the corresponding corners of the base down to the narrowed part of the scapula, on which the flat glenoid cavity is clearly visible - cavitas glenoidalis. Above the glenoid cavity there is a rather wide neck of the scapula - collum scapulae. On the cranial edge of the scapula, the tubercle of the scapula - tuber scapilae (supraarticular tubercle - tuberculum supraglenoidale) is located above the articular cavity; the powerful biceps brachii muscle is attached to it. The coracondial process is visible on the medial side of the tubercle.

Rice. 53. Bone of the shoulder girdle (scapula) of a cow (I), horse (I), pig (III), dog (IV)

The medial surface of the scapula is smooth, deepening towards the glenoid cavity - this is the subscapularis fossa - fossa subscapularis. Above the subscapular fossa at the base of the scapula there is a serrated surface - fades serrata. Along the lateral surface of the scapula there is a spine of the scapula - spina scapulae; in its middle part it thickens, forming a tubercle of the spine - tuber spinae scapulae, which can be felt through the skin. The lateral surface of the scapula is divided by the spine of the scapula into the prespinous and infraspinous fossa - fossa supra-spinata and fossa infraspinata.

In ruminants, the spine of the scapula rises towards the glenoid cavity and breaks off sharply, not reaching the neck of the scapula, forming an acromion;

in horses, the spine of the scapula disappears towards the neck;

in pigs, the scapula is in the form of an isosceles triangle, has a large lamellar triangular shape on the spine and a caudally directed tubercle of the spine. The spine of the scapula disappears at the neck;

in dogs, the spine of the scapula is high, with its elevated end hanging over the neck to the level of the glenoid cavity, forming a significant acromion.

Pelvic girdle - cingulum membri pelvini. In domestic animals, it fuses with the ventral bones, forming the pelvis - pervis. Each half of the pelvis is made up of an innominate bone - os coxae. The dorsal bone of the pelvic girdle - the iliac - os ilium - fuses with the ventral bones: in front lies the pubic bone - os pubis, behind - the ischium - os ischii. At the site of fusion of all three bones, a deep articular cavity is formed on each innominate bone - acetabulum, to which the free pelvic limb is attached. The ventral bones of the pelvis - the pubic and ischial bones - fuse with each other along the midline to form the pelvic fusion - symphisis pelvina - and form the floor of the pelvic cavity. The roof of the cavity is the sacrum and the first caudal vertebrae. The resulting pelvic cavity - cavum pelvis has an entrance formed from above by the sacral bone, on the sides - by the bodies of the iliac bones and below - by the pubic bones, and an exit, which is framed above by the first caudal vertebrae, and below by the ischial arch (Fig. 54).

The ilium has a columnar body - corpus ossis ilii, a lamellar wing - ala ossis ilii, which carries an articular (ear-shaped) surface for connection with the wing of the sacrum. The upper edge of the wing (cranial in ruminants and horses) has a lateral iliac tubercle (tuber coxae) and a medial sacral tubercle (tuber sacrale). From the base of the sacral tubercle along the body of the ilium to the ischial spine, which lies above the articular cavity, there is a large sciatic notch - incisura ischiadica major. From the auricular surface of the wing along the cranial edge of the body to the pubic bone there is a gentle iliac crest - crista iliaca - the place of attachment of the muscles of the abdominal wall.

The pubic bone - os pubis - forms the cranial part of the pelvic floor, lies in front of the ischium. It has two parts: the caudal suture branch - ramus caudalis ossis pubis forms a pelvic fusion - symphisis pelvina with the cognate branch in the midline and the cranial branch - ramus cranialis ossis pubis, which participates in the formation of the articular cavity of the pelvis. The cranial edge of the pubic bones forms the crest of the pubic bone - pecten ossis pubis, to which the muscles of the abdominal wall are attached.

The ischium - os ischii lies behind the caudal rami of the pubic bones, forming the caudal part of the pelvic floor and pelvic fusion. It has a body and a suture branch, which, together with the branches of the pubic bone, form a rather large closed opening - foramen obturatum. The posterior edge of the paired ischium forms the ischial arch - arcus ischiadicus. Lateral to it lie the ischial tuberosities - tubere ischiadica. They can be easily palpated and are used when measuring animals. From the lateral surface of these tubercles comes the lateral edge of the ischium, which is called the lesser sciatic notch - incisura ischiadica minor, it reaches the caudal edge of the ischium.

Features of the structure of the bones of the pelvic girdle.

The wings of the ilium with a well-defined macular and sacral tubercle are located in the frontal plane, slightly elevated along the cranial edge and overlap the wings of the sacral bone from above. The ischial tuberosities are very powerful with three eminences. The ischial spine and the obstructed foramen are significantly pronounced. The pelvic floor is concave, the ischial arch is deep.

Rice. 54. Bones of the pelvic girdle (pelvis) of a cow (1), sheep (II), goat (III), horse (IV), pig (V), dog (VI)

In horses, the wings, like in ruminants, are located in a horizontal (frontal) plane with well-defined tubercles, overlying the wing of the sacrum. The ischial arch is flat, the ischial tuberosity, like the ischial spine, is small.

In pigs, the wings of the ilium are placed almost in the sagittal plane. They are elongated, adjacent to the wing of the sacrum on the lateral side. The ischial spine and ischial tuberosity are strongly pronounced, the ischial arch is deep.

In dogs, like in pigs, the wings are set in the sagittal plane, but the ischial spine is insignificant, the ischial arch is flat, with small ischial tuberosities. The pelvic floor is wide and flat. The marrow and sacral tubercle are poorly expressed.