IN Lately the interest of specialists in various fields of activity has increased in rumors: psychologists, sociologists, image makers, journalists, specialists in the field of public relations, marketing, advertising; specialists providing information and propaganda support to the activities of government and law enforcement agencies. And it is not surprising, since rumors are an important factor in the formation of public opinion, the image of an individual, organization, and enterprise.
From the article, the reader will learn about the causes and conditions for the occurrence of rumors, what a rumor is and what its signs are. Finally, why do people tend to trust rumors? And one more thing: it turns out that rumors can be managed, and in an organization this should be done by managers and employees personnel services.
Rumors in the history of human civilization appeared as long ago as communication in general. The exchange of information in the form of rumors is stimulated by the orienting reflex. On early stages development of mankind, this was the only way to exchange significant information regarding the satisfaction of basic needs - about sources of danger, vital resources, the facts of life of a hierarchically structured group, etc. According to experts, the ability to transfer information from one individual to another was the key to survival primitive communities.
Russian psychologist Sergei Bezzubtsev sees the prerequisites for the functioning of rumors:
Firstly, is that with the development of civilization, the improvement of specialization and division of labor, the complication of intra-group and inter-group connections, the need for the exchange of information and its collective interpretation increased;
Secondly, The point is that, when faced with an incomprehensible phenomenon and not finding a satisfactory explanation on his own, a person has long been accustomed to turning to the community for help.
Recently, the interest of specialists in various fields of activity has increased in rumors: psychologists, sociologists, specialists in the field of public relations, marketing, advertising, image makers, journalists; specialists providing information and propaganda support to the activities of government and law enforcement agencies. And it is not surprising, since rumors are an important factor in the formation of public opinion, the image of an individual, organization, and enterprise. They are a kind of distorting mirror, which reflects already existing attitudes, stereotypes, ideas, and expectations of people.
Rumors can also be seriously destructive and negatively affect the work motivation of staff. Against the backdrop of rumors, panic and disorganization of vital technological cycles may arise. They often seriously compromise political leaders, government agencies, law enforcement agencies, the army, trademarks, and brands. In some organizations, rumors are the most powerful means of communication. They often spread faster than official information.
But the element of rumors can be controlled. Modern research in the field of organizational psychology and marketing they prove that rumors can be purposefully created, for example, with the aim of increasing profits. Currently, propaganda using rumors, according to some experts in the field of mass communication, is on a par with propaganda through the press, radio, television and cinema. Among the professions related to the use of communication technologies, such as rumor specialist, or rumor maker, has appeared. Working with rumors, in particular combating them, is one of the mandatory tasks of public relations services. And internal organizational rumors should be managed by managers and employees of human resources departments of enterprises.
Causes and conditions for the emergence of rumors
Before we begin to consider the causes and conditions of occurrence, methods and techniques for working with rumors, it is worth understanding what a rumor is. This is not an idle question. Many researchers have attempted to give such a definition, but there is no generally accepted one yet. Moreover, there have been differences in the understanding of hearing in social psychology and marketing. It is necessary to give a working definition that would allow solving practical problems associated with rumors. This definition can be formulated by analyzing the signs of rumors.
Uncertainty of information reliability. This characteristic of information can fluctuate over a very wide range: from plausible to completely unreliable. The breadth of the spectrum of reliability of information transmitted by rumor is a consequence of the fact that in the process of dissemination, the plot of the rumor undergoes changes in the direction of adaptation to the mental needs of communicators (storytellers) and recipients (listeners). That is why, according to some researchers, rumors are not completely reliable. When transmitted orally, they are inevitably subject to distortion and always sin in some way against the truth.
Collective authorship, anonymity. Rumor transmitted orally is a product of collective creativity, a collective attempt to explain a problematic and emotionally charged situation, even if it was launched deliberately. The most important function hearing is the interpretation of current events.
An important characteristic of hearing is traditionally considered to be its orality. “Hearing,” writes Georgy Pocheptsov, “fundamentally belongs to non-written communication. It spreads through the oral environment and loses many of its qualities when it ends up on the pages of, for example, newspapers. There it serves only as a reason for refutation or confirmation, but is no longer an independent unit.” Hearing is transmitted orally from person to person. Orality presupposes a high degree of orientation towards the recipient of the message, taking into account his interests and needs. The hearing must inspire confidence in the listener. Messages broadcast by the media can be considered as an informational reason for rumor, giving rise to its transmission from one person to another, while being significantly transformed.
At the same time, recent publications devoted to rumors, in particular their use in marketing, give reason to question the fundamental oral nature of rumors. Almost all authors who touch on the topic of using rumors in marketing write about the possibility and necessity of broadcasting rumors on the Internet. Moreover, Sergei Bezzubtsev, considering the territorial space of hearing, notes that “as the spatial unit enlarges, all higher value acquire not personal (“word of mouth”), but mass communications - news agencies, mass media, television and radio broadcasts, the Internet, etc. If at the level of one department or small company oral transmission of rumors is quite enough, then at the corporate level letters can already be used e-mail, notes and notes on the factory sheet, etc. On the industry market, exhibitions, leaflets, and specialized media get involved. The global level cannot do without the help of mass communications.”
But such a position also cannot satisfy us, since it leads to the loss of the phenomenon. If the media begins to broadcast information that is the content of a rumor, without indicating its origin, then how will this message differ from the array of other information of dubious reliability that is also published in the media? Obviously, a certain restriction is still necessary to separate rumors from other information broadcast by the media (below we will talk about cases of appeal to rumors in the media, its analysis as an element of reality).
The solution, in our opinion, is to accept the condition proposed by the American specialist in the field of oral advertising Godfrey Harris. He believes that only those messages that meet one of two conditions can be classified as oral advertising:
transmitted directly from one individual to another or
transmitted in writing, by email or other means between people who know each other.
Thus, if a rumor is transmitted in writing or by e-mail in some way to a familiar person, then it generally retains its properties. But media reports, from this point of view, cannot be considered rumors. They can be considered as an informational occasion, a seed for hearing.
Brightness hearing The information contained in it should evoke a certain emotional reaction in a person, in particular surprise, a feeling of touching a secret, and fear.
History has recorded many striking events that gave rise to an avalanche of rumors. During World War II, the subject of intense rumors among British troops was the commander of the German Afrika Korps, Erwin Rommel. When he arrived in Africa, he had only two divisions at his disposal, as well as exhausted Italian troops whose morale left much to be desired. There was a decided shortage of tanks, so Rommel started making dummies from scrap materials. Such fake tanks, mounted on ordinary army Volkswagens, moved from place to place and frightened the British, while the real ones combat vehicles concentrated for the decisive blow. When the Germans finally attacked, the British retreated in disarray, convinced that a large force was moving against them. Another time, Rommel put to flight an enemy who had a numerical advantage by ordering rakes and harrows to be tied to tanks and vehicles. In this way, they managed to raise so much dust into the air that the British decided that an entire tank armada was moving against them. Having dug anti-aircraft guns into the sand, Rommel lured British tanks to them. The British not only lost many vehicles, but also came to the conclusion that German tank guns had incredible killing power.
The quick and effective victories of the commander of the Afrika Korps created many admirers for him on both sides of the front. This naturally gave rise to numerous rumors. It got to the point that the English general Auchinleck tried to ban the mention of his name. The British general's order stated: “There is a real danger that the infamous Rommel will become something of an obsession for our troops. The soldiers tell tales about him, and his name has a hypnotic effect on them. He is by no means a superman, although talk of his abilities and energy is not without foundation. In this regard, it would be highly undesirable for our people to attribute supernatural qualities to him. I demand that explanatory work be carried out among the troops and everyone accessible ways convince the personnel that Rommel is nothing more than ordinary German general. I appeal to you Special attention to the fact that we should not now use the word “Rommel” when referring to our enemy in Libya. Without specification, one should talk about “Germans”, “enemy armed forces” or “enemy”. As we can see, the order makes the first attempts to counter the rumors.
Relevance(topicality, interestingness) of information disseminated in the form of rumors. Rumors, describing an event or phenomenon that is the subject of rumors themselves, also reflect public opinion, more general social stereotypes and attitudes, and the overall information situation in the region.
Another feature is associated with the relevance of rumors as an element of mass communication. According to Georgy Pocheptsov, rumors have a certain terminality events falling within their sphere. He does not define this concept, but from the context of use it follows that terminal events are events that attract general interest and cause public resonance. Such events include: the death of a famous singer, the suicide of a high-ranking official, the news of major disaster etc. The characters in rumors often turn out to be famous personalities. “...A certain brightness of the content of the rumor is achieved both by the terminalization of the events presented in it, and by the popularity of the heroes of these events.”
Rice. Signs of hearing
Classification of rumors
Relevance can also be considered as a temporary characteristic of a rumor, that is, how long a rumor can exist. In this understanding, the relevance of a rumor can be measured in days, months, years and even centuries, when rumors become legends.
Georgy Pocheptsov notes that an important communicative characteristic of rumors is self-broadcasting as a result of combining the named characteristics. This quality consists in the fact that the rumor is necessarily subject to further broadcast. The person who receives the rumor becomes a storyteller, a relay of this rumor. This does not require any additional conditions. Georgy Pocheptsov also considers anecdotes to be messages with a similar characteristic. “The nature of a self-transmitted message is such that it is difficult to retain. In any case, a person tries to pass it on, and having passed it on, he experiences psychological relief.”
Georgy Pocheptsov offers several explanations for the property of self-transmission of rumors:
determined by the content of the hearing. As a rule, a rumor contains information that interests everyone, but is kept silent by the media;
rumors as an indirect manifestation of the collective unconscious, certain archetypal* phenomena.
as a response to collective anxious expectations;
rumor is a response to public desire, idea.
Speaking about the self-transmission of rumor, it is necessary to make a clarification to avoid excessive simplification or, on the contrary, a broad interpretation of the concept of rumor, which is found in works devoted to the use of rumors in marketing.
So, rumor is self-transmitting, unofficial information with an uncertain degree of reliability, communicated either in the process of direct interpersonal communication, or indirectly transmitted by the subject to familiar communication participants.
The definition does not reflect the signs of relevance, brightness, or focus on satisfying any need, since they are united by the concept of self-translation.
Rumors are an important content component informal communication. However, these phenomena cannot be identified, since the content of informal communication can be not only rumors, but, for example, sincere messages of an intimate nature about the feelings, experiences of partners and other information.
There is a discrepancy between the scientific interpretation of the concept of hearing and its everyday understanding. Sergei Bezzubtsev notes that in everyday consciousness, rumors are most often identified with gossip and are understood by people as a detached phenomenon that does not directly concern them (“there are rumors somewhere”). This author believes that the rumor refers to gossip as a generic concept to a specific one.
Why do people tend to trust rumors? According to Sergei Bezzubtsev, the main factor contributing to this is information overload. This is precisely what explains the fact that people in a situation of choice are often guided by the opinions of their own kind, rather than looking for independent decisions. Such behavior is biologically justified in many cases, since it frees a person from the burden of responsibility of decisions, saves time, and makes it possible to focus attention on other relevant phenomena.
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* Archetype- term of analytical psychology, its central concept. Denotes the essence, form and method of connection of inherited unconscious prototypes and structures of the psyche, passing from generation to generation. - Dictionary of a practical psychologist / Comp. S. Yu. Golovin. - Minsk: Harvest. - 1997.- P. 34.
LITERATURE
Bezzubtsev S. Rumors that work for you. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2003.
Aleshina I. V. Public relations for managers and marketers. - M.: Gnome-Press, 1997.
Social Psychology. Brief essay/ Under general ed. G. P. Predvechny and Yu. A. Sherkovin. - M.: Politizdat, 1975.
Pocheptsov G. G. Information wars. Fundamentals of military communication studies. - Rivne: “Volinsky amulets”, 1999.
Pocheptsov G. G. Communication technologies of the twentieth century. - M.: Refl-book, K.: Wakler, 1999.
Harris G. A word is worth its weight in gold: Trans. from English / Godfrey Harris. - M.: Vershina, 2003.
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Throughout life, people are bound to encounter rumors. Their circulation may have virtually no impact on people's lives, or may change the fate of a person or an entire group of people, a company, or even a country, and may also cause a serious tragedy. For example, in 1989, 54 people, mostly schoolchildren, died in Cameroon. The tragedy occurred in a large building that housed several educational institutions. The building had just been built, but renovations began immediately. At the same time, there were rumors that it was built on unstable sandy soil and could collapse. On the day of the tragedy, a teacher in one of the classes asked an excessively noisy student to leave the lesson, who, in retaliation, loudly slammed the door and shouted in the corridor: “Save yourself who can.” This was enough to cause sudden panic. Some children and students died in a stampede on the only staircase in the building, others fell to their death while jumping out of windows . At the beginning of the 20th century, the US economy was developing dynamically. Shares of many companies grew in price very quickly. To stabilize the economic environment, the Federal Reserve Bank set a cap on the bank loan interest rate that leading companies took out to buy stock. At the same time, commercial banks, colluding with the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE), provided loans for the purchase of shares at minimum percentage. As a result, shares could be purchased with 90% credit. Economists were generally optimistic about the prospects for economic development. But in the fall of 1929, there was a rumor that the owners of leading organizations and banks were leaving the market valuable papers and sell their shares. In one day there was a collapse of securities, which is considered the beginning of the Great Depression in the United States .
What are rumors? Ozhegov’s dictionary gives the following definition: “Rumor, news about someone, something, usually not yet confirmed by anything.” This definition coincides with our everyday understanding of this phenomenon. T. Shibutani - American social psychologist examined rumors regarding their function in society, and defined them as a circulating form of communication that people use to interpret ambiguous events.
The generalized socio-psychological interpretation is as follows: rumors are “ specific type interpersonal communication, in the process of which a plot, to a certain extent reflecting some real or fictitious events, becomes the property of a vast diffuse audience.”
The material accumulated to date allows us to highlight the following: basic characteristics hearing:
> anonymity;
> interpersonal transmission channel;
> predominantly oral distribution;
> thematic specificity (affects the needs and interests of certain groups and segments of the population);
> uncertainty of content or some ambiguity;
> bright emotional coloring;
> one-time reproducibility (one person is told once);
> circulation (the speaker passes on to the listener, who passes on to the next);
> situational determination (rumors are transmitted by all people regardless of their individual, personal and social characteristics).
Rumors have a functional purpose in the life of society. Before the development of mass communication, rumors were the main method and channel for the dissemination of information for most of the history of human civilization. They made up for its deficiency, which inevitably arose at all times and in all countries. In the 20th century, despite the fact that information became the prerogative of the media, rumors as a social phenomenon were preserved and, in the light of new conditions, acquired specific functions. Among the main functions of rumors at the individual level can be called:
> social orientation;
> meeting current needs, including: information;
X in dominance and control of the situation; f in prestige;
X in emotional release; g in entertainment; X in affiliation;
> influencing people in order to achieve political, economic, military goals. Among the goals of such a plan are: X forming opinions about an event, situation, person, product;
g preparation for the occurrence of an event; X distracting a competitor from productive actions; f inciting unrest, fear, uncertainty.
At the group level, the main functions of rumors are:
> formation and preservation of social identity (based on the opposition between us and them);
> increasing the homogeneity of opinions in the group, and, as a consequence, increasing the homogeneity of the group itself
> strengthening of group differentiation.
Rumors are actively used in economics, politics, election campaigns, and international communication. According to numerous expert estimates, the information impact on the population through rumors and gossip is now almost on a par with the impact through the press, radio, television and cinema. At the same time, rumors can have positive, negative and neutral consequences, which are quite difficult to calculate in advance, since during circulation the rumor can change greatly and, in fact, turn into a completely different rumor.
What motivates people to turn to rumors? First of all, there is a lack of information. G. Allport and L. Postman in 1947 formulated the “basic law of rumors,” reflecting the dependence of the intensity (quantity) of rumors on the importance of events (issues) and the ambiguity of information about them. The probability of hearing occurring is displayed in a formula that expresses the generalization, be a function of the importance of the subject and its ambiguity, that is R = ixa,
R - intensity of rumors,
i - importance;
a - ambiguity.
A lack of information creates psychological discomfort in a person and is accompanied by negative emotions. This situation can be explained using the need-information theory of emotions by P. V. Simonov, which is expressed in the formula:
E - emotion, its strength and quality;
P - strength and quality of current need;
II - information necessary to satisfy current needs;
And c - existing information, i.e. the information that a person has at the moment;
(I„ - I s) - assessment of the likelihood of need satisfaction based on innate and ontogenetic experience.
In accordance with this theory, a person’s emotional state is determined by the quality and intensity of the actual need at a given moment in time and the assessment that he gives of the likelihood of its satisfaction, i.e. availability of the necessary information to satisfy this need. For example, the emotion of fear develops when there is a lack of information about the means necessary to protect .
As mentioned earlier, any information undergoes certain changes during transmission. Rumors are no exception. G. Allport and L. Postman identified the main trends in changes in the content of hearing in social and individual memory. These trends are:
- 1) smoothing;
- 2) sharpening;
- 3) device
At smoothing unimportant details disappear, and the hearing becomes shorter: the number of topics and words in it decreases. Maximum smoothing and compression of hearing occurs at the very beginning of its circulation. For example, when describing an accident, the color and make of the colliding cars can be smoothed out. Trend in sharpening is expressed in the fact that important and significant details of hearing for a particular audience are emphasized, and the message can acquire new details that were missing before. For example, the number of victims in an accident may increase or their nationality may become significant. Which details will be “smoothed out” and which will be emphasized depends on the stereotypes and attitudes of the audience. Adjustment to the currently relevant needs and interests of the audience, attitudes and stereotypes is called device All the trends identified by the authors act together, as a result of which the information of the transmitted message differs significantly from the original one.
The timing of rumors varies. As a rule, a typical incriminating rumor circulates for two weeks. There are rumors that fade away very quickly; they can be called momentary rumors. There are also rumors that significantly exceed the two-week period. For example, rumors that Elvis Presley is alive.
So, we can say that a rumor is an unverified and usually inaccurate report, story or characteristic that is usually passed around a community orally. “Rumors tend to arise during periods of social tension; they usually concern people or events in which there is significant interest, but about which there is little specific, reliable information. As rumors spread, they tend to undergo both leveling (becoming shorter simple ones) and sharpening (strengthening certain details and neglecting others).”
Typology of origin: rumors can be spontaneous, spontaneously arising, or deliberately fabricated, purposefully disseminated. Intermediate varieties are also possible. Sometimes a rumor arises spontaneously, but, once on certain ground, it finds interested, zealous distributors who are ready to embellish the information in accordance with their interests. It also happens the other way around, when initially a rumor was started deliberately, but subsequently, falling into spontaneously operating socio-psychological mechanisms, it is strengthened many times over by them.
In conditions of information and psychological counteraction, rumors are deliberately fabricated, purposefully disseminated and operationally supported. At the same time, as a study of the practice of such activities shows, a limited arsenal of technologies is used. Let's look at them in more detail.
“Fabricated” - created specifically to create interest, based on a specific goal.
1. Technology “Azazel” (“Sufferer”, “Labeling”). Its essence is the formation in the public consciousness of strong associative connections between the image of the main character of the rumor and material or spiritual objects that are significant for the audience. So, if with the help of hearing it is necessary to raise social status person, then in the reported information he is presented as a person who suffered from the authorities for the people. If the goal is to reduce the social status of the object of communication, then in the hearing he is presented as a person guilty of the unfavorable development of certain events (“Labeling”).
2. “Piano in the Bush” technologies. This technology identifies those aspects and properties of an object that the audience wants to have an idea about and, depending on the purpose of the influence, forms an emotionally positive or negatively colored hearing. So, if the masses especially value such human qualities as decency, will, and the ability to achieve goals, then in hearing the main character should be endowed with precisely these qualities, and the enemy with the opposite. The technology under consideration also involves the formation in the public consciousness of the importance and value of certain qualities with the subsequent presentation to the audience of a candidate who, as if by chance, is endowed with precisely these qualities. Some time ago, the media actively promoted the idea that the most important personality trait of the “ideal” leader of St. Petersburg is the ability to effectively decide social problems. It is not surprising that Valentina Matvienko soon put forward her candidacy for the post of governor of St. Petersburg.
3. Technologies “Transfer”, “Authority”. If it is necessary to raise the prestige of a character, then in hearing his personality, actions, objects belonging to him are somehow shown in association with the qualities, properties, objects of an authoritative person.
4. The “Racket” technology consists of shamelessly attributing to a character a rumor of an action, achievement, personal quality another, usually an authoritative, respected person.
5. The “Bluff” technology involves communicating information about the great capabilities, abilities and actions of the rumor character. This could be involved here: psychological mechanism As a statement, for example, that X will win the election, part of the electorate gradually develops the habit of thinking in this direction, which is subsequently implemented in elections in the act of voting.
6. Test technology is used to check possible reaction audience for certain events, innovations, specific people. In this case, a rumor is started about the possibility of an event occurring, the reaction of the audience is monitored and, in accordance with it, a decision is made on the fate of this event.
In managing rumors, in addition to the “launch” channels, it is necessary to take into account the conditions in which rumors are transmitted. In part, we are able to control them. For example, human conditions such as anxiety and uncertainty contribute to the speed at which rumors spread. The involvement of relatives, friends and colleagues in events increases their authenticity. More immediate information is also more trusted. The personality of the interlocutor plays an important role. Trust in hearing is higher if there is an authoritative distance between the source of information and its consumer (age, material, hierarchical, etc.), there is an element of admiration for the interlocutor, and also if the source belongs to circles that are inaccessible to the listener.
In addition to the so-called “targeted”, “organized” or simply “launched” rumors from the outside, they can be spontaneous, spontaneously arising. Spontaneous" - are a product of a certain situation. Such rumors are not created purposefully, they arise spontaneously.
There are two main typologies of rumors. One classification of rumors is based on the degree of their reliability, the other puts their emotional coloring at the center.
1. Information typology. Since rumors are always unreliable information to one degree or another, one of the most obvious ways to construct a typology of rumors comes down to classifying them according to the degree of reliability of the information contained. From this point of view, rumors are divided into four types - from “absolutely unreliable”, through “simply unreliable”, to “reliable” and “close to reality”.
1. Absolutely unreliable
2. Simply unreliable
3. Relatively reliable
4. Close to reality
2. “Emotional” typology. From the point of view of emotional characteristics, there are three main types of rumors. In the interpretation of Yu.A. Sherkovina. A “desire-rumor” is a rumor containing a strong emotional desire that reflects the current needs and expectations of the audience in which it is disseminated. A striking example of rumors of this kind is considered to be the persistent rumors among the Russian peasantry in the mid-19th century about imminent liberation from serfdom. Sometimes such rumors connected the release with certain conditions - for example, they said that they would release participants in the war with Turkey (because many peasants voluntarily asked to go to the front), that they would start with veterans of the war with Napoleon, etc.
“Hearing-desire” performs a dual function. On the one hand, it corresponds to the wishes of people, and therefore maintains the tone of their social existence. These kinds of rumors calm down and hinder development negative emotions, do not allow panic and excessive aggressiveness to develop. On the other hand, such rumors demoralize the population, creating inflated expectations. When over time it becomes obvious that desires are not destined to come true, opposite phenomena may arise - outbreaks of aggressive behavior, panic reactions, hatred towards those who allegedly “promised” but did not fulfill what they promised. Such rumors are actively used to manipulate the psychology of the masses.
A “scarecrow” is a rumor that carries and evokes pronounced negative, frightening moods and emotional states that reflect some relevant but unwanted expectations of the audience in which they arise and spread. Typically, rumors of this type arise during periods of social tension (natural disaster, war, preparations for a military coup, etc.). Their plots range from the simply pessimistic to the downright panicky. Such rumors become especially widespread in situations of complex social and political reforms, change of government, regime or socio-political system as a whole. In such situations, a limited set of stories appears that act as the core of frightening rumors. Some of them are modified depending on cultural, religious or national traditions, but the main part remains virtually unchanged.
The most common are “scarecrow rumors” based on the supposedly inevitable increase in food prices, their disappearance and impending famine.
The degree of effectiveness of hearing is often determined by faith in the honesty of the communicator. He may be unattractive, even a casual encounter, but very effective as a communicator. There is also the opposite type of message source. People with common views and values for which the object of rumor is a unifying link. Another source may be the so-called “personal authority”. For example, for a schoolchild it is a teacher, for a patient it is a doctor, for a subordinate it is a charismatic leader.
The results of influence on people's consciousness and behavior are highlighted by rumors:
1) disturbing public opinion, but not going beyond the scope of antisocial behavior;
2) causing antisocial behavior of a certain part of the population;
3) destroying social ties between people and resulting in mass unrest;
Rumors often turn comrades and friends into enemies, sweep away political leaders and parties from the political arena, elevate or destroy the prestige of people, turn combat-ready regiments and divisions into a pitiful crowd of alarmists, destroy families, and give rise to pessimism and disbelief in one’s own strength.
Chapter 2. Fighting rumors
1. Rumor management. Counteraction and prevention
As mentioned above, rumors can and should be managed. But predicting the behavior of rumors is quite difficult. There are still no clear methods and technologies for rumor management. An important issue in rumor management is the question of how rumors are started. The most important aspect here is the selection and coordination of launch channels. Main channels for spreading rumors:
1. Rumors spread through central, local TV channels, cable TV or simply the distribution of videotapes.
2. Rumors spread through radio broadcasts.
3. Rumors spread through print media.
According to some researchers, the rumors are at least 75% accurate.
Communications depending on the spatial arrangement of channels and the direction of communication. Information through channels is transmitted vertically - from top to bottom, from bottom to top, as well as in the horizontal plane and diagonally (table).
Downward Communications– communications directed from top to bottom – from the manager to the subordinates.
Upward communications– communications directed from the bottom up – from subordinates to the manager.
Nonverbal human behavior is associated with his psychological state and serves as a means of expressing it. No matter how hard a person tries, he cannot resist nonverbal messages. Nonverbal behavior helps create the image of a communication partner.
Nonverbal communication is based on information sent by the sender without using words. The main purpose of nonverbal means is to supplement and replace speech, to reflect the emotional states of participants in the communication process. It helps to sharpen and correct the understanding of the verbal message and enhances the emotional richness of what is said.
Kinesic means of communication.Kinesics– visually perceived movements of another person, performing an expressive-regulatory function in communication. Kinesics– studying the interlocutor by his gestures, facial expressions, postures, gait, views.
Gestures– various movements of the hands and head, the meaning of which is clear to the communicating parties. The specific meaning of individual gestures varies across cultures. However, all cultures have similar gestures.
The following gestures are often observed when communicating:
assessment gestures: scratching the chin; extending the index finger along the cheek, the remaining fingers below the mouth; standing up and walking around; tilted head;
gestures of confidence: connecting your fingers into a pyramid dome, rocking on a chair, putting your hands behind your head;
Gestures of nervousness and uncertainty: intertwined fingers; tingling palm; tapping the table with your fingers; touching the back of a chair before sitting on it; touching cufflinks, watches, buttons, handbags;
self-control gestures: hands are brought together behind the back, one at the same time squeezing the other by the wrist or forearm; the pose of a person sitting on a chair with his hands grasping the armrests or clenching his fists, while his ankles are brought together;
prohibition gestures: arms folded or crossed on the chest; body tilted back; the manner of sitting astride a chair with legs wide apart, the temple of glasses in the mouth;
waiting gestures: rubbing palms; slowly wiping wet palms on a cloth;
dominance gestures: display of thumbs; sharp swings of the arms from top to bottom;
gestures of insincerity and doubt: protecting the mouth with the hand, touching the nose, rubbing the eyelid, scratching and rubbing the ear, scratching the neck, pulling the collar, turning the body away from the interlocutor;
gestures of disappointment and hostility: clasped fingers (they can be raised to the level of the face, hands with clasped fingers can lie on the table, on your knees when sitting, or below in front of you in a standing position).
Facial expressions – movements of facial muscles. In the specialized literature there are more than 20,000 descriptions of facial expressions. It should be noted that the main characteristic of facial expressions is its integrity and dynamism. In the facial expression of six basic emotional states: anger, contempt, suffering, fear, surprise, joy - all facial movements are coordinated.
Pose – position of the human body, typical for a specific environment, culture; is a unit of human spatial behavior. The human body is capable of taking about 1000 different stable positions. Posture clearly shows a person's perception of his own status in relation to the status of other persons present. People with higher status tend to adopt more relaxed postures than their subordinates.
The main semantic content of the pose is the placement of the individual’s body in relation to the interlocutor. This placement indicates either closedness or a willingness to communicate.
There are “closed” and “open” poses. Closed, when a person tries to somehow close the front part of the body and occupy as much space as possible less space in space are perceived as poses of distrust, disagreement, opposition, criticism. Open are perceived as poses of trust, agreement, goodwill, and psychological comfort. There are also poses of reflection (for example, the pose of Rodin's thinker) and poses of critical assessment (hand under the chin, index finger extended towards the eyelid). There is a “Napoleonic” pose: a) standing, with your arms crossed on your chest, and b) sitting, with both hands resting on your chin.
Gait – style of movement. Research shows that the “heaviest” gait is when you are angry, the “lightest” when you are happy. Longest stride length with pride. Sluggish, depressed gait - with suffering.
Sight – the most natural means of non-verbal communication.
The direction of gaze shows to whom (or what) the interlocutor’s attention is directed, and also gives feedback, i.e., shows how the interlocutor relates to the message.
Gaze is used to establish relationships. When a person wants to establish a warmer relationship with his interlocutor, he looks for his gaze. Looking into your eyes for too long is alarming.
During communication, the speaker's gaze should meet the interlocutor's eyes about 60-70% of the entire communication time. A shorter contact time indicates a lack of trust in the interlocutor. It is not recommended to wear dark glasses during business conversations and negotiations, otherwise the interlocutor will think that he is being looked at point-blank. With the help of the eyes, the most accurate and open signals of interpersonal communication are transmitted, since they occupy a central place on a person’s face and, in addition, the dilation and contraction of the pupils cannot be consciously controlled.
The duration of the gaze, as well as body language, depends on the national culture. Thus, residents of Southern Europe have a high gaze frequency, which may seem offensive to other peoples. During a business conversation, the Japanese do not look at the face, but rather at the neck. In this regard, before drawing any conclusions, one should take into account the nationality of those communicating.
Characteristics of voice and speech classified as prosodic and extralinguistic means of communication. Prosody is the general name for such rhythmic and intonation aspects of speech as pitch, volume of voice tone, voice timbre, stress force. Extralinguistic component of speech – inclusion of pauses in speech, as well as various kinds of psychophysiological manifestations of a person: crying, coughing, laughter, sigh.
With the help of prosodic and extralinguistic means, speech flows are regulated and linguistic means of communication are saved. They complement, replace and anticipate speech utterances and express emotional states.
Grief, sadness, and fatigue are usually conveyed in a soft and muffled voice with a decrease in intonation towards the end of the phrase.
Observations show that a smooth, calm, measured manner of speech is the most attractive in communication.
Rapid speech indicates excitement and concern about something. Slow speech reflects depression, grief, arrogance or fatigue.
“The energy of speech” is very important in business communication: its expression and tonal variability. Listeners are impressed by this manner of behavior when the speaker does not fuss, but speaks emotionally, without hiding his feelings and beliefs, conveying them with a variety of intonations. Often the true meaning of a message lies in intonation. How we speak is in many cases more important than what we say.
The main task of pauses is psychological. With its help, the speaker can attract attention and arouse interest among interlocutors. If the speaker takes a short pause before and after an important message, then in this way he emphasizes it. A pause can be used between individual elements of thought: phrases, sentences.
Takesic means of communication. TO tactical means of communication include dynamic touches in the form of a handshake, patting, and kissing. They have been proven to be a biologically necessary form of communication stimulation. The use of these means of communication is determined by a number of factors, such as the status of partners, age, gender, and degree of acquaintance.
There are three types handshakes: dominant (when the hand is on top and the palm is turned down), submissive (when the hand is below and the palm is turned up), equal (when both hands remain in a vertical position).
Shaking with a straight, unbent hand is a sign of disrespect. At the same time, the person seeks to maintain distance and remind of inequality.
Shaking your fingertips is similar to shaking with a straight, unbent hand. The initiator of such a handshake wants to keep the communication partner at a comfortable distance.
A handshake using both hands expresses sincerity or depth of feeling towards a partner.
Pat on the shoulder is possible provided there are close relationships and equality of the social status of those communicating.
Takesical means of communication serve as an indicator of status-role relationships and symbolize the degree of closeness of communicating people.
Space acts as a special sign system and carries a semantic load. One of the first to study the spatial structure of communication was the American scientist E. Hall. He also coined the term “proxemics” (from English. proximity- proximity). This is the distance that people keep when communicating (table).
Table
Communication distances characteristic of North American culture
Allan Pease in his book “Body Language” writes that distances are the same for a person of average social level, regardless of where he lives: in North America, England or Australia.
Relationships between people are carried out not only in space, but also in time. How a person manages his own and other people’s time is an important social sign. Accuracy and punctuality of behavior indicate respect for the other person. If you make someone else wait, then you are declaring your right to control the situation.
Rumors are usually classified according to three parameters:
Expressive (in accordance with the emotional state expressed in the content of the hearing and the characteristics of emotional reactions to it);
Informational (in accordance with the degree of reliability of the plot of the rumor);
According to the degree of influence on the psyche of people.
According to expressive characteristics, the following are distinguished: *
rumors-desires, in which the disseminated information is intended to cause subsequent disappointment about unfulfilled expectations or demoralization of the target (for example, during the First World War in France and Germany, rumors about the imminent end of the war were deliberately spread, which, naturally, did not come true, which caused mass manifestations of discontent in these countries); *
scarecrow rumors, in which the information disseminated with their help is intended to initiate a state of anxiety and uncertainty in the target of influence (these could be rumors about the creation of superweapons, about food shortages, etc.); *
dividing aggressive rumors, with the help of which they seek to disrupt social ties and cause discord in relationships among specific people.
According to the information characteristics, the following are distinguished: absolutely unreliable; unreliable; unreliable with elements of credibility; plausible rumors.
According to the degree of influence on the psyche of people, rumors are divided into: *
disturbing public opinion in general or in certain groups of people, but not causing clearly expressed forms of antisocial behavior; *
causing antisocial behavior of certain social groups; *
disrupting social ties and organizational and managerial relations between people and causing riots, panic, etc.
For example, on the eve of any social cataclysm, frequent rumors about a possible famine led to pogroms of shops.
The use of rumors requires great skill and caution, since their content, once they begin to spread, gets out of control. During the dissemination, the content of rumors often undergoes changes, even acquiring the opposite meaning.
Let us consider in detail the main types of rumors.
A rumor-desire reflects the current needs and expectations of the audience in which it is distributed.
A striking example of socio-political rumors of this kind are rumors that persistently circulated among the Russian peasantry in the first third of the 19th century about imminent liberation from serfdom. Sometimes such rumors linked release with certain conditions. So, they said that they would release participants in the war with Turkey (which is why many peasants voluntarily asked to go to the front), that they would start with veterans of the war with Napoleon, etc.
Judging by archival data, the “launch” of such rumors was carried out by the authorities consciously and purposefully, to stimulate and reinforce patriotic sentiments, in particular, to intensify military conscription. In the spread of such rumors, relevant government bodies, in particular the police and gendarmerie.
Rumors-desires initially create a complacent mood in the audience. Meanwhile, the circulation of rumors and desires is often fraught devastating consequences. After all, the greater the expectation, the greater the subsequent disappointment. This technique was developed by Wehrmacht specialists and was very successfully used in military operations.
During the “Phantom War” of 1939-1940, when German and Anglo-French troops languished in the trenches for months without taking any action, German agents actively disseminated information of this kind among enemy soldiers: “Before the New Year there will be a revolution in Germany”; “Negotiations with the Germans will begin soon”... The subsequent German tank attack through Belgium, bypassing the Maginot Line and reaching the rear of the French fortifications, led to the panic of its defenders, and they capitulated.
In the winter of 1942, when Japanese bombers began to reach California, the enemy spread a rumor among its residents: “The Japanese will not have enough gasoline even for 6 months” ... The goal was to cause disappointment over the unfulfilled hopes of stopping the bombing and the associated frustration and demoralization.
Sample effective application The preparations for the capture of Warsaw in September 1939 also became a Wehrmacht of rumors and desires.
With the outbreak of hostilities in the Polish capital, the regular publication of newspapers and radio broadcasts was disrupted. The intense interest in information and its scarcity created ideal ground for rumors, and the German spies could only give them the desired direction. “Our (Polish) troops are pressing on all fronts, they are already approaching Koenigsberg; the Germans are not ready for war, they do not have enough ammunition, instead of aerial bombs they use steel rails,” the townspeople enthusiastically told each other. To fuel these rumors, bombers actually dropped fragments of rails in a number of cases: a steel object whistles loudly, like a bomb, as it falls, scares, but, of course, does not explode...
The euphoric Warsaw residents did not care about organizing assistance to the front or the defense of the city. Finally, the appearance of fascist troops against such a background produced a shock and demoralized the population, which as a result did not offer resistance.
And here is an example of the use of rumors by the Americans in Afghanistan. Based on the fact that a certain part of Afghans violate prohibitions if they know that they are not the first; was launched
rumor that the government has allocated more than 100 million Afghanis as a reward for the American Stinger missiles handed over to the authorities, and that more than twenty people have already exchanged their Stingers for a million Afghanis. A week later, people appeared who wanted to sell rockets.
The scarecrow rumor carries a threat and causes pronounced negative moods and emotional condition fear and horror, reflecting some relevant but highly undesirable expectations of the audience in which the rumor originates and spreads.
Emotionally, hearing is fueled by emotions such as hatred, fear and hope. An equally important component can be people’s superstitions. Consider the following example of the use of rumors about the guerrilla war in the Philippines.
It was established that the partisans are afraid of vampires. Rumors were intensely spread on this topic, and then the corpse of a rebel was planted, without blood and with two holes in the neck. As a result, the partisans left the area.
Scarecrow rumors are actively exploited in politics. Anecdotes are also used as such rumors. For example, during the 1996 presidential election campaign in Russia, the following joke was circulated.
The old woman carries a large bag with salt, matches, soap and flour. The neighbor asks: “Why so much?” The grandmother replies: “So the communists will soon come to power...” Neighbor: “And who will you vote for?” To which the old woman replies: “I will be for them, the killer whales.”
The purpose of the rumor and the anecdote that arose from it was to ridicule G. Zyuganov’s supporters and reduce their number. The goal was achieved.
We'll talk about political jokes later.
Scarecrow rumors spontaneously arise during periods of social tension (natural disasters, war, coup d'état) and range from simply pessimistic to downright panicky. The most banal plot is the impending rise in prices or the disappearance of some products.
Similar rumors periodically appear in countries with a deficit economy and a lack of information (in the USSR this
was familiar to the vast majority personal experience). Rumors can arise spontaneously or be launched for provocative purposes, with the aggravation of political or economic competition, with the coming to power of an undesirable (enemy) government, etc. Here again, the catalytic and instrumental role of rumors is clearly manifested: taking them at face value, people feverishly purchase products they don’t need or need, but in excessive quantities. As a result, goods actually disappear or become more expensive. The artificially created shortage of certain goods in the USSR allowed the trade mafia to profit from this.
Information about the incredible numbers of Mongol-Tatar troops during the period of their enslavement of Rus' is a typical result of the use of scarecrow rumors for military purposes.
During the period of collectivization in the USSR, the following rumor spread: all residents, together with their wives, would have to sleep under one large blanket. Half a century later, a similar rumor was recorded in the countries of the Middle East (Egypt, South Yemen), in Afghanistan and a number of other Muslim countries with the beginning of collectivization activities.
When countries with low literacy levels began mass vaccination campaigns for children, rumors immediately arose that children were actually being sterilized in order to stop the rise in the birth rate (Mexico, 1974; India, 1975).
The last three examples contain signs and rumors of the third type - aggressive. So, the rumor about the big blanket caused
not so much fear of the new government as indignation and anger towards its representatives, who disdained the sacredness of the family hearth. Incited by rumors of sterilization, parents not only prevented their children from attending school, but in some cases also attacked doctors and teachers. The prospect of moving “poor compatriots” into their own home caused fear in some, and anger in others towards the socialists.
On the eve of the collapse of the USSR, the same rumor arose in many (if not all) republics: we feed other republics. This rumor contributed in the best possible way to the “parade of sovereignties”, since it gave rise to the hope that people would live better “independently”.
Aggressive rumors arise where there is tension between social groups, and even apparently natural or self-inflicted disasters increase hatred of any group or individual. The actualization of Manichaean thinking (evil is caused by a diabolical plan, and the main thing is to find and punish the culprit) is especially characteristic of religious cultures.
There is an explanation why beautiful women are much more common in Russia than in Western Europe. It turns out that in the 15th-16th centuries, it was customary for Catholics, and even more so for Protestants, to blame sexually attractive girls for all natural and social disasters - mass famine, epidemics, floods, etc. - which then happened systematically.
Excited crowds, incited by clerics, drowned unfortunate beauties in rivers and dragged them to bonfires, eradicating the devil's seed, temptation and sin. (Such actions were also provided with a kind of teaching aid: the famous “Hammer of the Witches” was published in 1487.) In the later years. In the Middle Ages this phenomenon was widespread. It is possible that this is why today the share beautiful women in Slavic countries is noticeably higher than in Western Europe.
Foreigners and non-Christians, especially
Jews, then scientists, doctors. Aggressive rumors, as a rule, were accompanied by reprisals. At the direction of the clergy, the crowds released the accumulated tension, and this gave temporary psychological relief and hope.
Facts of the emergence of aggressive rumors during natural and man-made disasters have been recorded many times in both modern and modern times, and this was not prevented even by the spread of materialistic views.
During the unusually harsh winter of 1978-1979, Moscow was flooded not only with scarecrow rumors (antifreeze in cars is freezing, batteries in houses are bursting, the temperature is expected to drop to -50 C, but the forecast bureaus were forbidden to report this...), but also with conversations that the unprecedented frost is a consequence of the Americans using a new “climate weapon.” After the Chernobyl accident (1986), for the first time in the USSR, a rumor about a “Jewish-Masonic conspiracy” was recorded. After the terrible earthquake in Armenia (1988), there was a lot of talk about “geological weapons”.
