I.3.3. Quantitative indicators of the characteristics of the main forms of the international division of labor - specialization and cooperation
The most important methodological problem when considering the development of MRI is the choice of indicators that characterize its main forms. Economists have proposed a number of such indicators: index assessment, determination of MRT through coefficients, determination of the level of specialization through the share of exports in the total volume of production, the share of the industry in the total value of exports, the growth rate of specialization industries compared to the growth rate of the entire industrial country, etc. Each of the proposed indicators can be used to characterize certain aspects of the participation of a country or group of countries in the international division of labor.
Below we will consider the main indicators characterizing the level of international specialization.
First of all, this is the coefficient of relative export specialization, which reflects the export capabilities of a country or group of countries in the MRT:
where Es is the share of goods in a given industry in the country’s exports;
Um - the share of the same goods in world exports.
If Coes > 1, then this industry is export-specialized, but if Coes<1, то данная отрасль не может быть экспортно-специализируемой.
The second indicator is the export quota. A quota is a quantitative indicator characterizing the share of an enterprise, firm or country participating in international cooperation in the total volume of production. An export quota is the volume of exports of specific goods established by the state. Export quotas are usually imposed in accordance with international stabilization agreements, which establish each country's share of the production or export of a particular product. The amount of the export quota is determined from the following ratios:
where Et is the volume of exports of goods.
The export quota indicates, first of all, the degree of dependence of the production of the national economy on the sale of its goods in the markets of other countries. In addition, the share of exports in gross domestic product shows the ability of a given country to produce a certain amount of products for sale on the world market.
There is a policy of voluntary limitation of export volumes. Since the 70s. this is expressed by the obligation of one of the exporters of goods to limit export volumes in order to regulate supply and demand.
Along with the export quota, the value of gross imports should also be used for this purpose. The ratio of a given country's gross imports to its gross domestic product is the third indicator characterizing the MRI and is called the import quota:
where Ik is the import quota;
Иt is the amount of import.
The import quota shows what portion imports make up of GDP. The values of Ek and Ik can be compared and thus determine the relationship between exports and imports. Their values may be equal to each other, but most often they do not coincide.
In addition, the main indicators characterizing MRI include the foreign trade quota. In the conditions of each economic region and the country as a whole, the optimal option for locating production is considered both in terms of the efficiency of using natural and socio-economic conditions and resources, and in terms of the total costs of production and transportation of products to consumers. The optimality criterion is the greatest national economic effect with the lowest cost per unit of production. And this can be expressed by the reduced cost formula:
P = C + K x e,
where C is the cost, or the sum of all current costs for the production of a unit of product;
K - specific capital costs; e is the standard payback ratio.
The choice of the optimal option for locating an enterprise is made at a minimum of given costs.
To determine the degree of effectiveness of the territorial division of labor, to identify the level and effectiveness of specialization of the region, it is advisable to use the index method. The index assessment of the level of specialization of the district economy is expressed by the indices of localization Jl, per capita production Jd and marketability Jt:
In all cases, industries of specialization include those industries for which the relation J > 1 is preserved, and under the condition J< 1 отрасли следует рассматривать как обслуживающие.
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Participation ratesVinternational division of labor
Introduction
The relevance of the topic of the work is based on the fact that the international division of labor represents the objective basis for the international exchange of goods, services, knowledge, the development of production, scientific, technical, trade and other cooperation between all countries of the world, regardless of their economic development and the nature of the social system. MRT is based on international specialization, which assumes the existence of a spatial gap either between individual stages of production or between production and consumption on an international scale.
The degree of development of productive forces is an important factor determining the intensity of countries' participation in the international division of labor. It is also influenced by natural-geographical factors, differences in the scale of production of national economies, achieved levels and available opportunities for intra-country division of labor.
Subject research is modern world economic relations. An object research - a system of indicators for assessing these connections.
Target work is to characterize the system of indicators of the country’s participation in the international division of labor, and the main tasks The following works have been carried out in accordance with this goal:
1. Describe the role and procedure for calculating indicators of a country’s participation in the international division of labor
2. Based on the system of indicators used, analyze Russia’s participation in international exchanges and assess the actual possibilities of Russia’s participation in MRT
1. Main indicators of the country’s involvement in the international division of labor
1.1 Relative export specialization coefficient
division of labor resource export
The main indicators of the level of international specialization of an industry include the relative export specialization coefficient (RES) and the export quota in the industry's production. KOES is defined as the share of a product (the totality of industry goods) in a country’s exports to the share of a product (analogue goods) in world exports.
With the help of KOES, it is possible, to a first approximation, to determine the range of goods and, accordingly, industries that are internationally specialized for a given country. The higher (more than 1) the ratio is in favor of the national structure of exports for a particular product or group of products, the more obvious is the international specialization of the corresponding industry. On the contrary, the lower this ratio (less than 1), the less reason to consider the corresponding goods and industries as internationally specialized. The export quota indicates the extent to which the national industry and its individual branches are oriented toward foreign markets, and at the same time shows the extent to which the latter are isolated from the national market. An increase in the export quota in production indicates an intensification of international industrial relations in one direction - to foreign consumers and an increase in the competitiveness of internationally specialized products.
Another aspect of the qualitative side of international specialization of production is associated with the breadth of the nomenclature (range) of goods supplied to foreign markets. The rapid expansion of the range of exports is generally evidence of the country’s international despecialization and, conversely, the reduction of the range makes the export profile clearer. This approach, however, is too general and needs clarification. Thus, if the expansion of the range of exports as a whole occurs due to internationally specialized products and the share of the latter in exports increases, then in fact there is an increase in the level of international specialization of production; expansion of the range due to non-specialized types of products causes the opposite results. Consequently, the expansion of assortment in itself is not evidence of a deterioration in the country’s international specialization.
1.2 Export quota
In addition to the COES, indicators by which one can judge the degree of a country’s participation in the MRI are export and import quotas.
Let us define the concept of “export quota”. As a rule, it is associated with the concept of an open economy. An open economy presupposes, on the one hand, high exportability of the economy, and on the other, the availability of the domestic market for the influx of foreign goods, capital, technology, labor, information flows, the use of various forms of joint entrepreneurship while maintaining the integrity of the national economic complex. In this case, it can contribute to specialization and cooperation of production, the application of world experience and a general increase in production efficiency and people's well-being.
To determine the degree of openness of national economies, relative indicators are often used.
Firstly, this is an indicator of the foreign trade quota. It determines the ratio of the value of a country's foreign trade turnover to its gross domestic product. This indicator allows us to judge the role of the foreign trade factor in the national economy. It is characteristic that over the past three decades it has almost doubled for most countries.
Secondly, it is an indicator of import quota, which is calculated as the ratio of a country's gross imports and gross domestic product. It reflects dependence on imports of goods and services, which is why it is also called the import dependence coefficient. On average for the whole world it is 20%, and reaches the highest level in Western European countries (in Belgium - 60%, in Ireland - 55, in the Netherlands - 50%), in NIS Asia (in Singapore - 140%, in Malaysia - 80%) and in some post-socialist countries (in Estonia - 95%, in Armenia and Moldova - 65%, in Ukraine and Lithuania - 60%, in Bulgaria and Slovakia - 55%).
Thirdly, this includes the most commonly used export quota indicator, calculated using the formula:
Ek = E: GDP x 100 % ,
where Ek is the export quota, E is the value of exports; GDP is the gross domestic product.
This indicator is also referred to as the economic openness ratio.
Statistics show that the main general trend of the last decade has been a constant increase in the export quota. Of the large regions of the world with a large export quota, these are the countries of Western Europe, the foreign economic base of which is formed by the EU integration group.
Most countries in this region have an export quota of 20% to 50%, and Belgium, the Netherlands, and Ireland are even higher.
Quite high export quota indicators are also observed in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe and the CIS. In the Overseas Asia region, differences between countries are much more significant: from very high, for example Malaysia, to very low, for example India.
In Africa, based on the size of the export quota, oil-exporting countries are distinguished - Algeria, Libya, Nigeria, as well as large mining countries - South Africa, Bostwana.
In Latin America, countries with export-oriented economies also have a higher export quota - Venezuela (oil), Ecuador (bananas). And Australia, despite its emerging transoceanic “bridges,” is characterized by a not very high export quota.
There are still many small countries in the world, but they have also joined global economic relations and have high export rates. For example, oil-producing and oil-exporting countries such as the UAE, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, Omen, Brunei, Gabon, Trinidad and Tobago, as well as Israel, Cyprus, the Bahamas, Mauritius, where the size of the export quota ranges from 50 to 95%.
In North America, the USA, as a country with a powerful economy and a very large domestic market, is distinguished by a rather low export quota (10%), and Canada, although with a fairly strong economy, but possessing a whole set of export-oriented industries, has a much higher one (45%). ).
Accordingly, the value of the export quota is determined not only by the level of economic development, but also by its sectoral structure.
So, the sectoral structure of the economy plays a role. A developed country with a predominance of basic industries (energy, metallurgy, etc.), as a rule, has a more open economy than a country focusing on modern knowledge-intensive industries associated with international specialization and cooperation.
Other factors influencing the export quota are the absolute scale of production and consumption, which determine the capacity of the market. In relation to fairly developed countries, the general pattern can be traced quite clearly: the openness of the national economy, as a rule, the greater, the lower the economic potential of the country.
Developed countries with very large economic potential and a very large domestic market are usually less dependent on foreign economic relations than small countries.
The degree to which a country is endowed with its own natural resources plays a role. Thus, the development of countries that are insufficiently provided with natural, especially mineral, resources will have a more open economy; for example the USA and Japan.
A high share of net exports can be justified only in certain periods of time, when receiving significant amounts of foreign exchange earnings is necessary to pay interest and repay the principal amount of external debt, as well as accumulate sufficient gold and foreign exchange reserves of the state to strengthen the national currency.
The exception was the crisis of 1998, when, due to the devaluation of the ruble, the export quota increased to 32%. This situation is the result not so much of Russia’s increased participation in world economic exchanges, but rather a direct consequence of the economic crisis the country is experiencing (which caused a fall in domestic production and the collapse of a solvent domestic market), as well as a depreciation of the ruble.
Russian exports are concentrated on an extremely narrow range of exported products. In 2006-2009 Three commodity items - crude oil, petroleum products and natural gas - brought about 40% of all foreign exchange earnings from exports. Such concentration on a narrow range of products gives Russian exports a monocultural character, characteristic of underdeveloped countries. No developed or moderately developed country has such a narrow export base.
In the modern world, the effectiveness of the functioning of the national economic complex of a state largely depends on the scale and nature of its inclusion in the processes of the international division of labor, on the profile of its international specialization. Thus, in the structure of Russian exports, about 85% comes from raw materials. Russia has the highest coefficients of international specialization (the ratio of the share of a product group in Russian exports to the share of corresponding goods in world exports) in the fuel and raw materials industries (5-6 for mineral fuels and about 3 for metals). In the export of the chemical industry, the indicator of international specialization is already significantly lower (about 0.9), and in the export of machinery and equipment the corresponding indicator is only about 0.2 (in the mid-1990s it was 0.25-0.3).
Along with the export quota, the value of gross imports should also be used. The ratio of a given country's gross imports to its gross domestic product is the third indicator characterizing the MRI and is called import quota:
where Ik is the import quota;
AND t- the amount of imports.
The import quota shows what portion imports make up of GDP. The values of Ek and Ik can be compared and thus determine the relationship between exports and imports. Their values may be equal to each other, but most often they do not coincide.
In addition, the main indicators characterizing MRI include: foreign trade quota. In the conditions of each economic region and the country as a whole, it is considered best option location of production both in terms of the efficiency of using natural and socio-economic conditions and resources, and in terms of the total costs of production and transportation of products to consumers. The optimality criterion is the greatest national economic effect with the lowest cost per unit of production. And this can be expressed by the reduced cost formula:
P = C + K H e,
where C is the cost, or the sum of all current costs for the production of a unit of product;
K - specific capital costs;
e - standard payback ratio.
The choice of the optimal option for locating an enterprise is made at a minimum of given costs.
To determine the degree of effectiveness of the territorial division of labor, to identify the level and effectiveness of specialization of the region, it is advisable to use the index method. Index assessment of the level of specialization of the district economy is expressed by localization indices J l, shower production J D and marketability J T:
In all cases, industries of specialization include those industries for which the ratio is maintained J? 1, and provided J<1 отрасли следует рассматривать как обслуживающие.
2. Modern Russia in the system of international division of labor
2.1 Characteristics of Russia’s indicators in the MRI system
Russia's modest position in economic interaction with the outside world is quite understandable. If in international trade the main place is occupied by finished products and services based on high technologies, then Russia exports mainly raw materials and first-process products, and imports mainly consumer goods, including food, clothing, and household appliances. Exports and imports of services are dominated by tourism, as well as the transport of goods and passengers. Due to the peculiarities of historical and socio-economic development, our country is not able to fully participate in the steadily expanding exchange of goods and services generated by the scientific, technical and information revolutions. Given the current nature of economic relations with the outside world, domestic producers essentially remain outside the scope of international industrial and investment cooperation: they do not have strong cooperative ties with foreign partners and are not included in international reproduction chains.
By the end of the 20th century. Russia was in the bottom of the sixth ten countries in terms of per capita GDP. Its value ($6.9 thousand per year) was 1.8 times greater than the average for developing countries, but 4.2 times less than for developed countries. Our country lagged noticeably behind in such a very important indicator for characterizing the level of development as labor productivity. In terms of labor productivity (in terms of GDP), Russia was inferior to the United States by 4.7 times, Japan and Germany by 3.6 times, Taiwan by 3.4 times, and South Korea by 2.7 times.
The structure of Russia's produced GDP was also significantly different from that of developed countries and the world as a whole. In terms of the share of material production and service sectors, Russia is close to the developing world and is located somewhere between China and Brazil. Over the years of economic reforms, the share of the service sector in Russia's GDP increased by 6.4% and agriculture by 0.2%. The share of industry decreased by 1.6%.
Industry creates a third of Russia's GDP, more than in the world as a whole. This, however, does not contribute to Russia's deeper inclusion in the international division of labor. The reason is that structurally, global and Russian industrial production differ markedly. In global production, extractive industries account for 10.4%, and manufacturing industries account for 82% (the rest is electricity and gas supply). In domestic industry, the dominant position is traditionally occupied by the extractive industries and the primary processing of raw materials; mechanical engineering and metalworking account for about 1/5 of the total industrial production
The scientific and technical sphere of the country, contrary to popular belief, is also underdeveloped and noticeably inferior in scale and intensity of innovation to developed countries. Russia's share in global spending on science is only 1%, although domestic research organizations employ about 11% of the world's scientific workers. Russia's innovation system is in the process of transformation and is essentially just adapting to market conditions.
Agriculture creates 1/7 of Russia's total GDP. However, in the agricultural sector, yields and especially labor productivity are low, and losses during harvesting, transportation, storage and processing of products are very significant. Therefore, the country cannot carry out any large-scale export of agricultural goods. Moreover, the underdevelopment of the agricultural sector puts Russia in constant and dangerous dependence on the import of food products from abroad.
The low level of technical and economic development does not allow Russia to engage in exchange with the outside world an expanding range of finished products and thereby diversify the commodity and geographical structure of foreign trade and actively participate in industrial cooperation.
The depth of inclusion of a country in international exchange also depends on the magnitude of its economic potential. This value finds a synthesized expression in the volume of GDP, which characterizes the country’s production capabilities and its aggregate demand. GDP represents, on the one hand, the sum of manufactured goods and services for domestic use and for export, and on the other, the sum of income of citizens, enterprises and the state, which they can use to accumulate and purchase domestic and imported products. The greater the economic potential of a country, the wider its development opportunities by relying on the domestic market, the less it needs to attract goods and services from outside and, therefore, allocate resources for export. Therefore, the United States, being the most powerful economic power in the world, has a lower rate of involvement in the international division of labor than other countries of the economic avant-garde, which are 3-7 times inferior to them in terms of GDP. Russia ranks tenth in the world in terms of GDP (just over 2% of global GDP), behind the G7 members excluding Canada, as well as China, India and Brazil, but has the highest export-to-GDP ratio among the top ten, estimated at the national currency exchange rate - 35.7%.
The degree of export orientation of the domestic economy is very high. But this is unlikely to be the case. A comparison of exports and GDP at the official exchange rate adequately reflects their real ratio only for industrialized countries: their official rates are equal (USA and UK) or even inflated relative to PPP. In most developing countries and in Russia the picture is completely different. Official exchange rates are undervalued against PPP by up to 5 times and therefore the ratio of exports to GDP when compared at official rates is artificially high. In Russia, for example, this figure calculated using PPP would be about 16%.
The degree to which a country is included in world economic relations also depends on its availability of basic types of raw materials. A country better supplied with them has less need to import fuel, raw materials for industry and food from abroad and, therefore, does not need to cover these import purchases with corresponding exports. In other words, the presence of its own raw material base reduces the dependence of the reproduction process on international exchange.
It is generally accepted that rich natural resources are one of Russia’s unconditional competitive advantages, on which it can and should rely in the foreseeable future. This point of view, however, is only partly correct. Indeed, the country has quite large deposits of many types of mineral raw materials, primarily energy resources. Russia accounts for, for example, 33% of the world's industrial reserves of natural gas, 18% of coal, 13% of oil, 50% of vanadium, 14% of nickel, 12% of diamonds. However, in our depths there is far from everything necessary to ensure production. In ore deposits there is practically no manganese, little chromium, titanium, lead, zinc, mercury, etc. There is little potential for gold, uranium, and bauxite.
It should also be borne in mind that, due to Russia’s geographical location, the development of mineral resources is associated with higher costs than in the vast majority of countries. Almost 95% of our territory is located in northern latitudes. Therefore, in Russia, operating costs for the extraction of raw materials are higher. Due to the large extent of the territory, transport costs, which have been steadily increasing in recent years, are more significant in total costs than the world average. The competitive advantage, which is based on the availability of raw materials, is thus offset by their comparative high cost. In addition, such an advantage, as practice shows, is very unstable due to fluctuations in world prices and cannot be eternal due to the irreplaceability of resources.
The existing reserves of raw materials allow Russia to meet the modern needs of production and social infrastructure, as well as supply to the foreign market. Russia ranks 1st in the world in exports of nickel and natural gas, 3rd-4th in exports of oil, petroleum products, iron ore, aluminum, and timber. It is a major supplier to the world market of copper, diamonds, and round timber. Fuel, metals, forestry and woodworking industry products are the basis of exports, providing more than 75% of its value.
The tangible export orientation of the extractive industries in the conditions of underdeveloped economic potential of Russia and its provision of raw materials is quite understandable. In the 90s, aggregate domestic demand in Russia declined faster than GDP, and some of the products produced within the country turned out to be superfluous. Demand was expressed not only in classical monetary form, but also in kind (barter), and mutual non-payments became commonplace. In addition, prices on the domestic market noticeably lagged behind the world average. All this made exports preferable to supplies to the domestic market and objectively pushed raw materials and competitive processed products onto world markets.
Thus, the nature and degree of Russia’s inclusion in world economic relations reflect the current state of its national economy. Low economic potential is pushing the country to intensify international exchange. The low level of technical and economic development hinders its inclusion in international trade. The provision of raw materials, which, as a rule, reduces the need for such exchange, due to the specifics of the current economic situation, is the main factor in the development of Russia's foreign economic relations.
Therefore, indispensable conditions for strengthening our country’s position in the system of world economic relations are structural restructuring of the economy and updating of its technological basis, increasing the efficiency and competitiveness of production.
2.2 Possibilities for using Russia’s natural resource potential in the international division of labor
Currently, compared with the provision of labor and capital, Russia's endowment with natural resources, forests, land and water is noticeably higher. In such conditions, it would be economically irrational to participate in the international division of labor without relying on the use of natural resource advantages.
Russia ranks 2nd in the world in terms of energy production. It is the leading exporter of natural gas and the second largest exporter of oil. Representatives of Russian business predict that by the end of this decade, oil production will reach the level of 420-500 million tons per year and will remain within these limits for 30 years. Gas production will also increase - up to 600-700 billion cubic meters. m per year, and gas resources in Russia are sufficient to maintain this level of production for 50 years. With such an increase in oil production and domestic consumption of 160-180 million tons, the potential export opportunities for oil and its refined products could reach up to 340 million tons. But in order to realize these opportunities, it will be necessary to increase the capacity of pipeline systems by building new oil pipelines, primarily in the Baltic, Northern and Asian directions.
The country's specialization in fuel production and its high share in exports is often seen as evidence of Russia's backwardness in technical and economic terms. This is partly true, of course. But the imbalance in the structure of exports in favor of mineral raw materials speaks, rather, not of excessive development of the domestic mining sector, but of a noticeable lag in the manufacturing industries, which only confirms the need for their accelerated modernization and improvement of the quality of finished products. Fuel and raw materials have been and will remain an important item of domestic export. And there is nothing unnatural about this.
The export of energy resources, if compared at the national economic level, is much more efficient than the export of other domestic goods. According to available estimates, the cost of obtaining a unit of foreign currency for gas and oil is many times lower than when exporting semi-finished and finished products. The costs of exporting cars, for example, are 23 times higher than the costs of exporting gas, and 44 times higher than the costs of tractors. But such high current commercial efficiency, as noted by foreign and domestic experts, is ensured by the intensive development of the mineral resource base, which leads to a decrease in the level of real accumulation (taking into account the depletion of natural resources).
Russia can and should use its forestry potential more productively. In terms of forest resources (about 82 billion cubic meters), it occupies a leading place in the world. However, despite its rich raw material base, Russia plays a minor role in the global production of forest and paper products, producing 5% of roundwood and lumber, 2-3% of plywood, cellulose, fiberboard, paper and cardboard. Due to the low level of comprehensive processing of wood raw materials and materials, the production of, for example, paper and cardboard per 1000 cubic meters. m of wood removal in Russia is 39 tons, compared to 150 tons in Sweden and 208 tons in Finland. The lag in the development of the domestic timber processing industry is also manifested in the fact that on the world market it acts as the main exporter of round timber (its share in world exports is 27%) and is among the top five exporters of newsprint. The production of an enriched range of products from the forestry and pulp and paper industries, including furniture, seems to be a fairly promising direction for expanding the foreign economic specialization of the domestic economy, especially since the forestry industry has good import substitution potential.
The agricultural sector of the economy also has certain opportunities to expand its presence in foreign markets. Thus, it seems quite realistic for Russia to restore its traditional grain specialization, which was completely lost in the post-war period. In the context of the emerging stabilization of the situation in crop production and a two-fold reduction in livestock numbers over the last decade, Russian farmers are rapidly increasing the export of grains, mainly wheat and barley.
The export potential of domestic agriculture is not limited to grain alone. Russia, for example, has long specialized in the cultivation and processing of flax, which was reflected in its exports.
High increases in physical volumes of exports of metallurgical and chemical industry products, amounting to 7-13% in the last four years of the last century, and incomplete utilization of existing capacities, it would seem, allow us to count on a further accelerated increase in the supply of these types of finished products to foreign markets. However, the growth of exports of these goods will be difficult for a number of reasons. The effect of the devaluation of the ruble, which stimulated exports abroad, which significantly increased the profitability of exports in metallurgy and chemistry, has almost been exhausted. A significant level of depreciation of fixed assets calls into question the maintenance of achieved export volumes in the context of the expected increase in domestic consumption of their products. Due to the deterioration of the global market situation and restrictions in certain countries on imports from Russia, Russian exporters, in particular, producers of non-ferrous and certain types of rolled ferrous metals, already at the beginning of the new century faced serious difficulties in selling their products on foreign markets. Therefore, in the future under consideration, we can expect more moderate increases in exports of these types of finished products than at the end of the last century.
An important contribution to updating the country's foreign economic specialization can be made by the scientific and technical sphere, which has high technologies in the defense and some other industries and relies on a fairly wide network of organizations conducting fundamental and applied research. Currently, Russia's share in the high-tech market is negligible - about 0.3%. In terms of the volume of exports of high-tech products, Russia is many times inferior not only to developed countries, but also to individual newly industrialized countries, China and Hungary. Its revenue from the export of licenses cannot be compared with the revenue of any of the G7 countries, with the exception of Canada, being inferior, for example, to Italy's revenue by 6 times. Our enterprises compete with other manufacturers primarily in the markets of nuclear technology, space technology and services, military aviation and certain types of electronics products. According to available estimates, the share of Russian manufacturers in world markets is (%): for equipment and services for the construction of nuclear power plants - I, nuclear waste processing - 8-9, commercial space launches - 11, sales of spacecraft - 2, ground equipment for space systems - 1. Over the last decade of the last century, the domestic electronics industry was able to increase export supplies by 1.5 times. Approximately 100 enterprises in the industry export their products to more than 40 countries.
Strengthening the export orientation of the listed industrial sectors, given the low effective demand for their products and services within the country, is seen as one of the most important impulses for their development in the near future.
The prospects for domestic high-tech exports will largely depend on the success of the state's implementation of scientific and technological policy, which ensures the continuous growth of investments in fundamental and applied research and development in priority areas. They will also take on more and more real shape as a market-type innovation system emerges in the country, in which the scientific activity of the business sector plays an important role, and as the institutions necessary for its development are strengthened - the banking sector, financial markets, the tax system, organizations in the field patenting and insurance, export promotion, etc.
The current situation in mechanical engineering does not give reason to expect an accelerated increase in the export of machinery, equipment and vehicles in the coming years. In the coming years, the share of fuel and raw materials may decrease by 9-10% and the share of finished products may increase. At the same time, the share of machinery and equipment in exports will remain practically at the same level. Even with an average annual growth rate of supplies of engineering products at 6% per year, its share in exports will increase to approximately 12%. The structure of imports will not undergo major changes in the coming decade. The share of food in it may decrease by 2% and the share of finished products, mainly machinery and equipment, may increase by about the same amount. As a result, the share of finished products in exports and imports, machinery and equipment in imports from Russia will be approximately the same as what developing countries had in the early 90s of the last century. In terms of the share of machinery and equipment in exports, it will lag behind the corresponding indicators of these countries by approximately half.
The state of production factors, therefore, indicates the presence of opportunities to change the nature of Russia's participation in the system of world economic relations. In the near future, the most realistic way to achieve this may be to diversify the country's foreign economic specialization, as a result of which its importance as a global storehouse of energy resources will decrease. Opportunities for further updating of specialization will expand if economic policies are implemented that stimulate the preferential development of manufacturing industries. Taking all this into account, the strategy for the further inclusion of Russia in the system of world economic relations should obviously be based on the expansion of its international specialization based on the full use of natural resource and scientific and technological potentials.
Conclusion
Let us summarize the main results of the study.
1. The degree of development of the international division of labor is determined by the participation of individual companies, countries, and regional political blocs in international exchange. It is generally accepted that the most important indicators of the participation of global economic entities in MRT are: the share of exported products in the total volume of production; volume of foreign trade in relation to gross product; the share of a country or regional economic bloc in international trade, including trade in individual goods. It should be borne in mind that it is not so much the share of a country in international trade in itself, but the share of exports in GDP that most fully characterizes the degree of inclusion of a country in the MRI system. Each of these indicators can be used to characterize certain aspects of a country’s participation in foreign economic relations.
2. Realization of the advantages of MRT in the process of international exchange of any country under favorable conditions ensures: firstly, obtaining the difference between the international and domestic prices of exported goods and services; secondly, saving domestic resources due to the abandonment of national production while using cheaper imports.
Two forms of the international division of labor are international specialization and the resulting international cooperation of production.
3. Currently, the export quota, which characterizes the degree of Russia’s participation in the international division of labor, does not exceed 20%. Due to the insufficient development of export potential and the weak degree of diversification of production, Russia still occupies a modest position in world trade. Therefore, further development of foreign economic activity can be achieved through diversification of exports of products with high added value.
At the same time, the measures taken to liberalize foreign economic activity and the transition from administrative management methods to economic ones did not make it possible to transfer export regulation to market principles. Efforts in recent years have been reduced to maintaining state influence and attempts to form a regulatory mechanism using primarily fiscal instruments. Russia still lacks a clear foreign trade policy that takes into account national interests and potential export opportunities, based on stable rules and equality of rights for all persons involved in economic turnover, without which work in foreign markets is practically impossible. Direct export losses and lost profits for Russian exporters have recently reached 1.5 - 2.0 billion dollars per year.
4. Modern Russia participates in the international division of labor mainly at the intersectoral level. It is only beginning to move towards post-industrialism, towards a knowledge-based economy, towards the development of the fifth technological structure, which is associated with the widespread use of computer technology, which ensures the processing of production information and the implementation of the necessary regulatory influences on technological processes in real time. It is obvious that the possibilities of intensifying Russia’s economic interaction with foreign countries, a significant factor in the additional growth of production and living standards, will depend mainly on the results of its ascent to higher levels of industrialization, further diversification of domestic industrial production and the service sector, and the introduction of modern technological structures.
List of used literature
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Post-industrialization, globalization and regional economic integration as modern trends in the development of the world economy. Participation of states in the international division of labor, specialization in production and sale of certain types of products.
114 Chapter 2. Current trends in the development of the international division of labor
personal enterprises, contractual specialization. Strategic alliances play a significant role in its development.
8. International specialization and cooperation are the basis of industrial cooperation between countries, which takes relations between countries beyond the scope of ordinary trade and develops with the support of states concluding bilateral and multilateral agreements for these purposes.
Terms and concepts
Monoculture
Export diversification
Production specialization
Commercial specialization
Subject specialization
Detailed specialization
Technological specialization
Intercompany cooperation
Intra-company cooperation
Contract specialization
Contractual specialization
Co-production
Joint ventures
Strategic alliances
Scientific and technical specialization
Industrial cooperation
Relative export specialization coefficient
Self-test questions
1. What changes in the productive forces of society are associated with the growth of the international division of labor?
2. What factors, besides economic ones, influenced the international division of labor at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries?
3. Why do developing countries want to change their place in the international division of labor?
4. What caused the deepening division of labor between industrialized countries?
5. Why is the transition from inter-industry to intra-industry specialization accelerating in the world economy?
6. What is the connection between specialization and cooperation?
7. Name the main forms of international cooperation.
8. What caused the emergence of strategic alliances?
9. What is industrial cooperation?
1. Features of the modern world market
The development of trade between countries leads to the formation of a special sphere of market relations - the world market. International trade, as noted earlier, existed in ancient times, but the world market, covering the trade of a significant part of the countries, and then all the countries of the world, arose only in the process of development of commodity-money relations. One could talk about the world market already in the 16th century.
It is necessary to distinguish between the national markets of individual countries and the world market. The latter has a number of distinctive features. In the national market, the movement of goods is determined only by economic factors. It is not limited between different territories of the country; prices for the same products tend to equalize. In each country, there is a national level of labor productivity, wages, the average rate of profit and interest rates, the general level of taxation, etc. The world market for goods is significantly influenced by the borders between states and the foreign economic policies of the latter. The movement of goods between national economies is limited, and some goods produced in individual countries do not participate in global trade turnover at all. The world market receives goods manufactured in countries with different economic conditions, i.e. with different levels of labor productivity, wages, profit margins, etc.
A distinctive feature of the world market is the existence of a special price system - world prices.
In the world economy, not only a world market for goods materialized in the form of products is emerging, but also a world market for services. In particular, the development of the division of labor in the field of scientific research led to an increase in trade in licenses.
The world market is developing in conditions of competition between countries. Structure and directions of trade of individual countries
Chapter 3. World market and structural changes in world trade
are influenced by changes in the competitiveness of their goods on the world market. World trade is characterized by uneven growth of both the trade of individual countries and the entire world trade turnover.
In the era of developed capitalism, the world market becomes the sphere of activity of large companies. Already at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. These companies sought to enter into a conspiracy among themselves in the world market for certain goods and dictate prices for them. Subsequently, most countries adopted antitrust legislation prohibiting the creation of cartels. Therefore, now there are only a few international cartels, although, of course, the conclusion of secret agreements between companies from different countries on the division of markets and prices is not excluded. In modern conditions, the positions of transnational corporations are strengthening in the world market, especially the largest transnational corporations in the USA, Japan, Great Britain and other countries, which strive to monopolize the markets of certain goods.
But the possibilities of monopolizing the world market are less than those of national markets. The reason for this is that a large number of companies participate in competition on the world market, including large national companies that rely on the help of their states. True, highly specialized sectors of world production may turn out to be monopolized to a greater extent on a global scale.
Now we can talk about the oligopolistic structure of the world market, when the production of individual goods is predominantly in the hands of a small group of companies from different countries. The oligopolistic structure generates powerful incentives for cooperation between companies, especially in the scientific and technical field. The modern form of cooperation between large companies, as shown in Chap. 2, have become strategic alliances.
The predominance of large companies in the global market does not mean that small and medium-sized companies cannot enter it. The latter act both as subcontractors of large firms on the basis of cooperation agreements, and independently, especially in light industry. Recently, companies introducing new products and technologies (venture companies) have become increasingly active in the global market.
It would be wrong to imagine that the modern world market develops only under conditions of anarchy. In a number of areas, there is a tendency towards conscious regulation of the movement of goods on the world market through the use of well-known elements of planning. This is manifested in the fact that, firstly, the larger
1. Features
modern world market
Large TNCs, which account for the majority of world trade, study the state of markets in different countries and regions and, based on the concept of marketing, plan production at their enterprises and sales of products, taking into account the trend in demand for the corresponding products.
Secondly, inter-company cooperation agreements provide elements of trade sustainability between countries. And although changes in production technology and demand for products produced on the basis of cooperation, as well as general changes in the market situation, can undermine established ties, nevertheless, cooperation agreements introduce some elements of orderliness. In the same direction, there are contracts for the construction of large facilities abroad, the execution of which is expected to last for a number of years.
Thirdly, long-term trade contracts, especially those concluded in the field of trade in mineral raw materials - coal, metal ores, etc., also lead to the stability of relations between producers and consumers. Due to the high capital intensity of mining industries, producers, starting the development of new deposits and expanding production at existing ones, must have a more or less stable prospect of selling their products.
Fourthly, to regulate the markets of certain goods and standardize prices for them, on the initiative of developing countries that came up with a program for a new international economic order, international commodity agreements were concluded. In some; They provide for the creation of buffer stocks, into which goods should be supplied when the market is oversaturated and withdrawn from them when the demand for these goods grows. To finance buffer stocks, the General Fund was created within the UN (see Chapter 9). For the same purposes, organizations of countries exporting raw materials have been created. The most important of them is the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), which, in order to maintain oil prices, sets quotas for oil supplies to the world market for participating countries.
Along with the trends towards conscious regulation of world trade in order to increase its stability, opposite trends also appear when the actions of international speculators lead to a sharp rise in prices for certain goods, and then to their fall. For example, as a result of the actions of one Japanese company, copper prices increased significantly and remained at this level for some time, which led to an increase in investment in the copper smelting industry. When the supply of copper on the market increased, prices fell sharply, which Japan was interested in, and copper producers suffered heavy losses.
Chapter 3. World market and structural changes in world trade
2. Dynamics of world trade
The instability of individual markets is partly due to the activities of commodity exchanges, where speculative transactions predominate. However, although the scale of trade in general on exchanges exceeds actual trade in the corresponding goods by tens of times, the share of goods actually sold on exchanges is small. The role of commodity exchanges in modern world trade is that their prices are a known benchmark for specific transactions and, in addition, exchanges act as a tool for hedging (insurance) of real transactions.
An active role in the world market is played by states that not only take measures to protect the national market from the import of goods from outside, but also pursue a targeted policy of boosting the export of domestic goods.
A feature of the current situation is the development of international interstate forms of regulation of the world market. Both general trade organizations emerged, for example the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which was later transformed into the WTO, and regional integration economic organizations and agreements - the EU, NAFTA, ASEAN, etc. The activities of international economic organizations are aimed not only to remove trade barriers between countries to stimulate world trade, but also to regulate trade in certain goods, for example agricultural products, which received much attention within the framework of the Uruguay Round of GATT. In addition to the agreement on agriculture, agreements were concluded on dairy products, on trade in civil aircraft, on textiles and clothing; an agreement has been reached on beef. Regulatory principles are manifested to an even greater extent in the activities of regional groupings, especially the EU. Thus, the activities of international organizations have a significant impact on world trade.
After World War II, when a group of European and Asian states embarked on the path of building socialism, economic relations between them were based on a fundamentally different basis than relations between capitalist countries. The development of ties between Eastern European countries was facilitated by the creation in 1949. Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA). The main feature of economic relations between the CMEA member countries was the planned nature of the development of trade turnover between them. At the same time, the main instrument was the coordination of national economic plans and the practice of concluding long-term trade agreements and annual protocols on mutual supplies
goods, which determined both total trade volumes and trade volumes for the most important commodity items.
Relations between the CMEA member countries were characterized by relative stability in prices for goods of mutual trade, despite the fact that they were based on world prices, which were subject to fluctuations, sometimes very sharp. Although this system had certain advantages (in particular, in the context of a sharp increase in oil prices in the 70s, the countries of Eastern Europe were able to gradually adapt to new prices), in general it did not contribute to the rational formation of relations between the countries that were members of the CMEA, led to the conservation of backward industries, and artificially supported the production of non-competitive goods. In the context of market reforms being carried out in Eastern European countries, they abandoned the planned principles of conducting mutual trade and switched to those accepted in world practice.
2. Dynamics of world trade Reasons for high rates of trade growth
In the post-war period, world trade developed at a relatively high pace, which was associated with the action of two groups of factors.
The first group is factors that contributed to the overall relatively favorable state of the economy, relatively high rates of economic growth and the fact that economic crises were not so deep and long-lasting. These include the influence of scientific and technological revolution, the increasing role of government regulation, etc.
The second group of factors that directly caused the growth of world trade include important shifts in production, which required the development of specialization and cooperation on an international scale. These processes affected the main branches of modern industry and were the main factor in the rapid growth of trade exchanges between countries. The growth of international trade was largely due to the products of the manufacturing industry.
The processes of international specialization and cooperation, brought to life by the modern stage of development of the productive forces, have been strengthened by the increased export of capital and the development of transnational corporations. TNCs, developing specialization and cooperation between
Chapter 3. World market and structural changes in world trade
2. Dynamics of world trade
I hope with my enterprises located in different countries, thereby contributing to the growth of international trade.
The expansion of international specialization and cooperation leads to a refusal in the foreign trade policy of industrialized countries from measures of import protectionism and a transition to the liberalization of foreign trade, the abolition of quantitative restrictions on imports and a significant reduction in customs duties. Import protectionism measures became an obstacle to the deepening of the international division of labor and contradicted the interests of TNCs, for which the abolition of various foreign trade restrictions is a necessary condition for the unhindered development of production relations between their enterprises abroad. In turn, the liberalization of foreign trade policy and the transition to a more open economy became a factor in the growth of international trade.
KOES shows the ratio of the national export structure for a specific product (or group of products in an industry) and the global structure of exports for a similar product (or group of products in a similar industry). It all depends on the purpose of the research - whether a particular product is a target for export or whether we are talking about a specific industry.
KOES = E's / E'm E's = E'is / E's E'm = E'im / E'm
KOES = E'is / E's: E'im / E'm = E'is / E'im * E'm / E's = E’is / E’im*(1 / (E’s / E’m))
Where is the share of a particular product or product of a particular industry in the country’s total exports?
Um is the share of world exports of a similar product or a set of goods of a similar industry in global exports.
Example: what indicators should be used to calculate KOES. I use the indicators from the previous question, spell them out: like a) / b), etc.
With the help of KOES, it is possible, as a first approximation, to determine the range of goods and, accordingly, industries that are internationally specialized for a given country. The higher this coefficient, the more reasons to consider the corresponding goods and industries as internationally specialized, and vice versa, the lower the coefficient, the less reason. If the KOES is higher than 1.5, then this indicates a clearly and clearly defined specialization of the country in the corresponding product or industry. It is considered that there is no international specialization for a product or industry if the KOES is less than 0.5.
The task is not excluded prove that a product is internationally specialized for a certain country. Or is it true that i-th industry is internationally specialized for country A, but not for B. There is no need to confuse the EKPO indicators of the export quota in the industry’s production and the country’s export quota. EKPO is the overall production quota of an industry, and a country's export quota is the ratio of a country's exports for a certain period to its ratio to GDP.
EXPO represents
EKPO = Ei / Pi, Where Ei is the volume of national exports of a total product or the totality of goods of the i-industry. Pi Volume of national production of a particular product or set of goods.
EKPO shows the extent to which the products of a given industry are oriented towards foreign markets. Analysis of the dynamics of this indicator gives an idea of the degree of international competitiveness of the products of the relevant industry for the corresponding period. It is clear that a steady increase in this indicator indicates a steady and stable increase in the international competitiveness of the corresponding products; if the trend is downward, then this is a signal of trouble. If a country's share in the world production of a certain industry is significantly higher than the export quota in the production of this industry of the country, then this is generally other things being equal indicates the discrepancy between the goods produced by the country in this industry and the world level of quality. It is important to take into account a number of other indicators.
The more significant the product of the leading manufacturing industries (products of the so-called secondary sector of the economy) occupies in the composition of the exported products of internationally specialized industries, the more progressive the international specialization of a country’s production is, the higher its level (higher the level of quality). And vice versa, the clear predominance of the country’s exports from the primary sector of the economy (products of extractive industries, forestry) is evidence of the country’s passive role in MRI and this is evidence of the relative backwardness of SMEs in the corresponding country.
The expansion of the product range (assortment) does not always indicate the international despecialization of the country; if the expansion of the country’s export range occurs due to internationally specialized products and the share of the latter in exports grows, then in fact there is an increase in the level of international specialization of the country. Expanding the export of products at the expense of internationally non-specialized products causes the opposite result. For example (a country that produces grain for itself enters the foreign market due to crop failure in the usual supplying countries)
International specialized products include not only products of internationally specialized industries. It also includes: products that are the subject of bilateral and multilateral agreements on international specialization and production cooperation. Some authors also include goods produced in one or several countries and fully covering the needs of the world market for them (but this does not happen spontaneously). This also includes the products of international companies produced on the basis of a division of labor between their foreign branches.
Points of view on the export of raw materials from the Russian Federation:
- The structure of commodity exports of the Russian Federation has a raw material orientation; therefore, it follows, as mentioned earlier, that the country’s international specialization is backward; it plays a passive role in international specialization. But this should not be interpreted as a humiliating role. From an economic point of view:
Subject-role interpretation (raw materials are an object plus its role). Raw materials, being the subject of labor, play a passive role in comparison with the tools of labor, but play an important role in production as a subject of labor. It is incorrect to pose the question as bad or good. Each element is important, but in its own way. Raw materials are by nature a passive element of labor, but without them there can be no production.
2. From the point of view of comparative advantages and economic efficiency (Andrey Illarionov) The fact itself is not a basis for critical assessments. It is important what labor productivity is achieved in the relevant industries. It is in the interests of the Russian Federation to engage not only in the export of raw materials, but also to stimulate the development of related industries for the oil and gas industry. For example, Norway, it has a similar export structure. If you do not develop your advantages, you can lose them; you need to develop complementary production niches plus restore the means of production. (There is pre-revolutionary equipment in the White Sea) When Norway began to develop the North Sea shelf, they used 100% American equipment, but set the task of minimizing this dependence plus becoming an exporter of this equipment to other countries. There was an improvement in exports due to the oil industry.
