At the heart of the territory of the Russian Federation are large tectonic formations - shields, platforms, folded belts, the impact of which is expressed in the versatility of the relief of our state. Thus, Russia is characterized by numerous lowlands, hills, and mountain systems.
Russian and Siberian plain
Most of the territory of the state, which is located on two platforms, formed in the Precambrian period (Russian and Siberian), is occupied by plains. In the Russian Federation, there are three flat areas - the Central Siberian Plateau, the West Siberian Plain and the East European Plain. The elevation level of the plains does not reach 200 m above sea level, however, there are some elevations within them, in particular: the Smolensk-Moscow, Middle-Russian, Volga Uplands and the Timan Ridge. An interesting fact is that in the south of the Russian Federation, the plain turns abruptly into the mountain system of the Caucasus, which was formed in the modern cycle of alpine mountain building.
East European and West Siberian Plain
The East European and West Siberian plains are separated by the Ural Mountains, which stretch in the north-south direction for more than 2.5 thousand km. From the southeast side, the West Siberian Plain is framed by the Altai mountain system.
The Central Siberian plateau reaches an altitude of 500-700 m above sea level. In the south, this platform is adjacent to the ancient Baikal folding. The territory between the Lena coast and Chukotka is located on the Mesozoic folding, which explains the presence of mountain formations here - the Verkhoyansk, Chersky, Kolyma highlands.
The Pacific folding belt, which runs in the extreme northeast, includes Sakhalin Island, the Kuril Islands and Kamchatka. These islands are the peaks of the sea mountains that continue to grow to this day, as evidenced by the intense earthquakes in the region.
The northwestern territory of Russia, between the White Sea and the border with Finland, is located on the Baltic crystal shield. The relief here has its own characteristics - the presence of denudation uplands, sea and lake plains. Low mountains in this area are bordered by swampy lowlands.
Mountain systems of Russia
In the south of the state, there is the Greater Caucasus mountain system, which forms a natural border with Azerbaijan and Georgia. Mount Elbrus is the highest point in the Caucasus, its height reaches 5600 m. The Caucasus Mountains are part of the Carpathian - Crimea - Pamir mountain belt.
The Altai Mountains are located in the south of Siberia (the highest point is Mount Belukha, 4500m.). The Altai mountain system includes subparallel ridges, passing into the Sayan mountain system. The mountains that surround Lake Baikal are mostly low, but their growth continues. The highest is the Daursky vault with a height of about 2500 m.
The oldest and longest, but at the same time low are the mountains of the Urals, the average height of which is 400m. The highest point of the Ural mountain system is Mount Narodnaya, the height of which is 1895 m.
Plain is a kind of relief, which is a flat vast space. More than two-thirds of Russia's territory is occupied by plains. They are characterized by a slight slope and slight fluctuations in terrain heights. A similar relief is found at the bottom of sea areas. The territory of the plains can be occupied by any: deserts, steppes, mixed forests, etc.
Map of the largest plains of Russia
Most of the country is located on a relatively flat terrain. Favorable ones allowed a person to engage in cattle breeding, to build large settlements and roads. It is easiest to carry out construction activities on the plains. Many minerals and others are concentrated on them, including, and.
Below are maps, characteristics and photos of the landscapes of the largest plains in Russia.
the East European Plain
East European Plain on the map of Russia
The area of \u200b\u200bthe East European Plain is approximately 4 million km². The natural northern border is the White and Barents Seas, in the south the land is washed by the Azov and Caspian Seas. The Vistula River is considered the western border, and the Ural Mountains - the eastern one.
At the base of the plain lies the Russian platform and the Scythian plate, the foundation is covered with sedimentary rocks. Where the base is raised, heights were formed: Pridneprovskaya, Central Russian, Privolzhskaya. In places where the foundation is deeply lowered, there are lowlands: Pechora, Prichernomorskaya, Caspian.
The territory is located in a temperate latitude. Atlantic air masses penetrate the plain, bringing precipitation with them. The western part is warmer than the east. The minimum January temperature is -14˚C. In summer, the air from the Arctic gives you coolness. The largest rivers flow south. Short rivers, Onega, Northern Dvina, Pechora, are directed to the north. Neman, Neva and Zapadnaya Dvina carry waters westward. For the winter, they all freeze. Floods begin in the spring.
Half of the country's population lives in the East European Plain. Almost all woodlands are secondary forest, a lot of fields and arable land. There are many minerals on the territory.
West Siberian Plain
West Siberian Plain on the map of Russia
The area of \u200b\u200bthe plain is about 2.6 million km². The western border is the Ural Mountains, in the east the plain ends with the Central Siberian Plateau. The Kara Sea washes the northern part. The southern border is considered to be the Kazakh fine sand.
At the base lies the West Siberian plate, sedimentary rocks lie on the surface. The southern part is higher than the northern and central. The maximum height is 300 m. The edges of the plain are represented by the Ket-Tym, Kulunda, Ishim and Turin plains. In addition, there is the Lower Yenisei, Verkhnetazovskaya and Severo-Sosvinskaya Uplands. Siberian ridges are a complex of hills in the west of the plain.
The West Siberian Plain lies in three: arctic, subarctic and temperate. Due to the reduced pressure, Arctic air penetrates into the territory, cyclones are actively developing in the north. Precipitation is unevenly distributed, the maximum number falls on the middle part. Most precipitation occurs between May and October. In the southern lane, thunderstorms often occur in summer.
The rivers flow slowly, and many swamps have formed on the plain. All reservoirs have a flat character, they have a small slope. Tobol, Irtysh and Ob originate in mountainous areas, therefore their regime depends on the melting of ice in the mountains. Most of the reservoirs have a northwest direction. In the spring there is a long flood.
Oil and gas are the main wealth of the plain. In total, there are more than five hundred deposits of combustible minerals. In addition to them, there are deposits of coal, ore and mercury in the depths.
The steppe zone, located in the south of the plain, is almost completely plowed up. On the black earth, there are fields of spring wheat. The plowing process, which lasted for many years, led to the formation of erosion and dust storms. There are many salt lakes in the steppes, from which table salt and soda are extracted.
Central Siberian plateau
Central Siberian plateau on the map of Russia
The area of \u200b\u200bthe plateau is 3.5 million km². In the north, it borders on the North Siberian Lowland. The Eastern Sayan Mountains are a natural border in the south. In the west, the lands originate at the Yenisei River, in the east they end at the Lena River valley.
The plateau is based on the Pacific lithospheric plate. Because of her, the earth's crust has risen significantly. Average values \u200b\u200bof heights are 500 m. The Putorana Plateau in the north-west reaches 1701 m in height. The Byrranga mountains are located in Taimyr, their height exceeds a thousand meters. In Central Siberia, there are only two lowlands: the North Siberian and Central Yakutsk. There are many lakes here.
Most of the territories are located in the arctic and subarctic belts. The plateau is fenced off from the warm seas. Due to the high mountains, precipitation is unevenly distributed. They fall in large numbers in summer. The lands are very cold in winter. The minimum January mark is -40˚C. Dry air and lack of winds help to cope with such difficult conditions. In the cold season, powerful anticyclones are formed. Little precipitation in winter. The cyclonic type of weather is established in summer. The average temperature during this period is + 19˚C.
The largest rivers Yenisei, Angara, Lena, Khatanga flow through the lowland. They cross faults in the earth's crust, and therefore have many rapids and gorges. All rivers are navigable. Central Siberia has colossal hydropower resources. Most of the large rivers are located in the north.
Almost the entire territory is located in the zone. Forests are represented by larch species, which drop needles for the winter. Pine forests grow in the Lena and Angara valleys. Shrubs, lichens and mosses are found in the tundra.
There are a lot of minerals in Siberia. There are deposits of ore, coal, oil. Platinum deposits are located in the southeast. There are salt deposits in the Central Yakutsk lowland. There are graphite deposits on the rivers Nizhnaya Tunguska and Kureika. Diamond deposits are located in the northeast.
Due to the difficult climatic conditions, large settlements are located only in the south. Human economic activity is focused on the mining and logging industries.
Azov-Kuban Plain
Azov-Kuban Plain (Kuban-Priazovskaya Lowland) on the map of Russia
The Azov-Kuban Plain is a continuation of the East European Plain, its area is 50 thousand km². The Kuban River is the southern border, and the northern is the Yegorlyk River. In the east, the lowland ends with the Kumo-Manych depression, the western part goes to the Azov Sea.
The plain lies on the Scythian plate and is a virgin steppe. The maximum height is 150 m. The large rivers Chelbas, Beysug, Kuban flow in the central part of the plain, there is a group of karst lakes. The plain is located in the continental belt. Warm ones soften the local climate. In winter, temperatures rarely drop below -5˚C. In summer, the thermometer shows + 25˚C.
The plain includes three lowlands: Prikubanskaya, Priazovskaya and Kubansko-Priazovskaya. Rivers often flood settlements. There are gas fields on the territory. The region is famous for its fertile black earth soils. Almost the entire territory has been developed by humans. People grow cereals. The diversity of flora has been preserved only along rivers and in woodlands.
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Russia is a country of vast plains and majestic mountains. The largest plains of Russia are the East European (Russian), West Siberian, Central Siberian plateaus. The most famous mountains of our country are the Ural, Caucasian, Altai, Sayan mountains.
Using the map in the textbook (The world around us, grade 4, pp. 58-59), sign on the contour map (pp. 30-31) the largest plains and mountains of our country. Note that the contour map contains dotted lines for captions.
Ask a student sitting next to you to check your work.
Ant Question wants to know the names of these geographic objects. Point with arrows.
Check yourself with the tutorial.
"Stone Belt of the Russian Land" - Ural Mountains
A plain stretching from the western borders of Russia to the Ural Mountains - the East European Plain
The highest mountain in Russia - Elbrus
Plain located east of the Ural Mountains - West Siberian Plain
Learn to recognize plains and mountains from photographs. Cut out photos from the Application. Think about how these geographic features can be recognized. Place photos in the appropriate boxes. Ask the teacher to check your work. After checking the sticker photos.
The Wise Turtle invites you to use the map as a source of information and get important information about the mountains of Russia. Using the map in the tutorial, complete the table.
The height of some mountains of Russia
Use the map to explain (orally) where each mountain is. Using the data in the table, compare the mountains in height. List the mountains in order of increasing height; in decreasing order of their height.
As instructed by the textbook (p. 64), prepare a message about one of the geographical objects (of your choice).
Message subject: Caucasus mountains
Message plan:
1. Location.
2. The relief of the mountains.
3. Greater Caucasus
4. Lesser Caucasus
5. Mountains Elbrus and Kazbek
6. Minerals in the Caucasus.
7. Flora and fauna.
Important information for the message: It is divided into two mountain systems:
The Caucasus is a folded mountain with some volcanic activity, which formed about 28-23 million years ago. The mountains are composed of granite and gneiss, among other things, the foothills contain deposits of oil and natural gas.
The Caucasus is often divided into the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia, the border between which is drawn along the Main, or Vodorazdelny ridge of the Greater Caucasus, which occupies a central position in the mountain system. The most famous peaks - Mount Elbrus (5642 m) and Mount Kazbek (5033 m) are covered with eternal snow and glaciers.
Source (s) of information: the Internet
Report about the Ural Mountains \u003e\u003e
The largest lowland in Russia
East European Lowland
Between the heights of the East European Plain, there is the largest lowland in Russia.
It spreads along the valleys of large rivers such as the Dnieper, Don, Volga. The lowland is washed by the White and Barents seas from the north, the Caspian, Black and Azov seas from the south, bordered by the Scandinavian mountains, the mountains of Central Europe, the Caucasus, Crimea, and the Urals. The total length of the lowland is about 2500 km.
The lowest point is on the coast of the Caspian Sea.
The Russian Plain almost completely coincides with the East European Platform. This can explain the absence of strong natural phenomena such as volcanoes and earthquakes. The only thing that can be dangerous to a person is strong vortices and tornadoes.
The climate on the plain was formed under the influence of external natural forces, namely, Quaternary glaciation. The largest lowland in Russia was exposed to glaciers from different directions.
They were advancing from the Scandinavian Peninsula and from the Urals. Over the centuries, depressions, reliefs were formed, rocks were deformed, and winding deep bays. With the retreat of the glaciers, the purest lakes were formed, the hills appeared, which to this day surround the largest lowlands in Russia.
Natural areas in the largest lowland of Russia
Almost all types of natural zones existing in Russia are located on the territory of the East European Plain.
Tundra, coniferous, deciduous and mixed forests, forest-steppe and steppe zone, deserts and semi-deserts extend from the shores of the Barents Sea to the lowest point on the Caspian coast.
A moderate amount of precipitation, rich flora and fauna, a variety of landscapes, combined with amazing beauty, have made the Russian Plain a populous area.
The largest lowland in Russia has long been mastered by man. A large part of the inhabitants of Russia is concentrated there.
Many industrial enterprises and farms have been built, the railway and automobile industries have been developed, a large number of cities and villages have been built. The influence of man did not go unnoticed. Emissions, waste, deforestation, extermination of the animal world, pollution of soil and water bodies negatively affect the ecology of the Russian Plain.
Elevation, or high plain - a section of the earth's surface with an absolute height from ~ 200 to ~ 500 meters. Despite the fact that they are called plains, they do not always have a flat surface.
Plateau - is an elevated plain, clearly distinguished by ledges among neighboring flat areas, and has a flat surface (in other words, a plateau is a small mountain with a cut off top).
Central Russian Upland
The Central Russian Upland is a large elevated plain with a length of about 1000 km and a width of up to 500 km.
Its average height is 200-300 meters, and the highest point is at 320 meters.
Valdai Upland
The Valdai upland plain is located in the northwestern part of Russia.
It is quite large in size and is attractive for tourism. Perhaps because there are nature reserves and national parks on the territory of the hill.
Smolensk-Moscow Upland
Located on the territories of Russia and Belarus, it is usually divided into 2 hills, which are its constituent parts: Smolensk and Moscow. Their total length is about 500 km.
Laurentian Upland
Located in the northeast of North America.
It is one of the largest uplands in the world - an area of \u200b\u200babout 5 million km2.
Donetsk ridge
Located on the border of Russia and Ukraine, it has a length of about 370 km.
Danilovskaya Upland
Danilovskaya Upland is located in the northwest of Russia.
Its average height is about 200 meters, it has a wavy and gently undulating relief.
Volga Upland
The Volga Upland is located on the right bank of the Volga, for which it got its name.
It is about 810 km long and up to 500 km wide (although in some places the width does not exceed 60 km).
Vyatsky Uval
It is a small elevated plain located on the territory of Russia, in the Kirov region and the Republic of Mari El.
Luga Upland
It is located in the north-west of Russia, in the Pskov region.
Its area is slightly less than 3 thousand km2.
Plateau - a transitional form between plains and mountains.
It is a section of mountainous relief with an absolute height of ~ 500 to ~ 1000 meters and a relatively flat surface.
Vitim plateau
Located in the southeastern part of Russia.
It is a territory with a mixed relief (alternating ridges with depressions). Its height ranges from 1000-1600 km.
Central Siberian plateau
The Central Siberian Plateau is located in Eastern Siberia. Its length is about 1500-2000 km, and the average height is 500-700 meters.
The highest point is 1701 meters (Kamen mountain).
Highlands Deccan
The Deccan plateau is located on the Indian subcontinent (India). Its area is about 1 million km2, and the average height is 500-1000 meters.
Nerskoe plateau
The Nerskoe plateau is located in the northeastern part of Russia.
Its length is twice its width, and is 130 km. The maximum altitude is about 1500 meters.
Arabian plateau
It is located on the Arabian Peninsula, occupying almost all of its area. For this fact, it got its name.
Guiana highlands
It is a large plateau (about 1930 km) located in the northern part of South America.
Western australian highlands
Highlands of Western Australia.
It has an uneven relief (the height ranges from 400 to 900 meters), covered with a sandy and rocky surface.
East african plateau
Located in southeastern Africa. Has an area exceeding 800 thousand km2. It gained fame due to the presence of unique natural objects on its territory: Lake Victoria and the Kilimanjaro volcano.
Anadyr plateau
In the northeast of Russia, there is the Anadyr plateau bordering the ocean.
It has a length of about 400 km, and at its highest point reaches 1116 meters.
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Business plan Biography Bulletin Quiz |
Plains and mountains of Russia
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1. The main features of orography.
2. The role of the latest tectonics in the modern relief.
3. The role of glaciations in the modern relief.
4. Morphosculptural relief (fluvial, cryogenic, aeolian, etc.).
The main features of orography
The relief of the surface of Russia is extremely diverse.
It has the following features: 1) the predominance of plains in the western and central parts, and mountains along the eastern and southern outskirts; 2) the higher altitude position of the eastern part in comparison with the western one, the border between which runs along the Yenisei valley; 3) the general slope of the country's territory to the north and northwest. About 60% of the territory of Russia is occupied by plains, 40% - by mountains. The two largest plains of Russia are among the greatest plains in the world: East European (Russian) and West Siberian.
The East European (Russian) Plain is distinguished by the most diverse relief, within its limits there are large elevations up to 300-400 m.
The highest point of the plain is in the east - the Bugulma-Belebey Upland (almost 480 m). The plain has a number of lowlands, the lowest is the Caspian (-26 m, i.e. 26 m below the level of the World Ocean). The average height of the Russian Plain is 170 m.
The West Siberian Plain is characterized by a more homogeneous relief with minor fluctuations in altitude.
Only small areas in the outskirts of the plain exceed 200 m. The maximum height of the plain is 285 m - the Verkhnetazovskaya Upland. Almost half of the plain lies below 100 m above sea level. The average height of the West Siberian Plain is 120 m.
The Central Siberian Plateau is located between the Yenisei and Lena rivers. The average height of the plateau is almost 500 m. It reaches its highest heights within the Putorana plateau (1700 m).
The plateau is dissected by deep and large river valleys.
To the east, the Central Siberian Plateau gradually passes into the Central Yakutsk Plain (Vilyui Plain), and to the north it descends steeply to the North Siberian Lowland.
The East European and West Siberian plains are separated by the low (1000-1500m) Ural mountains.
The highest point of the Urals is Mount Narodnaya - 1895 m.
The highest mountains of the Greater Caucasus stretch from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea in the south-west of Russia and the Russian Plain.
Here is the highest point of the Caucasus and Russia - Mount Elbrus (5642 m).
On the Crimean peninsula - the Crimean mountains.
A mountain belt stretches along the south of Siberia, which begins from the Altai mountains, the highest point of Altai is Mount Belukha (4506 m). Further to the east are the Western and Eastern Sayan mountains, further east lies the Tuva highlands, further the mountains of the Baikal region and Transbaikalia.
In Transbaikalia there is the highest upland - Stanovoe (3073 m).
To the east of the Lena River there are medium-altitude ridges and highlands: Verkhoyansk ridge (2390 m), Chersky ridge (3000 m), Suntar-Khayata ridge (2960 m), Dzhugdzhur ridge (1906 m); Oymyakonskoe, Kolymskoe, Chukotskoe, Koryaksky highlands. To the south, they pass into the low and medium-altitude ridges of the Amur Region, Primorye (Sikhote-Alin ridge) and Sakhalin.
Folded and volcanic mountains are represented in Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands.
Kamchatka has the Sredinny ridge and many volcanic cones, among which the highest is an active volcano in Russia - Klyuchevskaya Sopka (4688 m). In general, Russia is characterized by a predominance of low and medium-altitude mountains.
The role of the latest tectonics in modern relief
The presence of a varied topography on the territory of Russia is explained by a long history of geological development and the interaction of endogenous (internal) and exogenous (external) processes, with the leading role of endogenous ones.
After a period of relative tectonic dormancy, at the beginning of the Cenozoic, low plains prevailed and almost no mountains remained (with the exception of low mountains in the Mesozoic folding area), vast areas of Western Siberia and the south of the Russian Plain were covered with shallow-water basins.
In the Neogene, the activation of tectonic processes begins (the latest tectonic movements), which led to a radical reconstruction of the relief. It is the latest tectonic movements that formed the modern morphostructures of Russia. The newest tectonic movements are associated with the interaction of lithospheric plates. Mountains arose in the immediate contact zone of the lithospheric plates. All currently existing mountains are the result of the latest tectonic movements, therefore they have the same age, but the morphostructures of these mountains are different, depending on the method of their origin.
Where mountains arose on young oceanic or transitional crust, with a thick cover of sedimentary rocks crumpled into folds, young folded mountains were formed. These include the mountains of alpine folding - the Greater Caucasus, the Crimean Mountains and the mountains of the Pacific belt (ridges of Sakhalin, Kamchatka, Kuriles, Sakhalin, Kuriles, including volcanic cones).
Mountain ranges here are linearly elongated along the outskirts of lithospheric plates.
In the territories where folding had already taken place (Baikal, Caledonian, Hercynian), over many millions of years the mountains turned into plains and a rigid continental crust was formed that did not lend itself to compression into folds.
Here, the formation of mountains went differently: under lateral pressure arising from the approach of the plates, the rigid foundation broke into separate blocks, some of which were squeezed upward. This is how blocky, more precisely folded-blocky, mountains arose - they are also called revived - the Urals and all the mountains of southern Siberia (Altai, Sayan mountains, the mountains of Tuva, the Baikal region and Transbaikalia, Stanovoe Upland).
These mountains are characterized by the absence of a single general orientation of the ridges and the combination of ridges with highlands and intermontane basins (Minusinskaya, Tuvinskaya, Chuiskaya, etc.).
In places where, by the beginning of the newest tectonic movements, the mountains were only partially destroyed (Mesozoic folding), block-folded mountains were formed - they are also called rejuvenated - the Sikhote-Alin, Dzhugdzhur ridges, mountains and highlands of North-Eastern Siberia (Verkhoyansk ridge, Chersky ridge , Oymyakonskoe Upland, etc.).
In the inner parts of the Eurasian plate (plain), there were very weak uplifts and subsidences, only the Picaspian lowland subsided intensively.
Weak subsidence was experienced by the West Siberian Plain. On the East European Plain, there were uplifts of the Central Russian, Volga and Bugulma-Belebey Uplands. On the Central Siberian Plateau, there were more uplifts; the Putorana Plateau was especially uplifted.
Basement plains (Kola Peninsula, Karelia) and basement plateaus (Anabar massif) formed on the shields, which had a constant tendency to uplift, as well as the Yenisei and Timansky ridges.
In those parts of the platforms where there is a thick sedimentary cover, stratal, accumulative plains and plateaus were formed.
Layered plains are typical for most of the East European Plain, the southern half of Western Siberia, and partly for Central Siberia.
There are volcanic plateaus (Putorana, etc.) on the Central Siberian plateau (Vitim plateau) and other neighboring plateaus. Accumulative plains are confined to areas of subsidence of the earth's crust in recent times.
They are characterized by a powerful Neogene-Quaternary sedimentary cover. These are the middle and northern parts of Western Siberia, the Middle Amur plain, the Caspian and Pechora lowlands.
Earthquakes and volcanism are associated with the latest tectonic movements. Frequent and strong earthquakes are typical for the Kuril Islands, Kamchatka, the Baikal region, Altai, the mountains of North-East Siberia, the Greater Caucasus.
Modern volcanism in Russia is manifested in Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands. The Kuril Islands are volcanic ridges and solitary volcanoes. In total, there are 160 volcanoes in the Kuriles, of which about 40 are active. The highest of them - Alaid volcano (2339 m) - is located on the island.
Atlasov. There are about 130 extinct and 28 active volcanoes in Kamchatka. The highest volcano is Klyuchevskaya Sopka (4688 m).
Elbrus and Kazbek in the Caucasus were active volcanoes in the Quaternary.
The role of glaciers in modern relief
The formation of the modern relief, in addition to the latest tectonic movements (NTD), was also influenced by glaciation. There were several glaciations in the Quaternary, at least on the territory of Russia traces of three glacial epochs are well traced: the Oka, Dnieper and Valdai glaciations.
Glaciers covered over 20% of the territory of Russia. The Dnieper glaciation was the largest in terms of area coverage. Its border ran along the western outskirts of the Central Russian Upland, from the city of Sumy, then along the Oksko-Don lowland, then through Penza to Kirov. The Ural was crossed by the glaciation boundary near 58 ° N. Further, the border went into Western Siberia to the mouth of the Podkamennaya Tunguska River.
The Oka glaciation in the modern relief is poorly traced and is detected only by the presence of a moraine lying under the Dnieper moraine.
The Valdai (Zyryansk) glaciation was the last, it occupied a smaller area. Its border passed along the line Smolensk - Rybinsk reservoir - along the northwestern outskirts of the Dvinsko-Mezenskaya Upland, further to the Pechora River, in Western Siberia - to the lower reaches of the Taz River and the Taimyr coast.
During the glacial epochs to the south of the glacier boundary, deep freezing of soils occurred.
Thus, during the Valdai glaciation, the permafrost boundary reached the lower reaches of the Don.
About 10,000 years ago, warming began (end of the Pleistocene - beginning of the Holocene), which caused the melting of glaciers.
Morphosculptural relief (fluvial, cryogenic, etc.)
Landforms created by glaciers (glacial forms) and melted glacial waters (fluvioglacial) occupy the second place among morphosculptures in Russia after fluvial (aquatic) forms.
The glacial forms of mountainous and lowland areas are quite different. Glacial-erosional forms (exaration) have been preserved on the Kola Peninsula and in Karelia, these are sheep's foreheads and curly rocks.
Glacial-accumulative forms (moraine hills) are characteristic of the north of the Russian Plain, the north of Western Siberia, the north of the Central Siberian Plateau and the North Siberian Lowland: drumlins, ozes, kams, moraine ridges.
Fluvio-glacial landforms were formed at the edge of the glacier: these are mainly outwash plains. They take place in the West Siberian and East European plains.
Mountain glaciers are characterized by kars, trough valleys.
This type of relief takes place in the Caucasus, in the mountains of the North-East and South of Siberia (Altai, Sayany, Baikal region).
Fluvial morphosculptural relief occupies huge areas in Russia. Its largest forms, river valleys, are distributed throughout the country. For non-glacial areas, especially the uplands of the south of the country, a ravine-gully relief is characteristic.
Karst landforms are confined to the areas of occurrence of readily soluble rocks. They take place in the Russian Plain, in the Cis-Urals and the Urals, as well as in the Caucasus. Suffusion relief (steppe saucers, depressions, pits) is associated with the mechanical removal of small particles by sediments seeping through the ground, mainly on loess-like rocks. This is the south of Western Siberia and the south of the Russian Plain. Landslide relief is confined mainly to the middle zone of the East European Plain, especially to the Volga region.
Aeolian landforms (dunes) are not typical for Russia.
They are currently developing in the Caspian lowland. But there are many fixed dunes along the pine forest terraces of the rivers and the seashore.
Cryogenic landforms are associated with permafrost. They are distributed mainly in Siberia, especially in Eastern Siberia. On the European territory of the country, they occur only along the coast of the Arctic Ocean. These are thermokarst basins, heaving mounds, solifluction terraces, polygonal formations (for tundra), ice (tarry).
In the mountainous regions of Siberia and the Far East, in the Polar and Northern Urals, the alpine relief - kurums - is widespread. These are the placers of stone debris covering the mountain slopes.
Many experts are now studying the largest plains in the world. These plains delight with their extraordinary beauty. Not many people know about where the largest plains on Earth are located. And every Russian cannot name the largest plains in Russia.
Plain is a type of terrain that is most often characterized by small fluctuations in height. Plains can be subdivided into lowlands, highlands and plateaus. Plain-lowland is located at a distance of up to 200 meters above sea level. Uplands are more than 500 meters above sea level, and the plains that are between these two distances will be called plateau.
The largest plain is the Amazonian Lowland. It has an area of \u200b\u200bmore than 5 million square kilometers and this plain is located 10-100 meters above sea level. The Amazonian Lowland is located in South America and stretches from the Atlantic Ocean to the largest Amazon River. The largest plain in the world is covered by humid equatorial forests. 
The second longest plain on Earth is the Gobi. The Gobi Desert is located in Central Asia and is a plateau, as there are mountain ranges on all sides. In the territory of this plain, there are also rocky surfaces, as well as surfaces where plants grow. These plants can only be found here. And all because the desert has a harsh climate. This plain is located at an altitude of about 1000 meters above sea level.
Another largest plain in the world is the Sahara Desert. The desert has an area of \u200b\u200b8 million square kilometers and has several plains. This desert can cover the entire mainland of Australia. The plains in the desert are crossed by river beds. In Africa, the largest plain is the East African Highlands. It is 17,000 kilometers long. 
The largest plain in Russia is the West Siberian Lowland. This is the former basin of the Arctic Ocean, therefore there are a large number of rivers and lakes on its territory. The plain is at the level of 10-12 meters. It is worth noting that all the most famous oil and gas fields that exist in Russia are located on this plain. Russia's largest plains the list goes on. Another plain is the East European, which also has the name "Russian". The plain is located near the Ural Mountains. It also has the richest deposits of minerals on its territory. The largest of these is the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly.
The largest plains exist on almost all continents. They all deserve the attention of researchers. Many of them attract tourists with their beauty, who themselves want to see the majestic plains of the world. Therefore, tourist routes are laid through many famous plains.
Plain is one of the main forms of terrestrial relief. On the physical world map, the plains are indicated in three colors: green, yellow, and light brown. They occupy about 60% of the entire surface of our planet. The most extensive plains are confined to plates and platforms.
Characteristics of the plains
A plain is an area of \u200b\u200bland or the seabed with a slight fluctuation in heights (up to 200 m) and a slight slope (up to 5º). They are found at different heights, including at the bottom of the oceans.
A distinctive feature of the plains is a clear, open horizon line, straight or wavy, depending on the surface relief.
Another feature is that it is the plains that are the main territories inhabited by people.
Natural areas of the plains
Since the plains occupy a vast territory, there are practically all natural zones. For example, tundra, taiga, mixed and deciduous forests, steppes and semi-deserts are represented on the East European Plain. Most of the Amazonian lowland is occupied by jungle, and on the plains of Australia there are semi-deserts and savannas.
Plains
In geography, the plains are divided according to several criteria.
1. By absolute height distinguish between:
... vile ... Height above sea level does not exceed 200m. A striking example is the West Siberian Plain.
... Exalted - with a difference in height from 200 to 500 m above sea level. For example, the Central Russian Plain.
... High plains , whose level is measured by marks over 500 m. For example, the Iranian Highlands.
... Depressions - the highest point is below sea level. Example - Caspian lowland.
Separately, underwater plains are distinguished, which include the bottom of depressions, shelves and abyssal areas.
2. By origin plains are:
... Accumulative (sea, river and mainland) - formed as a result of the impact of rivers, ebb and flow. Their surface is covered with alluvial sediments, and in the sea - marine, river and glacial sediments. From the sea we can cite the example of the West Siberian Lowland, and from the river - the Amazon. Among the mainland, the accumulative plains include the marginal lowlands, which have a slight slope to the sea.
... Abrasive - formed as a result of the impact of surf on land. In areas where strong winds prevail, sea waves are frequent, and the coastline is formed from weak rocks, this type of plains is more often formed.
... Structural - the most difficult in origin. Mountains once stood in the place of such plains. As a result of volcanic activity and earthquakes, the mountains were destroyed. Magma flowing from cracks and splits bound the land surface, like armor, hiding all the unevenness of the relief.
... Lakes - are formed in the place of dried up lakes. Such plains are usually small in area and are often bordered by coastal ramparts and ledges. An example of a lake plain is Jalanash and Kegen in Kazakhstan.
3. By the type of relief distinguish between plains:
... flat or horizontal - The Great Chinese and West Siberian Plains.
... wavy - are formed under the influence of water and water-glacial flows. For example, the Central Russian Upland
... hilly - in the relief there are individual hills, hills, ravines. An example is the East European Plain.
... stepped - are formed under the influence of the internal forces of the Earth. Example - Central Siberian Plateau
... concave - they include the plains of intermontane depressions. For example, the Tsaidam Basin.
Ridge and ridge plains are also distinguished. But in nature, the mixed type is most often found. For example, the Pribelskaya rolling-undulating plain in Bashkortostan.
Plains climate
The climate of the plains is formed depending on its geographical location, the proximity of the ocean, the area of \u200b\u200bthe plain itself, its length from north to south, as well as the climatic zone. Free movement of cyclones ensures a clear change of seasons. The plains are often rich in rivers and lakes, which contribute to the formation of climatic conditions.
The largest plains in the world
Plains are common on all continents, with the exception of Antarctica. In Eurasia, the largest are the East European, West Siberian, Turan, and East Chinese plains. In Africa - the East African Plateau, in North America - the Mississippi, Great, Mexican, in South America - the Amazonian lowland (the largest in the world, its area is over 5 million sq. Km) and the Guiana Plateau.
