Reforms of Alexander II (briefly)

Reforms of Alexander 2 (briefly)

The main essence of all the reforms of Alexander II was the general restructuring of the management system and society. Historians consider the abolition of serfdom, which took place in 1861, to be one of the priority reforms. The reform itself was prepared for several years and, despite the ardent resistance of the bourgeoisie and the nobility, was nevertheless implemented.

Eventually peasant reform every peasant was freed from serfdom. In addition, along with personal freedom, he received a small plot of land completely free of charge. On it he could build a house and work. Also, the peasant had the right to purchase an arable plot for little money - this could significantly replenish the state treasury.

The peasant also received some civil rights. So, they could apply for a transition to a different class, open industrial and commercial enterprises, as well as make purchases and sales.

Another very important Alexander reform was the so-called printing reform. IN Russian Empire there is such a thing as freedom of the press and publicity (relative). At the same time, newspapers were allowed to discuss various events which were carried out by the government and even sometimes criticize the ministers, without, of course, affecting the Emperor himself.

We also touched upon the reform of the judicial system. The former type of court was replaced by a new one, proclaiming general principle unity for each class, as well as the principle of publicity and openness. A jury was formed, which allowed the judiciary to completely separate from the exercise of executive power and make independent decisions.

City and zemstvo reforms formed more open bodies local government. IN major cities courts appear, as well as the so-called local councils, which greatly simplified the processes of city management.

The military reform of Alexander II assumed the replacement of Peter's recruits with universal military service. This change allowed the formation of a more extensive army, which can be assembled in the shortest possible time at the first danger. In addition, the level of military education has also grown significantly. New academies and schools were built.

Along with the construction and development of military institutions began to appear and educational establishments of a different kind. Thanks to the educational reform, the level of education of the Russian people began to grow rapidly.

Reforms of Alexander 2 - briefly: preconditions, reasons, main provisions, results

I wish you good health, Andrey Puchkov is in touch. Today, using the example of the topic “Alexander 2 Reforms”, I will show how this topic should be worked out with self-training to exams. For more details on this simple technique, see the article at the link, link at the end of the post.

General characteristics of the reforms

The reforms of Alexander II are called bourgeois because they contributed to the development of capitalism in Russia. Capitalism presupposes the free development of four basic forms of capital: land, free labor market, entrepreneurship, means of production (the ability to start factories, factories, produce tools). As it is not difficult to guess major reform, which somehow accompanied the development in Russia, was canceled.

The rest of the reforms flowed from this one. We will talk about it in the next post, and in this we will briefly analyze the rest of the reforms.

Zemstvo reform of 1864

Causes. The need to create local self-government for peasants who were previously serfs. Previously, it was the nobleman who controlled his serfs. After they received personal freedom, the nobleman became a private person for the former serfs. Therefore, it was required to create local self-government.

The progress of the reform. On January 1, 1864, the “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” were adopted. In 1870, the "City Statute" was adopted, which reformed local self-government in cities. By the way, under what emperor did it appear at all? Write the answer in the comments!

The main provisions of the reform:

In counties and provinces, zemstvos (zemstvo assemblies) were established, which had administrative and economic powers.
Zemstvos were re-elected every three years, the elections were curial - for three curiae: noble, merchant and peasant.
Zemstvos were all-class bodies of local self-government, but the electoral law was such that in fact they were under the guardianship of the nobles.

The consequences of the reform.

Some kind of local self-government appeared in Russia.
Zemstvos became the social support of the liberal intelligentsia. It's generally important consequence. All its sides cannot be disassembled within the framework of this post.

Judicial Reform of 1864

Causes. After the abolition of serfdom, it became necessary to radically reform the judicial system. Since, firstly, our courts in Russia have been class-based until now, and, secondly, when it was serfdom, the court for serfs (read, for the bulk of the population) was the landowner. Now the serfs became free and the estates de jure ceased to exist, but in fact they began to erode.

The progress of the reform. In November 1864, new judicial statutes were adopted.

The main provisions of the reform.

Classless courts were introduced in Russia.
New principles of legal proceedings were introduced in Russia: competitiveness (the side of the prosecution, the side of the defense), publicity (the press began to be allowed into the courts), the independence of judges, and jury trials were introduced.
A new system of courts arose: the world court (for small cases), the crown court (district, judicial chamber).
Courts-martial and tribunals were preserved.

Consequences

Russia has the best judicial system ever. By the way, this has been proven.

Military reform

Causes. The backwardness of the Russian army, the weapons of the army, which showed Crimean War(the presence of smoothbore guns against rifled ones among the British and French; the presence of a sailing fleet against a steam one among the Allies).

The main provisions of the reform

Instead of recruitment service (which had existed since Peter the Great), universal military service was introduced. She was omnipotent.
Military service was to be served by persons aged 21 to 40 years. Six years in the Army and seven years in the Navy.
An educational qualification was introduced: the higher the level of completed educational institution, the less to serve in the army. There were other restrictions, in particular, the only son in the family did not go to the army.
Some peoples of Russia were exempted from military service.

Consequences

Russia received a more or less combat-ready army, which showed itself well against the backward Turkish army during the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878.

In addition to these reforms, a new University Charter of 1863 was adopted, and a Censorship Reform was carried out in 1865. However, the last two innovations are not tested in USE tests. Although I always recommend that my students know some of the nuances.

Post Scriptum: within the framework of this post, we, of course, will not be able to make out all these nuances. They are disassembled in my video course « » , as well as in my preparation courses for the exam in history.

Sincerely, Andrey Puchkov

Don't be afraid of ignorance, be afraid of false knowledge. All evil comes from him.
L.N. Tolstoy

The education reform of 1864 took place in several stages, which eventually reformed all education systems in Russia. Primary, general and secondary education was reformed. Key dates for these reforms:

June 18, 1863 - the "University Charter" was adopted.
July 14, 1864 - the "Regulations on public schools" were adopted.
November 18, 1864 - the "Charter of gymnasiums and progymnasiums" was adopted.

Because of the University Charter, the reform of education is often referred to as the reforms of Alexander 2 of 1863-1864. In any case, we are talking about changing the education system of the Russian Empire, and below we will consider what exactly changed, as well as the functioning of the education system in the country.

Primary school reform

On July 18, 1864, the "Regulations on public schools" were adopted. The main feature of this provision was the abolition of the state and church monopoly on education. After the reform of the education system, public institutions and private individuals could also open primary schools. The term of education in elementary school did not exceed 3 years.

Primary schools were now of the following types:

Sunday.
Parish.
Zemsky.
Private.
State.

High school reform

On November 19, 1864, the "Charter of Gymnasiums and Progymnasiums" was adopted. It was the gymnasiums that were the main link high school. All gymnasiums were divided into 2 types: classical and real. Classic prepared for admission to higher institutions, and real - in technical educational institutions.

In all gymnasiums, the term of study was 7 years. After 1871, the term of study in classical gymnasiums was 8 years. In fact, the education reform of 1864 divided people into estates according to the type of education received: classical gymnasiums - people with higher education, real gymnasiums - industrialists and merchants.

An important feature of the reform is that absolutely any person of the Russian Empire could enter the gymnasium. True, in fact, education still remained available only to the nobles, since the cost of education in gymnasiums was very high, and most of the population could not afford it.

In 1862, women's gymnasiums first appeared in Russia. Thus, for the first time in the history of the country, women received the right to secondary education. True, a reservation must be made - the training program in women's gymnasiums was much inferior to men's gymnasiums.

Reforming higher education

On June 18, 1863, the University charter was adopted. The reform of education under Alexander 2 actually began this year with this document, and continued in 1864. The main thing in the new charter is that autonomy was returned to universities. Each university had a "council of professors" that elected a rector and a dean. It was the rector, the dean and the board of professors who were fully and solely responsible for education:

Decided on the hiring and dismissal of teachers.
The training program was approved.
Approved and edited curricula and disciplines.
Resolved all financial issues.

At the same time, women in Russia have the opportunity to receive higher education. Women's gymnasiums, of course, did not give the right to enter a regular university, so higher courses for women were created in the country. It was possible to study them in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kyiv and Kazan. Further reforms opened the way for women to ordinary universities, but even so they were accepted there under a special status - volunteers. This reform in the field of enlightenment from 1864 served as an impetus.

Country value

The education reform of Alexander II pursued two main goals:

Make education accessible to all.
Eliminate the monopoly on education.
Put things in order in the system of gymnasiums and progymnasiums.

The advantages and disadvantages of reforms in the field of education should be interpreted in terms of the achieved result and goals. The second point of the goals was secondary and not fundamental. "Private" schools eventually appeared, but they did not take root and soon disappeared completely. As for the rest of the goals, they were achieved on paper, but not in reality. The universality of education affected only primary schools (grade 3). Even secondary schools, gymnasiums, were inaccessible for 90% of the population due to the high cost of education. Naturally, higher education so it was also unavailable. Therefore, in this reform, it is necessary to clearly distinguish between what was on paper and what actually happened.

There was also a time bomb in the reforms - the complete independence of universities. In fact, they were not controlled by the state: their own rules, their own distribution of funding, independently in determining the program and subjects of study, independence in the choice of personnel. This was later actively used by the revolutionaries and those who today can be called liberals.

1. Reasons for the start of reforms or why they began to carry them out.

Alexander's accession to the throne on February 19, 1855 took place under very difficult circumstances for Russia. The failures of the Russian troops in the Crimea were depressing, the atmosphere in the country was painful. However, a trip to the Crimea in the autumn of 1855 and acquaintance with the real state of affairs in the power that lost the war became a real shock for Alexander. “Addresses” with proposals for reforms continued to arrive at numerous St. Petersburg offices. The king was waiting for an answer. Alexander gave it a few months later - in March 1856.
By this time, a lot of objective prerequisites had accumulated for carrying out a radical agrarian reform.
Firstly, the landlord economy, based on non-economic coercion of the peasants to work, was going through a crisis state more and more noticeably, the efficiency of farms was declining, and the question of the transition from subsistence to market economy was acute.
Secondly, the rapid development of industry was in conflict with feudal relations in agriculture. Industry clearly lacked a market for its goods due to the low purchasing power of the vast majority of the peasant population. The industry experienced an acute shortage of free work force, because the serfs who make up most population, did not have the right to free movement from the countryside to the city, to industrial enterprises.
Thirdly, the country was painfully experiencing the defeat in the Crimean War, which was the result of a military and technical lag behind the advanced countries of the world.
Fourthly, an increasing number of peasant anti-feudal uprisings were recorded in the country, which could not but worry. March 30, 1856, speaking to the Moscow provincial and district marshals of the nobility, Alexander uttered the famous words: “... it is much better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait the time when it will begin to be canceled from below by itself ... ”. It is this day that is considered to be the day of the beginning of the Great Reforms.

2. Reforms of Alexander II.

On February 19, 1861, Alexander signed the “Regulations on the peasants who emerged from serfdom. On the same day, the tsar also signed the Manifesto on the Emancipation of the Peasants.
They were declared legally free people. However, the ties between the peasants and the landowners were by no means cut off: the adoption of the law on emancipation marked only the beginning of the transition of the peasantry from serfdom to the state of free rural inhabitants and landowners. During this period, the peasants were obliged to “serve in favor of the landowners the duties determined in local provisions by work or money,” since they previous owners provided them with indefinite use of estate land, as well as field and pasture allotments. One fundamental difference between this state and serfdom was that the duties of the peasants were clearly regulated by law and limited in time. During the transitional period, former serfs were called temporarily liable.
On January 1, 1864, the “Regulations on provincial and district institutions” were introduced. Zemstvos were established as universal bodies of local self-government in counties and provinces. The electoral system of zemstvos was built on the bourgeois principle of property qualification.
Beginning in 1864, a judicial reform was carried out in the country, according to which a classless, public court with the participation of jurors, advocacy and competitiveness of the parties were approved. Was created one system judicial institutions, proceeding from the formal equality before the law of all social groups population. Judicial reform went on for several years and basically ended by 1870, when new courts were created in almost 70 provinces.
Education reform took place in the 1860s. Primary public schools were created in the cities, along with classical gymnasiums, real schools began to function, in which more attention was paid to the study of mathematics, natural sciences, obtaining practical skills in technology. They prepared students for technical schools and did not give them the right to enter universities.
In 1863, the university charter of 1803 was recreated, which again secured the partial autonomy of universities, the election of rectors and deans, etc. In 1869, the first women's educational institutions were created in Russia - the Higher Women's Courses with university programs. In this respect, Russia was ahead of many European countries.
In the 1860s and 1870s, a military reform, the need for which was primarily due to the defeat in the Crimean War. First, the term of military service was reduced to 12 years, and later corporal punishment in the army was abolished. 15 military districts were created with their own administration, subordinate only to the minister. In accordance with the process of reforming military educational institutions, cadet schools were created, in which junior officers were trained, as well as military academics for the training of middle and high command personnel.
The Crimean War showed that a regular army based on recruiting kits cannot withstand the bourgeois armies of European states.
On January 1, 1874, the MANIFESTO ON UNIVERSAL MILITARY SERVICE was issued. At the same time, a new "Charter on military service" was issued.
In 1874, recruitment was abolished and universal military service was established, which applied to the entire male population who had reached the age of 20, without class distinctions. Active military service in ground forces was established for 6 years, and 9 years - stay in the reserve, in the fleet - 7 and 3 years, respectively. Moreover, the higher was the level of education, the shorter was the period of active service. For graduates primary school it was equal to 4 years, gymnasium - 1.5 years, for those who had higher education - six months. The only son of the parents, the only breadwinner in the family, as well as the youngest son, if the eldest is on military service or have served their time. Recruits from the peasantry were taught not only military affairs, but also literacy, which made up for the lack of school education in the countryside. Benefits were preserved for the nobles, who served mainly in the officer corps. In general, the military reform contributed to the improvement of the combat capability of the Russian army.
In 1863 and 1865, the government passed laws that gave the right to “trade and other crafts to persons of all classes without distinction of sex, both Russian and foreign.
In 1870, the "CITY REGULATION" was published, introducing all-estate local government in cities. City dumas were non-estate bodies.

3. What is the result of the reforms?

The reforms of Alexander II were an important step in the development of Russia. Analyzing the reforms of Alexander, it should be noted that not everything that was conceived in the early 1860s was brought to life. Many reforms have been limited, inconsistent, or left unfinished. And yet they should be called the Great Reforms, which had great value for the subsequent development of all aspects of life in Russia. Their results are undeniably positive. What is worth only the abolition of serfdom. Alexander's reforms affected many aspects of the country's life, they affected such important areas as education, state structure, army, court case, trade. The reforms undoubtedly were a big plus in the development of the state. In the history of Russia, it turned out that none of the reforms that were conceived and carried out in the country was brought comprehensively and consistently to its logical conclusion.

(Great reforms) - reforms carried out in the 60-70s of the 19th century in the Russian Empire by Emperor Alexander 2 and affecting almost all spheres of state life.

Background and reasons for the reforms of Alexander 2

Russia longer than any other states remained a country with a feudal system and serfdom. By the middle of the 19th century, this type of state had finally become obsolete, and the conflict that had been brewing since the 18th century reached its peak. It was necessary to urgently change both the state structure and, mainly, the economic system.

With the development of technology and the advent of industrial technology, the need for manual labor was increasingly eliminated, but the landowners still actively used the labor of the peasants, taxing them with huge taxes. As a result, the peasantry was ruined everywhere, widespread strikes and hunger strikes began, which led to a significant decline in the serf economy and the income of the landlords. The state, in turn, also received less profit from ruined landowners, and the treasury suffered. This situation did not suit either side.

The developing industry also suffered, because due to the widespread enslavement of the peasants, there was not enough free labor force that could service the machines in the factories.

In 1859-1861, peasant revolts and revolutionary sentiments reached their peak. The situation was also aggravated by the lost Crimean War, which finally undermined the confidence of citizens in the tsar and the government, which showed its complete failure, both economic and military. In such an environment, talk began about the need to abolish serfdom and new reforms that would help the country get out of the crisis.

Emperor Alexander 2, who came to the throne in 1855, in one of his speeches to the nobility, declared the need for the speedy elimination of serfdom from above (by decree of the sovereign), otherwise it would happen from below (revolution).

The era of great reforms began.

The main reforms of Alexander 2

Among the main political reforms Alexander 2 can be called:

Peasant reform (1861);
Financial reform (1863);
Education Reform (1863);
Zemstvo reform (1864);
Judicial Reform (1864);
Reform of the state self-government (1870);
Military reform (1874);

The essence of all the reforms of Alexander 2 was the restructuring of society and the management system and the formation of a new type of state. One of the most important reforms can be called the abolition of serfdom in 1861. The reform was being prepared for several years and, despite the resistance of the nobility and the bourgeoisie, was nevertheless carried out. As a result of the peasant reform, all peasants were freed from serfdom - along with personal freedom, they also received a small plot of land completely free of charge, on which they could live and work. In addition, a peasant could buy an arable plot for himself for a small amount - this contributed quite a lot of money to the state treasury. In addition, the peasants received a number civil rights: they could make purchase and sale transactions, could open trade and industrial enterprises, apply for a transition to another class. They were also freed from administrative and legal dependence on their former landlords.

Another reform of Alexander 2 is the reform of the press. In the Empire, such a concept as publicity and freedom of the press (relative) appeared, newspapers could discuss the activities carried out by the government and even criticize individual ministers, however, without affecting the emperor. The Iron Curtain was also lifted and people were free to leave the country.

The judicial system has also changed. The old type of court was replaced by a new one, which proclaimed the principle of unity for all estates and the principle of publicity and openness. Jury trial appeared, which allowed the judiciary to separate from the executive branch and make more independent decisions.

Zemstvo and city reforms formed open bodies of local self-government, courts and local councils appeared in cities - this greatly simplified the process of city self-government.

The military reform involved replacing the Peter's system of recruits with universal military service. This allowed the creation of a larger army that could be mobilized at short notice when needed. The level of military education has also increased due to the growth of military schools and academies.

Along with the development of military academies, other educational institutions began to appear. Thanks to educational reform general level education society began to grow rapidly.

Results and consequences of the reforms of Alexander 2

The political and financial reforms carried out by Alexander 2 are not in vain called great. Thanks to them, the foundation was laid for the formation of a new type of society in the Russian Empire - an industrial society of the capitalist type. The state became more democratic, citizens began to have more equal rights, independent of class, as well as the opportunity for an honest and open trial. The press became freer, which allowed citizens to have the opportunity to discuss and condemn government decisions.

The emancipation of the peasants and reforms in the economy allowed the country to overcome the crisis and create the conditions for further successful growth, taking into account the new economic realities.

In general, the country has experienced significant changes that helped it to stand on new way development, more successful and modern.