BOLZMANN CONSTANT
physical constant k, equal to the ratio of the universal gas constant R to the Avogadro number NA: k = R/NA = 1.3807. 10-23 J/K. Named after L. Boltzmann.
BOLZMANN PRINCIPLE
the relation S - k lnW between the entropy S and the thermodynamic probability W (k is the Boltzmann constant). The statistical interpretation of the second law of thermodynamics is based on the Boltzmann principle: natural processes tend to transfer a thermodynamic system from less probable states to more probable states (i.e., bring the system to an equilibrium state for which the values of W and S are maximum).
BOLZMANN DISTRIBUTION (Maxwell - Boltzmann distribution)
equilibrium distribution of ideal gas particles by energy (E) in an external force field (for example, in a gravitational field); is determined by the distribution function f ~ e-E/kT, where E is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of the particle, T is the absolute temperature, k is Boltzmann’s constant; is a generalization by L. Boltzmann (1868-71) of the Maxwellian velocity distribution of particles.
BOLZMANN STATISTICS
a statistical method for describing an ideal gas in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium for particles moving according to the laws of classical mechanics.
BOLSHAKOV Vladimir Nikolaevich (b. 1934)
Russian ecologist, theriologist, academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1991; academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences since 1987). Research in the field of population and evolutionary ecology of mammals.
BOLSHAKOV Gennady Fedorovich (1932-89)
Russian chemist, corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1981). His main works are devoted to the development of high-energy liquid fuels, fuel additives, and express methods for automatic quality control of petroleum products.
BOLSHAKOV Kirill Andreevich (b. 1906)
Russian inorganic chemist, one of the founders of the Soviet industry of rare elements, corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1991; corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences since 1958). Main works on the physical and chemical principles of the extraction and purification of rare earth and trace elements. State Prizes of the USSR (1941, 1953).
BIG GUILD
a privileged class association of large merchants and property owners (mainly Germans) in the middle. 14th-19th centuries in the Baltic cities (Tallinn, Riga, Tartu, etc.).
GREAT VALLEY
a system of longitudinal valleys separated by short ridges (height up to 1500 m) in the South. Appalachia (USA). Length 950 km. width 40-60 km. Rich agricultural area (wheat, corn; cattle).
LARGE SERTIF
defensive line on the southern outskirts of the Russian state in the 16th century. from Ryazan to Tula. In the 17th century replaced by the Belgorod line.
LARGE SIZE INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (LSI)
an integrated circuit with a high degree of integration (the number of elements in it reaches 104), used in electronic equipment as a functionally complete unit of computer technology, automation, measuring equipment, etc.
"THE GREAT CHINESE ENCYCLOPEDIA"
Beijing publishing house. Founded in 1978. It publishes a universal encyclopedia of the same name, built on a thematic principle (since 1979; by the early 90s, about 40 volumes out of the planned 80) were published, other reference and popular science literature. Published the "Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary" translated into Chinese (1987). Shanghai branch.
BIG LIAHVI
river in Georgia, left tributary of the Kura. 115 km, basin area 2311 km2. Average water flow 26 m3/s. Splavnaya.
URSA MAJOR (lat. Ursa Major)
the constellation of the Northern Hemisphere, in which a group of 7 stars, the Big Dipper, is distinguished; the middle star of the handle of the ladle is called Mizar, next to it is the faint star Alcor.
LARGE NEWFOUNDLAND CAN
an extensive sandbank in the Atlantic Ocean, near the island. Newfoundland. The prevailing depth is less than 100 m (the smallest is 5.5 m). One of the world's largest fishing areas (cod, herring, etc.).
GRAND OPERA
1) multi-act opera. 2) Opera genre that developed in France in the 20s. 19th century; It is distinguished by monumentality, drama, heroic pathos, romantic colorfulness, decorativeness, the use of a large orchestra and choir, and the inclusion of ballet numbers. Great operas were created mainly on historical subjects. The most prominent representative of grand opera is J. Meyerbeer.
BIG HORDE
Tatar state in 1433-1502 in the North. Black Sea region and N. Volga region. Separated from the Golden Horde. Destroyed by the Crimean Khanate.
BIG PANDA
same as bamboo bear.
GREAT SANDY DESERT
in northwestern Australia. 360 thousand km2. The average height is 400-500 m. Ridge sands predominate (the average height of the ridges is up to 15 m), separated by clay-salt plains. One of the hottest places on the mainland (average summer temperature up to 30°C). Precipitation is from 200 to 450 mm per year. Spinifex turfgrass, acacias and low-growing eucalyptus. Rudalp River National Park.
GREAT VICTORIA DESERT
sandy desert in southern Australia. 350 thousand km2. The average height is 150-300 m. Ridge sands predominate (height 10-30 m), fixed by spinifex grass turf. Precipitation is from 125 to 250 mm per year. Great Victoria Desert National Park.
"GREAT RUSSIAN ENCYCLOPEDIA"
scientific reference and encyclopedic publishing house, Moscow. Founded in 1925 as the joint-stock company "Soviet Encyclopedia". Since 1930 State Dictionary Encyclopedia Publishing House, in 1935-49 State Institute (in 1944-49 State Scientific Institute) "Soviet Encyclopedia", since 1949 State Scientific Publishing House (until 1959 "Great Soviet Encyclopedia", until 1963 "Soviet Encyclopedia"), since 1963 publishing house of the same name (it published reference encyclopedic and, until 1974, linguistic reference publications). Modern name since 1991. Published universal and sectoral encyclopedias, encyclopedic dictionaries in various fields of science, technology and culture, regional, biographical and other reference publications. In 1926-91, 635 volumes of publications were published with a total circulation of approx. 88.5 million copies.
GREAT SOVIET ENCYCLOPEDIA (TSE)
a universal encyclopedic publication published in the USSR (publishing house "Soviet Encyclopedia"). 1st edition - 1926-47, 65 main volumes, a separate volume of the USSR, 65 thousand articles, circulation 50-80 thousand copies; editor-in-chief O. Yu. Shmidt (until 1941). 2nd edition - 1950-58, 50 main volumes, 51st additional volume; OK. 100 thousand articles, circulation 250-300 thousand copies; index in 2 volumes. (1960); editor-in-chief S. I. Vavilov (until 1951), B. A. Vvedensky (since 1951). 3rd edition - 1969-78, 30 volumes; OK. 100 thousand articles, circulation 630 thousand copies; alphabetical index in volume 1. (1981); editor-in-chief A. M. Prokhorov (since 1969); translated and published in the USA, Greece. The methodological experience of BES was used in the preparation of the Small Soviet Encyclopedia (3 editions in 1928-60), other universal reference books, incl. the one-volume Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary (4 editions in 1979-91), the two-volume Great Encyclopedic Dictionary (1991), and contributed to the development of encyclopedic work in the country. The TSB Yearbook was published in 1957-90.
BIG CHETA
river in the northeast. Zap. Siberia, left tributary of the Yenisei. 646 km, basin area 20.7 thousand km2. In the bass. Big Khety - approx. 6 thousand lakes.
GREAT CHUKOCHA (Revum-Revu)
river in the northeast of Yakutia. 758 km, basin area 19.8 thousand km2. Flows through the Kolyma Lowland, flows into the Vost. -Sibirskoe metro station freezes in winter. In the pool of St. 11.5 thousand lakes.
BOLSHEV Login Nikolaevich (1922-78)
mathematician; Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1974). Works on probability theory, mathematical statistics and their applications.
BOLSHEVIK
island arch. North Earth (Krasnoyarsk region). 11.3 thousand km2. Height up to 935 m. Approx. 30% of the territory is covered by glaciers; arctic desert.
BOLSHEVIKS
representatives of the political movement (faction) in the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (an independent political party since April 1917), headed by V. I. Lenin (see Communist Party of the Soviet Union). The concept of Bolsheviks arose at the 2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (1903) after, during the elections to the party’s governing bodies, Lenin’s supporters received a majority of votes (hence the Bolsheviks), while their opponents received a minority (Mensheviks). In 1917-52, the word Bolsheviks was included in the official name of the party - Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (Bolsheviks), Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks), All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks). The 19th Party Congress (1952) decided to call it the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
SOVIET
ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY
SCIENTIFIC EDITORIAL BOARD
A. M. PROKHOROV (CHAIRMAN), M. S. GILYAROV, E. M. ZHUKOV, N. N. INOZEMTSEV, I. L. KNUNYANTS, P. N. FEDOSEEV, M. B. KHRACHENKO.
PUBLISHING HOUSE "SOVIET ENCYCLOPEDIA"
MOSCOW 1980
1600 s. from illus. The book contains 6 color offset printing cards. Circulation 1,200,000 copies. (2nd plant 100,001–225,000 copies). Price 1 copy. 20 rub. 80 kop.
FROM THE PUBLISHER
For the first time in the USSR, the publishing house “Soviet Encyclopedia” is undertaking the publication of a one-volume universal Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary (SES), containing about 80 thousand articles (words). The dictionary is designed to satisfy numerous requests and suggestions from readers - to obtain a reference book that would serve for every family as a source of everyday reference on issues that arise when reading newspapers, magazines, books, educational literature, listening to radio programs, watching television programs, etc.
SES contains information from all areas of modern socio-political life, economics, science, technology, literature and art. It contains geographical, historical and economic information about the Soviet Union, about the countries of the world, about union and autonomous republics, territories, regions, cities of the USSR, as well as about large foreign cities.
Biographies of state, political and military figures, scientists, writers, artists, performers, composers of all times and peoples, Twice Heroes of the Soviet Union, Twice Heroes of Socialist Labor, prominent party, Soviet, economic leaders, workers and collective farmers - innovators of socialist production - have been published.
Although not an illustrated publication, the Dictionary nevertheless contains about 550 illustrations and diagrams explaining the text of articles, and about 350 maps.
This Dictionary was prepared by a team of employees of the publishing house “Soviet Encyclopedia” with the involvement of a wide range of scientists and specialists.
The scientific supervision of the compilation of the Dictionary was carried out by the Scientific Editorial Council headed by Academician A. M. Prokhorov. General editing of the text was carried out by the editorial board consisting of: S. R. Gershberg, A. A. Gusev, S. M. Kovalev, M. I. Kuznetsov, Ya. E. Shmushkis.
Since the signing of this edition for publication, the editorial board had the opportunity to take into account in the articles of the Dictionary some of the most important changes in domestic and international life, mainly until the beginning of 1979.
The publisher will be very grateful to readers for their feedback and suggestions, which can be taken into account in subsequent editions of the Dictionary.
Application
PROKHOROV Al-dr. Mikh. (b. 1916), owl. physicist, one of the founders of quantum electronics, academician. USSR Academy of Sciences (1966), Hero of the Socialist. Labor (1969). Member CPSU since 1950. Created (together with N.G. Basov) the first quantum generator - a maser. Tr. by paramagnetic masers, open resonators, gas dynes. and solid-state lasers, high-power IR and visible lasers, nonlinear optics, interaction of high-power laser radiation with matter. Ch. ed. TSB (since 1969). Linen. Ave. (1959), Nob. etc. (1964, jointly with N.G. Basov and C. Townes).
Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary. 1980
The publishing house "Soviet Encyclopedia" has published a one-volume universal Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary (SES). Its previous editions could not fully satisfy the numerous wishes of readers - to receive a reference book that would serve for every family as a source of everyday reference on issues that arise when reading newspapers, magazines, books, educational literature, listening to radio programs, watching television programs, etc.
The Dictionary contains about 80 thousand entries (words); they contain information from all areas of modern socio-political life, economics, science, technology, literature and art; contains geographical, historical and economic information about the Soviet Union, about the countries of the world, about the union and autonomous republics, territories, regions, cities of the USSR, as well as about large foreign cities. Biographies of state, political and military figures, scientists, writers, artists, entertainers, composers of all times and peoples, twice Heroes of the Soviet Union, twice Heroes of Socialist Labor, prominent party, Soviet, economic leaders, workers and collective farmers - innovators of socialist production, have been published. The new edition has made some changes related to events that occurred after the publication of previous editions, some statistical data has been updated, and many comments and suggestions from readers have been taken into account. At the end of the volume there are statistical tables, supplements to articles and other reference materials.
In 1979, the Soviet Government and the Central Committee of the CPSU made an unprecedented decision: to release the Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary (SED) for every family! The book was supposed to contain 80 thousand words-articles and have a multi-million circulation. (Format 84Х108 1/16, volume 172 printed sheets, 1630 pages). This has never happened in the country before! This was at a time when even books by Pushkin and other classics were bought in queues, by appointment or for waste paper. Printing house No. 2 of the Soviet Encyclopedia publishing house was entrusted with printing the book. This required technical re-equipment of the enterprise. A large group of prominent scientists, historians, and writers participated in the preparation of SES materials. The chairman of the scientific and editorial council was academician A.M. Prokhorov.
I then worked as deputy director of the All-Union Institute GiproNIIpoligraf of the USSR State Committee on Publishing (Press Committee). The matter did not work out from the very beginning: there was nothing but a high resolution, and the problem did not budge. At one of the meetings with the participation of an instructor of the CPSU Central Committee, it was stated that GiproNIIpolygraf was to blame for everything - he was delaying the project, and therefore there was no implementation of an important matter. This reservation began to wander around the Committee and even in the Central Committee.
At the next meeting, we told our institute to explain the reason for the lag. The director of the institute asked me to take part in the meeting. I prepared thoroughly. The meeting again began with the Central Committee instructor saying: the institute was delaying the project. I took the floor and saw from the face of the Central Committee official that he was retreating into a chair out of anger. And I calmly, but persistently, even didactically explained:
– The customer did not provide any initial data for the development of the project. For design, complete technical data of the equipment is required: their dimensions, weight, electrical and technological power. And since in this particular case it is not us who select the equipment, but the customer decides to install SPECIALLY DESIGNED PRINTING, BINDING AND STITCHING MACHINES, we do not have the technical ability to develop the project before transferring to us the TERMS OF REFERENCE WITH ALL THE MENTIONED AND OTHER NECESSARY DATA.
The Central Committee instructor jumped up from his seat:
- How so? We have been solving this issue for two months now, and you are giving us new tasks?!
The Deputy Chairman of the Committee, our immediate supervisor, the only professional printer at the meeting besides me, supported me:
– Yes, you need competent technical specifications.
The Central Committee instructor had not yet recovered from the unexpected knockdown, and I asked a new question:
– Why are we making a book of 80 thousand articles in one volume? Because of this, special machines, special paints, and special paper have to be developed. If you publish a publication in two volumes, you can do everything on existing equipment, using existing paints, paper and other materials. In addition, such a book is inconvenient to read: it will be heavy, loose, and difficult to read. Two bindings will cost a little more, but due to the reduction in costs for special equipment and materials, the project will be much cheaper. – With these words, I posted a feasibility study of the proposed solution, developed by specialists from our institute.
The instructor did not give up:
- You do not understand! Lenin said that he dreams of the day when every Soviet person will have a VOLUME of an encyclopedic dictionary. TOM, not TOM!
– But you can’t take these words literally!
- Comrade! Lenin's words MUST BE UNDERSTOOD AND FOLLOWED ONLY LITERALLY!
But, despite such pathos, the instructor realized that I was right. So I added more calmly:
– There is a decision of the Central Committee of the Party, the Soviet Government, and we cannot change it. “I realized that he really couldn’t change anything and didn’t argue.” But I had other questions prepared. And I asked another one:
– The maximum number of abbreviations has been adopted in order to fit more words into the book, and at the same time there are excesses...
– What kind of excesses?
– In every second article, for example, we read: “Academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences, such and such, a member of the CPSU since such and such a year.” If a person is a party worker, this postscript is understandable. But why does an academician need this? Isn’t it better to describe more broadly what this academician did?! – The party instructor did not expect this!
– Do you understand what you are saying?! It's apolitical! And in general it’s none of your business, get on with the project. “I had to obey, especially since the publishers completely agreed with the decision of the Central Committee. But I knew that a big mistake was being made.
Having received the necessary initial data, our institute completed the project, the development of which I led, ahead of schedule. The book was still published in one volume. It was published for several years. It was supplemented, corrected, the color of the binding was changed, but the essence remained the same.
Today this book is simply a rarity, since it is full of communist ideology and less than necessary factual material. Thus, the decision, made under ideological pressure, entailed enormous costs with mediocre content and quality of the publication. Although the idea itself was great.
I wanted to ask the instructor one more question, but I realized that after that there would be an explosion. And the question is so simple: “Why is there more article about Lenin in this huge book (four times more!) than an article about Pushkin”?
Why? It was such a time!
But time will put everything in its place!
I am not sure that Lenin is alive and will live.
But Pushkin will always be Pushkin and truly “the people’s path to him will not grow.”
Over the years of its existence, the Publishing House changed its name several times: 1925 - founded as a joint-stock company “Soviet Encyclopedia” to publish the 1st edition of TSB; 1930-1935 - State Dictionary and Encyclopedic Publishing House; 1935-1949 - State Institute “Soviet Encyclopedia”; 1939 - joining of the publishing house "Granat"; 1949-1959 - State scientific publishing house "Big Soviet Encyclopedia"; 1959-1963 - State scientific publishing house “Soviet Encyclopedia”; 1963 - merger with the State Publishing House of Foreign and National Dictionaries, editors of scientific and technical dictionaries Fizmatgiz; 1963-1991 - publishing house "Soviet Encyclopedia"; 1974 - dictionary editors move to the Russian Language publishing house; since 1991 - publishing house "Big Russian Encyclopedia".
Great Soviet Encyclopedia:"Soviet Encyclopedia", the largest publishing house of scientific and reference literature in the USSR; is part of the system of the State Committee of the USSR Council of Ministers for Publishing, Printing and Book Trade. Located in Moscow. Founded in 1925. Established as a joint stock company “S. e." at the Comacademy of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR for the release of the 1st ed. TSB, in 1930 transformed into the State Dictionary and Encyclopedic Publishing House, in 1935-49 - the State Institute “S. e.", in 1949-1959 - State Scientific Publishing House "Big Soviet Encyclopedia", since 1959 - State Scientific Publishing House "S. e.”, since 1963 after the merger with the State Publishing House of Foreign and National Dictionaries, editors of scientific and technical dictionaries Fizmatgiz - publishing house “S. e." (in 1974 the dictionary editions became part of the Russian Language publishing house).
"WITH. e." publishes multi-volume universal and sectoral encyclopedias and encyclopedic dictionaries, single-volume encyclopedias, reference books on various fields of science, technology, and culture. Universal encyclopedic publications - Great Soviet Encyclopedia (3 editions), Small Soviet Encyclopedia (3 editions), Encyclopedic Dictionary (2 editions), TSB Yearbook (since 1957). Industry encyclopedias in social sciences - Soviet Historical Encyclopedia, Philosophical Encyclopedia, Pedagogical Encyclopedia, Economic Encyclopedia, Political Economy, Economic Life of the USSR.
Chronicle of events and facts. 1917-1965, Labor Law, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. 1917-1967, Africa, Leningrad, Great October Socialist Revolution, a series of reference books on foreign countries (United States of America, Pacific countries, Latin American countries, Scandinavian countries, etc.); natural science and technical encyclopedias - Large Medical Encyclopedia (3rd edition), Small Medical Encyclopedia, Agricultural Encyclopedia, Veterinary Encyclopedia, Technical Encyclopedia, Physical Encyclopedia Dictionary, Concise Chemical Encyclopedia, Concise Geographical Encyclopedia, Manufacturing Automation and Industrial Electronics, Structural Materials , Construction, Encyclopedia polymers, Atomic energy, Quantum electronics, Cosmonautics, Polytechnic dictionary, etc.; encyclopedias on literature and art - Brief Literary Encyclopedia, Theater Encyclopedia, Art of Countries and Peoples of the World, Music Encyclopedia, Film Dictionary, Circus, Encyclopedic Music Dictionary. Reference publications - Concise Encyclopedia of Household Economy, Olympic Games. For 1926-74 “S. e." 448 volumes of universal and industry encyclopedias were published with a total circulation of about 52 million copies. In 1975, the volume of publishing production amounted to 12 titles with a circulation of 3245.3 thousand copies, 225.6 million printed sheets.
Editions "S. e." enjoy great prestige both in the USSR and abroad. In a number of countries (GDR, Great Britain, etc.) the one-volume “USSR” was translated and published, in Greece the 3rd edition of the Small Soviet Encyclopedia was published, in the USA (since 1973) the 3rd edition of the Great Soviet Encyclopedia was completely translated and published.
The publishing house was awarded the Order of the Red Banner of Labor (1975).
