The stylistic characteristics of a word are determined by how it is perceived by speakers: as assigned to a certain functional style or as appropriate in any style, commonly used.
The stylistic consolidation of a word is facilitated by its thematic relevance. We feel the connection of words-terms with scientific language ( quantum theory, assonance, attributive ); We classify as journalistic style words related to political topics ( world, congress, summit, international, law and order, personnel policy ); we highlight as official business words used in office work ( following, proper, victim, residence, notify, order, forwarded ).
In the most general terms, the functional-style stratification of vocabulary can be depicted as follows:
The most clearly contrasted are book and spoken words (compare: to invade - to interfere, to meddle; get rid of - get rid of, get rid of; criminal - gangster ).
As part of book vocabulary, one can single out words characteristic of book speech in general ( subsequent, confidential, equivalent, prestige, erudition, premise ), and words assigned to specific functional styles (for example, syntax, phoneme, litotes, emission, denomination tend towards the scientific style; election campaign, image, populism, investments - to the journalistic; promotion, consumer, employer, prescribed, above, client, prohibited - to official business).
The functional consolidation of vocabulary is most definitely revealed in speech.
Book words are not suitable for casual conversation.
For example: The first leaves appeared on the green spaces.
Scientific terms should not be used in conversation with a child.
For example: It is very likely that dad will enter eye contact with Uncle Petya during the coming day.
Colloquial and colloquial words are inappropriate in an official business style.
For example: On the night of September 30, racketeers attacked Petrov and took his son hostage, demanding a ransom of 10 thousand dollars.
The ability to use a word in any style of speech indicates its common use.
So, the word house is appropriate in different styles: House No. 7 on Lomonosov Street is subject to demolition; The house was built according to the design of a talented Russian architect and is one of the most valuable monuments of national architecture; Pavlov's house in Volgograd became a symbol of the courage of our soldiers, who selflessly fought the fascists on the streets of the city; Tili-bom, tili-bom, the cat's house caught fire(March.).
In functional styles, special vocabulary is used against the backdrop of commonly used vocabulary.
Emotionally expressive coloring of words
Many words not only name concepts, but also reflect the speaker’s attitude towards them.
For example , admiring the beauty of a white flower, you can call it snow-white, white, lily. These adjectives are emotionally charged: the positive evaluation contained in them distinguishes them from a stylistically neutral word white. The emotional connotation of a word can also express a negative assessment of the named concept ( blond ).
That's why emotional vocabulary is called evaluative (emotional-evaluative).
A feature of emotional-evaluative vocabulary is that the emotional coloring is “superimposed” on lexical meaning words, but is not reduced to it; the purely nominative function is complicated here by evaluativeness, the attitude of the speaker to the named phenomenon.
The following three varieties are distinguished as part of emotional vocabulary.
1. Words with a clear evaluative meaning, as a rule, unambiguous; “the assessment contained in their meaning is so clearly and definitely expressed that it does not allow the word to be used in other meanings.” These include the words “characteristics” ( forerunner, herald, grumbler, idle talker, sycophant, slob etc.), as well as words containing an assessment of a fact, phenomenon, sign, action ( purpose, destiny, businessmanship, fraud, marvelous, miraculous, irresponsible, antediluvian, dare, inspire, defame, mischief ).
2. Ambiguous words, usually neutral in basic meaning, but receiving a bright emotional coloring when used metaphorically.
Thus, they say about a person: hat, rag, mattress, oak, elephant, bear, snake, eagle, crow ; Verbs are used in a figurative meaning: sing, hiss, saw, gnaw, dig, yawn, blink and under general
3. Words with subjective evaluation suffixes, conveying various shades of feeling: containing positive emotions - son, sunshine, granny, neat, close, and negative ones - beards, kids, officialdom and so on.
Because the emotional coloring These words are created by affixes; the evaluative meanings in such cases are determined not by the nominative properties of the word, but by word formation.
Depicting feelings in speech requires special expressive colors.
Expressiveness (from Latin expressio - expression) - means expressiveness, expressive - containing special expression.
At the lexical level, this linguistic category is embodied in the “increment” of special stylistic shades and special expression to the nominative meaning of the word.
For example, instead of the word good We are speaking wonderful, wonderful, delightful, wonderful ; one might say I do not like, but you can find stronger words: I hate, I despise, I disgust .
In all these cases, the lexical meaning of the word is complicated by expression.
Often one neutral word has several expressive synonyms that differ in degree. emotional stress(compare: misfortune - grief - calamity - catastrophe, violent - unrestrained - indomitable - frantic - furious ).
Vivid expression highlights solemn words ( unforgettable, herald, accomplishments ), rhetorical ( sacred, aspirations, proclaim ), poetic ( azure, invisible, chant, incessant ).
Particular expression distinguishes humorous words ( blessed, newly minted ), ironic ( deign, Don Juan, vaunted ), familiar ( good-looking, cute, poke around, whisper ).
Expressive shades differentiate words disapproving (pretentious, mannered, ambitious, pedant ), dismissive (paint, petty ), contemptuous (gossip, servility, sycophant ), derogatory (skirt, wimp ), vulgar (grabber, lucky ), abusive (boor, fool ).
The expressive coloring in a word is layered on its emotional-evaluative meaning, and in some words expression predominates, in others - emotional coloring. Therefore, it is not possible to distinguish between emotional and expressive vocabulary. The situation is complicated by the fact that “unfortunately, there is no typology of expressiveness yet.” This is associated with difficulties in developing a unified terminology.
By combining words that are similar in expression into lexical groups, we can distinguish:
1) words expressing a positive assessment called concepts,
2) words expressing their negative assessment .
The first group will include words that are lofty, affectionate, and partly humorous; in the second - ironic, disapproving, abusive, etc.
The emotional and expressive coloring of words is clearly manifested when comparing synonyms:
| stylistically neutral: | reduced: | high: |
| face | muzzle | face |
| let | interference | block |
| cry | roar | sob |
| afraid | be a coward | fear |
| drive away | expose | expel |
The emotional and expressive coloring of a word is influenced by its meaning. Sharp negative rating we received words like fascism, separatism, corruption, assassin, mafia .
Behind the words progressive, law and order, sovereignty, publicity and so on. is fixed positive color .
Even different meanings the same word may differ noticeably in stylistic coloring: in one case, the use of the word may be solemn ( Wait, prince. Finally, I hear the speech not of the boy, but of the husband.- P.), in another - the same word receives an ironic connotation ( G. Polevoy proved that the venerable editor enjoys the reputation of a learned man, so to speak, on his word of honor. - P.).
The development of emotionally expressive shades in a word is facilitated by its metaphorization.
Thus, stylistically neutral words used as tropes receive vivid expression.
For example: burn (at work), fall (from fatigue), suffocate (in unfavorable conditions), flaming (gaze), blue (dream), flying (gait) etc.
The context ultimately determines the expressive coloring: neutral words can be perceived as lofty and solemn; High vocabulary in other conditions takes on a mockingly ironic tone; sometimes even a swear word can sound affectionate, and an affectionate word can sound contemptuous.
The appearance of additional expressive shades in a word, depending on the context, significantly expands the visual possibilities of vocabulary.
The emotional and expressive coloring of the word, layered on the functional, complements its stylistic characteristics. Words that are neutral in an emotionally expressive relation usually belong to commonly used vocabulary (although this is not necessary: terms, for example, in an emotionally expressive relation, as a rule, are neutral, but have a clear functional definition). Emotionally expressive words are distributed between book, colloquial and colloquial vocabulary.
Divisions of expressively colored vocabulary
D.E. Rosenthal identifies 3 groups of vocabulary:
1) Neutral (interstyle)
2) Spoken
3) Prostorechnaya
1. Neutral(interstyle) is vocabulary that has application in all styles of language; it represents a category of words that are not expressively colored, emotionally neutral.
Interstyle vocabulary is the basis for the vocabulary of both oral and written speech.
You can compare the common word lie and words compose, flood, which belong to colloquial vocabulary and are colloquial and humorous in nature.
2. TO colloquial vocabulary These include words that give speech a touch of informality, ease, but do not go beyond the boundaries of the literary language. This is the vocabulary of spoken language. It is characterized by informality and emotionally expressive coloring. Gestures, facial expressions, posture, and intonation play an important role in oral communication.
The group of colloquial vocabulary includes words that are different in the way of expression, stylistic coloring and those whose semantics already contain evaluativeness ( troublemaker, bedlam posers etc.), as well as those whose evaluation is created by affixes, the addition of stems ( old man, boot, poor thing and so on.). Words with suffixes of subjective assessment also have a colloquial character ( healthy, small, son, dominatrix and so on.). This vocabulary also includes familiar words ( grandma, grandpa, auntie, son and so on.).
3. Colloquial vocabulary is on the verge or beyond the boundaries of strictly standardized lexical literary speech and is distinguished by a greater stylistic decline compared to colloquial vocabulary, although the boundaries between them are unsteady and fluid and are not always clearly defined.
There are three groups of colloquial vocabulary:
Rough expressive vocabulary
grammatically represented by nouns, adjectives, adverbs and verbs (bore, idiot, scoundrel, etc.). The expressiveness of these words shows the attitude towards any object, person, phenomenon.
Rough colloquial vocabulary
but is distinguished by a greater degree of rudeness: (snout, bulldozer, mug, etc.). These words have stronger expression and a negative attitude towards certain phenomena.
Some colloquial vocabulary includes words are actually colloquial, non-literary
, they are not recommended in speech cultured people (just now, I suppose, maybe, once born
and so on.)
Using stylistically colored vocabulary in speech
The tasks of practical stylistics include the study of the use of vocabulary of various functional styles in speech - both as one of the style-forming elements and as a different style means that stands out in its expression against the background of other linguistic means.
Special attention deserves the use of terminological vocabulary that has the most specific functional and stylistic significance.
Terms- words or phrases naming special concepts of any sphere of production, science, art.
For example: deposit(money or securities deposited with a credit institution for storage); express loan (term loan, lending of valuables); business(entrepreneurial activity that generates income, profit); mortgage(pledge of real estate for the purpose of obtaining a long-term loan); percent(fee received by the lender from the borrower for using a cash loan).
Each term is necessarily based on a definition (definition) of the reality it denotes, due to which the terms represent a capacious and at the same time concise description of an object or phenomenon. Each branch of science operates with certain terms that make up the terminological system of this branch of knowledge.
The term is usually used in only one area.
For example: phoneme, subject - in linguistics, cupola- in metallurgy. But the same term can be used in different areas. Moreover, in each case the term has its own special meaning.
For example: Term operation used in medicine, military and banking. Term assimilation used in linguistics, biology, ethnography; iris– in medicine and biology (botany); reversion– in biology, technology, law.
Becoming a term, the word loses its emotionality and expressiveness. This is especially noticeable if we compare commonly used words in the diminutive form and the corresponding terms.
For example: cam in the child and cam in car, front sight- a small fly and front sight meaning “a small protrusion on the front of the barrel of a firearm used for aiming” cheeks child and cheeks at a machine gun, etc.
The diminutive form of a common word very often becomes a term. tooth from the word tooth meaning “bone formation, organ in the mouth for grasping, biting and chewing food” and the term clove- cutting tooth of a machine or tool. Tongue from the word language in the meaning of “movable muscular organ in the oral cavity” and the term tongue- a small process at the base of the leaf blade of cereals and some other plants. Hammer from the word hammer in the meaning of “a tool for hammering, striking” and the term hammer– one of the auditory ossicles of the middle ear and the name of various impact devices in mechanisms.
Terminological vocabulary contains more information than any other, so using terms in a scientific style is necessary condition brevity, conciseness, accuracy of presentation.
Scientific and technological progress has led to the intensive development of the scientific style and its active influence on other functional styles of the modern Russian literary language. The use of terms outside the scientific style has become a kind of sign of the times.
Studying the process of terminology of speech not bound by the norms of scientific style, researchers point to distinctive features use of terms in this case. Many words that have a precise terminological meaning have become widespread and are used without any stylistic restrictions.
For example: radio, television, oxygen, heart attack, psychic, privatization .
Another group includes words that have a dual nature: they can be used both as terms and as stylistically neutral vocabulary. In the first case, they are distinguished by special shades of meaning, giving them special accuracy and unambiguity.
Yes, word mountain, meaning in its broad, cross-style usage “ a significant hill rising above the surrounding area", and having a number of figurative meanings, does not imply an accurate quantitative measurement of height. In geographical terminology, where the distinction between concepts is essential mountain - Hill, clarification is given: elevation more than 200 m in height.
Thus, the use of such words outside the scientific style is associated with their partial determinologization.
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Many words not only name concepts, but also reflect the speaker’s attitude towards them. For example, admiring the beauty of a white flower, you can call it snow-white, white, lily. These adjectives are emotionally charged: the positive evaluation contained in them distinguishes them from a stylistically neutral word white. The emotional connotation of a word can also express a negative assessment of the named concept ( blond). Therefore, emotional vocabulary is called assessment (emotional-evaluative). However, it should be noted that the concepts of emotional words (for example, interjections) do not contain evaluation; at the same time, words in which the assessment constitutes their very lexical meaning (and the assessment is not emotional, but intellectual) do not belong to emotional vocabulary ( bad, good, anger, joy, love, approve).
A feature of emotional-evaluative vocabulary is that the emotional coloring is “superimposed” on the lexical meaning of the word, but is not reduced to it; the purely nominative function is complicated here by evaluativeness, the speaker’s attitude to the named phenomenon.
The following three varieties can be distinguished as part of emotional vocabulary. 1. Words with a clear evaluative meaning are usually unambiguous; “the assessment contained in their meaning is so clearly and definitely expressed that it does not allow the word to be used in other meanings.” These include the words “characteristics” ( forerunner, herald, grumbler, idle talker, sycophant, slob etc.), as well as words containing an assessment of a fact, phenomenon, sign, action ( purpose, destiny, businessmanship, fraud, marvelous, miraculous, irresponsible, antediluvian, dare, inspire, defame, mischief). 2. Polysemantic words, usually neutral in their basic meaning, but acquiring a strong emotional connotation when used metaphorically. Thus, they say about a person: hat, rag, mattress, oak, elephant, bear, snake, eagle, crow; Verbs are used in a figurative meaning: sing, hiss, saw, gnaw, dig, yawn, blink and under. 3. Words with suffixes of subjective assessment, conveying various shades of feeling: containing positive emotions - son, sunshine, granny, neat, close, and negative - beard, fellow, bureaucrat and so on. Since the emotional connotation of these words is created by affixes, the evaluative meanings in such cases are determined not by the nominative properties of the word, but by word formation.
Depicting feelings in speech requires special expressive colors. Expressiveness(from Latin expressio - expression) - means expressiveness, expressive - containing special expression. At the lexical level, this linguistic category is embodied in the “increment” of special stylistic shades and special expression to the nominative meaning of the word. For example, instead of the word good We are speaking wonderful, wonderful, delightful, wonderful; one might say I do not like, but you can find stronger words: I hate, I despise, I disgust. In all these cases, the lexical meaning of the word is complicated by expression. Often one neutral word has several expressive synonyms that differ in the degree of emotional tension (cf.: misfortune - grief - calamity - catastrophe, violent - unrestrained - indomitable - frantic - furious). Vivid expression highlights solemn words ( unforgettable, herald, accomplishments), rhetorical ( sacred, aspirations, proclaim), poetic ( azure, invisible, chant, incessant Special expression distinguishes humorous words ( blessed, newly minted), ironic ( deign, Don Juan, vaunted), familiar ( good-looking, cute, poke around, whisper). Expressive shades delimit disapproving words ( pretentious, mannered, ambitious, pedant), dismissive ( paint, petty), contemptuous ( gossip, servility, sycophant), derogatory ( skirt, wimp), vulgar ( grabber, lucky), expletives ( boor, fool).
The expressive coloring in a word is layered on its emotional-evaluative meaning, and in some words expression predominates, in others - emotional coloring. Therefore, it is not possible to distinguish between emotional and expressive vocabulary. The situation is complicated by the fact that “unfortunately, there is no typology of expressiveness yet.” This is associated with difficulties in developing a unified terminology.
By combining words that are similar in expression into lexical groups, we can distinguish: 1) words expressing a positive assessment of the named concepts, 2) words expressing their negative assessment. The first group will include words that are lofty, affectionate, and partly humorous; in the second - ironic, disapproving, abusive, etc. The emotional and expressive coloring of words is clearly manifested when comparing synonyms:
The emotional and expressive coloring of a word is influenced by its meaning. We received sharply negative assessments of words such as fascism, separatism, corruption, assassin, mafia. Behind the words progressive, law and order, sovereignty, publicity and so on. positive coloring is fixed. Even different meanings of the same word can differ noticeably in stylistic coloring: in one case, the use of the word can be solemn ( Wait, prince. Finally, I hear the speech not of the boy, but of the husband.- P.), in another - the same word receives an ironic connotation ( G. Polevoy proved that the venerable editor enjoys the reputation of a learned man, so to speak, on his word of honor.- P.).
The development of emotionally expressive shades in a word is facilitated by its metaphorization. Thus, stylistically neutral words used as tropes receive vivid expression: burn(At work), fall(from fatigue) choke(in unfavorable conditions), flaming(look), blue(dream), flying(gait), etc. The context ultimately determines the expressive coloring: neutral words can be perceived as lofty and solemn; High vocabulary in other conditions takes on a mockingly ironic tone; sometimes even a swear word can sound affectionate, and an affectionate word can sound contemptuous. The appearance of additional expressive shades in a word, depending on the context, significantly expands the figurative capabilities of the vocabulary
The expressive coloring of words in works of art differs from the expression of the same words in non-figurative speech. In an artistic context, vocabulary receives additional, secondary semantic shades that enrich its expressive coloring. Modern science gives great importance expansion of the semantic scope of words in artistic speech, linking with this the appearance of new expressive colors in words.
The study of emotional-evaluative and expressive vocabulary turns us to the identification of different types of speech depending on the nature of the speaker’s impact on the listeners, the situation of their communication, attitude towards each other and a number of other factors.” “It’s enough to imagine,” wrote A.N. Gvozdev, “that the speaker wants to make people laugh or touch, to arouse the listeners’ affection or their negative attitude towards the subject of speech, so that it becomes clear how different linguistic means will be selected, mainly creating different expressive colors.” With this approach to the selection of linguistic means, several types of speech can be outlined: solemn(rhetorical), official(cold), intimate and affectionate, playful. They are opposed to speech neutral, using linguistic means devoid of any stylistic coloring. This classification of speech types, dating back to the “poeticists” of ancient antiquity, is not rejected by modern stylists.
Doctrine of functional styles does not exclude the possibility of using a variety of emotionally expressive means in them at the discretion of the author of the work. In such cases, “methods of selection speech means... are not universal, they are of a particular nature.” For example, journalistic speech can take on a solemn tone; “one or another speech in the sphere of everyday communication (anniversary speeches, ceremonial speeches associated with the act of one or another ritual, etc.) can be rhetorical, expressively rich and impressive.”
At the same time, it should be noted that expressive types of speech have been insufficiently studied and there is a lack of clarity in their classification. In this regard, certain difficulties arise in determining the relationship between the functional-style emotional-expressive coloring of vocabulary. Let's dwell on this issue.
The emotional and expressive coloring of the word, layered on the functional, complements its stylistic characteristics. Words that are neutral in an emotionally expressive sense usually belong to commonly used vocabulary (although this is not necessary: terms, for example, in an emotionally expressive sense, are usually neutral, but have a clear functional definition). Emotionally expressive words are distributed between book, colloquial and colloquial vocabulary.
TO book The vocabulary includes high words that give solemnity to speech, as well as emotionally expressive words that express both positive and negative assessments of the named concepts. Book styles use ironic vocabulary ( beauty, words, quixoticism), disapproving ( pedantic, mannerism), contemptuous ( disguise, corrupt).
TO colloquial vocabulary includes affectionate words ( daughter, darling), humorous ( butuz, funny), as well as words expressing a negative assessment of the named concepts ( small fry, zealous, giggle, boast).
IN vernacular words are used that are outside the literary vocabulary. Among them there may be words containing a positive assessment of the named concept (hard worker, brainy, awesome), and words expressing the speaker’s negative attitude towards the concepts they designate ( go crazy, flimsy, stupid).
A word can intersect functional, emotionally expressive and other stylistic shades. For example, words satellite, epigonic, apotheosis are perceived primarily as bookish. But at the same time the words satellite, used in a figurative meaning, we associate with the journalistic style in the word epigonous we mark a negative assessment, and in the word apotheosis- positive. In addition, the use of these words in speech is influenced by their foreign language origin. Such affectionately ironic words as sweetheart, motanya, fledgling, drolya, combine colloquial and dialect coloring, folk-poetic sound. The richness of stylistic shades of Russian vocabulary requires a particularly attentive attitude to the word.
The tasks of practical stylistics include the study of the use of vocabulary of various functional styles in speech - both as one of the style-forming elements and as a different style means that stands out in its expression against the background of other linguistic means.
The use of terminological vocabulary that has the most specific functional and stylistic significance deserves special attention. Terms- words or phrases naming special concepts of any sphere of production, science, art. Each term is necessarily based on a definition (definition) of the reality it denotes, due to which the terms represent a capacious and at the same time concise description of an object or phenomenon. Each branch of science operates with certain terms that make up the terminological system of this branch of knowledge.
As part of the terminological vocabulary, several “layers” can be distinguished, differing in the scope of use, the content of the concept, and the characteristics of the designated object. In the most general terms, this division is reflected in the distinction general scientific terms (they constitute the general conceptual fund of science as a whole; it is no coincidence that the words denoting them turn out to be the most frequent in scientific speech) and special, which are assigned to certain areas of knowledge. The use of this vocabulary is the most important advantage of the scientific style; terms, according to S. Bally, “are those ideal types of linguistic expression to which scientific language inevitably strives.”
Terminological vocabulary contains more information than any other, therefore the use of terms in a scientific style is a necessary condition for brevity, conciseness, and accuracy of presentation.
The use of terms in works of scientific style is seriously studied by modern linguistic science. It has been established that the degree of terminology of scientific texts is far from the same. Genres of scientific works are characterized by different ratios of terminological and interstyle vocabulary. The frequency of use of terms depends on the nature of the presentation.
Modern society requires from science a form of description of the data obtained that would make the greatest achievements of the human mind accessible to everyone. However, it is often said that science has fenced itself off from the world with a language barrier, that its language is “elite”, “sectarian”. In order for the vocabulary of a scientific work to be accessible to the reader, the terms used in it must first of all be sufficiently mastered in this field of knowledge, understandable and known to specialists; new terms need to be clarified.
Scientific and technological progress has led to the intensive development of the scientific style and its active influence on other functional styles of the modern Russian literary language. The use of terms outside the scientific style has become a kind of sign of the times.
Studying the process of terminology of speech not bound by the norms of scientific style, researchers point to the distinctive features of the use of terms in this case. Many words that have a precise terminological meaning have become widespread and are used without any stylistic restrictions ( radio, television, oxygen, heart attack, psychic, privatization). Another group includes words that have a dual nature: they can be used both as terms and as stylistically neutral vocabulary. In the first case, they are distinguished by special shades of meaning, giving them special accuracy and unambiguity. Yes, word mountain, which in its broad, cross-style usage means “a significant elevation rising above the surrounding area” and has a number of figurative meanings, does not imply an accurate quantitative measurement of height. In geographical terminology, where the distinction between concepts is essential mountain - hill, a clarification is given: the elevation is more than 200 m in height. Thus, the use of such words outside the scientific style is associated with their partial determinologization.
Special features are distinguished by terminological vocabulary used in a figurative meaning ( virus of indifference, sincerity coefficient, next round of negotiations). Such rethinking of terms is common in journalism, fiction, colloquial speech. This phenomenon lies in line with the development of the language of modern journalism, which is characterized by various kinds of stylistic shifts. The peculiarity of this use of words is that “there is not only a metaphorical transfer of the meaning of the term, but also a stylistic transfer.”
The introduction of terms into non-scientific texts must be motivated; the abuse of terminological vocabulary deprives speech of the necessary simplicity and accessibility. Let's compare two versions of proposals:
The advantage of “non-terminologized”, clearer and more concise options in newspaper materials is obvious.
The stylistic coloring of a word indicates the possibility of using it in one or another functional style (in combination with commonly used neutral vocabulary). However, this does not mean that the functional assignment of words to a certain style excludes their use in other styles. The mutual influence and interpenetration of styles characteristic of the modern development of the Russian language contributes to the movement of lexical means (along with other linguistic elements) from one of them to another. For example, in scientific works you can find journalistic vocabulary next to terms. As M.N. notes Kozhin, “the style of scientific speech is characterized by expressiveness not only of a logical, but also an emotional level.” At the lexical level, this is achieved by using foreign-style vocabulary, including high and low.
The journalistic style is even more open to the penetration of foreign style vocabulary. You can often find terms in it. For example: “The Canon 10 replaces five traditional office machines: it works as a computer fax, a plain paper fax machine, an inkjet printer (360 dpi), a scanner and a photocopier. You can use the software included with the Canon 10 to send and receive PC faxes directly from your computer screen."(from gas).
Scientific, terminological vocabulary here may appear next to expressively colored colloquial vocabulary, which, however, does not violate the stylistic norms of journalistic speech, but helps to enhance its effectiveness. Here, for example, is a description in a newspaper article scientific experiment: There are thirty-two laboratories at the Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry. One of them studies the evolution of sleep. At the entrance to the laboratory there is a sign: “Do not enter: experience!” But from behind the door comes the clucking of a chicken. She's not here to lay eggs. Here a researcher picks up a corydalis. Turns upside down... Such an appeal to foreign style vocabulary is completely justified; colloquial vocabulary enlivens newspaper speech and makes it more accessible to the reader.
Of the book styles, only the official business style is impenetrable to foreign style vocabulary. At the same time, one cannot fail to take into account “the undoubted existence of mixed speech genres, as well as situations where the mixing of stylistically heterogeneous elements is almost inevitable. For example, the speech of various participants in a trial is unlikely to represent any stylistic unity, but it would also be unlikely to be legitimate to classify the corresponding phrases entirely as colloquial or entirely as official business speech.”
The use of emotional and evaluative vocabulary in all cases is due to the peculiarities of the individual author’s manner of presentation. In book styles, reduced evaluative vocabulary can be used. Publicists, scientists, and even criminologists writing for newspapers find in it a source of enhancing the effectiveness of speech. Here is an example of mixing styles in an information note about a traffic accident:
Having slid into a ravine, the Ikarus ran into an old mine
A bus with Dnepropetrovsk shuttles was returning from Poland. Exhausted from the long journey, the people were sleeping. At the entrance to the Dnepropetrovsk region, the driver also dozed off. The Ikarus, which lost control, went off the road and fell into a ravine. The car flipped over the roof and froze. The blow was strong, but everyone survived. (...) It turned out that in the ravine “Ikarus” ran into a heavy mortar mine... The “rusty death”, torn out of the ground, rested right on the bottom of the bus. The sappers waited a long time.
(From newspapers)
Colloquial and even colloquial words, as we see, coexist with official business and professional vocabulary.
The author of a scientific work has the right to use emotional vocabulary with vivid expression if he seeks to influence the feelings of the reader ( And freedom, and space, nature, the beautiful surroundings of the city, and these fragrant ravines and swaying fields, and pink spring and golden autumn, weren’t we our educators? Call me a barbarian in pedagogy, but from the impressions of my life I have drawn the deep conviction that a beautiful landscape has such a huge educational influence on the development of a young soul that it is difficult for the influence of a teacher to compete with it.- K.D. Ushinsky). Even formal business style can include high and low words if the topic evokes strong emotions.
Thus, in a Letter sent from the administrative apparatus of the Security Council to the President of Russia B.N. Yeltsin says:
According to information received by the apparatus of the Russian Security Council, the situation in the gold mining industry, which forms the country’s gold reserves, is approaching critical […].
...main reason crisis - the inability of the state to pay for gold already received. […] The paradox and absurdity of the situation is that money has been allocated to the budget for the purchase of precious metals and precious stones - 9.45 trillion rubles for 1996. However, these funds are regularly used to patch holes in the budget. Gold miners have not been paid for their metal since May, the beginning of the mining season.
...Only the Ministry of Finance, which manages budget funds, can explain these tricks. Debt for gold does not allow miners to continue producing the metal, since they are unable to pay for fuel, materials, and energy. […] All this not only aggravates the crisis of non-payments and provokes strikes, but also disrupts the flow of taxes to the local and federal budgets, destroying the financial fabric of the economy and the normal life of entire regions. The budget and income of residents of approximately a quarter of Russia's territory - the Magadan region, Chukotka, Yakutia - directly depend on gold mining.
In all cases, no matter what stylistically contrasting means are combined in the context, the appeal to them should be conscious, not accidental.
A stylistic assessment of the use of words with different stylistic connotations in speech can only be given by keeping in mind a specific text, a certain functional style, since words necessary in one speech situation may be inappropriate in another.
A serious stylistic flaw in speech can be the introduction of journalistic vocabulary into non-journalistic texts. For example: The council of residents of building No. 35 decided: to build a playground with great value in educating the younger generation. The use of journalistic vocabulary and phraseology in such texts can cause a comic, illogical statement, since words of a high emotional sound appear here as an alien stylistic element (one could write: The council of residents of building No. 35 decided to build a playground for children's games and sports.).
IN scientific style errors arise due to the author’s inability to use terms professionally and competently. In scientific works, it is inappropriate to replace terms with words close value, descriptive expressions: The hydrant clutch, controlled by air using a load-bearing operator handle, was designed...(necessary: hydrant coupling with pneumatic control system...).
Inaccurate reproduction of terms is unacceptable, for example: The driver's movements must be limited by the seat belt. Term seat belt used in aviation, in this case the term should have been used safety belt. Confusion in terminology not only damages the style, but also incriminates the author of poor knowledge of the subject. For example: Peristalsis of the heart followed by cardiac arrest in the systole phase is noted.- term peristalsis can only characterize the activity of the digestive organs (it should be written: There is cardiac fibrillation...).
The inclusion of terminological vocabulary in texts that are not related to scientific style requires the author to have a deep knowledge of the subject. An amateurish attitude towards special vocabulary is unacceptable, leading not only to stylistic, but also to semantic errors. For example: At the Central German Canal they were overtaken by wildly racing cars with bluish tints and armor-piercing windows.- can be armor-piercing guns, shells, and the glass should have been called impenetrable, bulletproof. Strictness in the choice of terms and their use in strict accordance with their meaning is a mandatory requirement for texts of any functional style.
The use of terms becomes a stylistic flaw in the presentation if they are not clear to the reader for whom the text is intended. In this case, terminological vocabulary not only does not perform an informative function, but also interferes with the perception of the text. For example, in a popular article the accumulation of special vocabulary is not justified: In 1763, Russian heating engineer I.I. Polzunov designed the first high-power two-cylinder steam-atmospheric machine. Only in 1784 was D. Watt's steam engine implemented. The author wanted to emphasize the priority of Russian science in the invention of the steam engine, and in this case, a description of Polzunov’s machine is unnecessary. The following stylistic edits are possible: The first steam engine was created by Russian heating engineer I.I. Polzunov in 1763. D. Watt designed his steam engine only in 1784.
Passion for terms and book vocabulary in texts that are not related to scientific style can cause pseudoscientific presentation. For example, in a pedagogical article we read: Our women, along with work in production, also perform a family and household function, which includes three components: childbearing, educational and economic. Or it could be written more simply: Our women work in production and pay a lot of attention to family, raising children, and housekeeping.
The pseudoscientific style of presentation often becomes the cause of inappropriate comical speech, so you should not complicate the text where you can express the idea simply. Thus, in magazines intended for the general reader, such a selection of vocabulary cannot be welcomed: The staircase - a specific room for interfloor connections of a preschool institution - has no analogues in any of its interiors. Wouldn't it be better to abandon the unjustified use of book words by writing: The staircase in preschool institutions connecting floors has a special interior.
The cause of stylistic errors in book styles can be the inappropriate use of colloquial and colloquial words. Their use is unacceptable in an official business style, for example in meeting minutes: Effective control has been established over the prudent use of feed on the farm; The administration has done some work in the regional center and villages, and yet there is no end to the area of improvement of work. These phrases can be corrected like this: ...Strictly control feed consumption on the farm; The administration began to improve the district center and villages. This work should be continued.
In the scientific style, the use of foreign style vocabulary is also not motivated. When stylistically editing scientific texts, colloquial and vernacular vocabulary is consistently replaced by interstyle or book vocabulary.
The use of colloquial and colloquial vocabulary sometimes leads to a violation of the stylistic norms of journalistic speech. Modern journalistic style is experiencing a strong expansion of vernacular. In many magazines and newspapers, a reduced style, saturated with evaluative non-literary vocabulary, prevails. Here are examples from articles on various topics.
As soon as the wind of change blew, this praise of the intelligentsia was dispersed throughout commerce, parties and governments. Having pulled up her pants, she abandoned her selflessness and her big-browed Panurges.
...And then 1992... Philosophers came out of the ground like russula. Weak, stunted, not yet accustomed to daylight... They seem to be good guys, but they are infected with the eternal domestic self-criticism with a masochistic bias... (Igor Martynov // Interlocutor. - 1992. - No. 41. - P. 3).
Seven years ago, everyone who was considered the first beauty in the class or in the yard entered the Miss Russia competition as contenders... When it turned out that the jury did not choose her daughter, the mother took her unfortunate child out into the middle of the hall and staged a showdown ... This is the fate of many girls who are now working hard on the catwalks in Paris and America (Lyudmila Volkova // MK).
The Moscow government will have to fork out money. One of his latest acquisitions - a controlling stake in AMO - ZIL - needs to release 51 billion rubles in September to complete the program of mass production of the light-duty car "ZIL-5301" (Let's ride or roll // MK).
Journalists' passion for colloquial speech and expressive reduced vocabulary in such cases is often stylistically unjustified. Permissiveness in speech reflects the low culture of the authors. The editor should not be led by reporters who do not respect stylistic norms.
Stylistic editing of such texts requires the elimination of lowered words and reworking of sentences. For example:
| 1. So far, only two cool Russian products are performing powerfully outside of competition on the world market - vodka and a Kalashnikov assault rifle. | 1. Only two Russian goods are in constant high demand on the world market - vodka and a Kalashnikov assault rifle. They are beyond competition. |
| 2. The head of the laboratory agreed to give an interview, but asked for a tidy sum of dollars for information, which came as a tragic surprise for the correspondent. | 2. The head of the laboratory agreed to give an interview, but demanded a fantastic amount of dollars for information, which the correspondent did not expect. |
| 3. The City Duma coordinator for housing policy assured that the privatization of rooms in communal apartments will most likely be allowed in Moscow. | 3. The City Duma coordinator for housing policy said that the privatization of rooms in communal apartments, will probably be allowed in Moscow. |
A characteristic feature of modern journalistic texts is the stylistically unjustified combination of book and colloquial vocabulary. A mixture of styles is often found even in articles by serious authors on political and economic topics. For example: It is no secret that our government is deeply in debt and, apparently, will decide to take a desperate step by launching printing press. However, Central Bank experts believe that a collapse is not expected. Fiat money is still being issued, so if banknotes are drawn, it is unlikely to lead to a financial market collapse in the near future(“MK”).
Out of respect for the author, the editor does not edit the text, trying to convey to the reader the uniqueness of his individual style. However, mixing different styles of vocabulary can give speech an ironic overtone, unjustified in the context, and sometimes even inappropriate comedy. For example: 1. The management of a commercial enterprise immediately seized on the valuable offer and agreed to the experiment, chasing profits; 2. Representatives of the investigative authorities took a photojournalist with them to arm themselves with irrefutable facts. The editor should eliminate such stylistic errors, resorting to synonymous replacements of reduced words. In the first example you can write: The managers of a commercial enterprise became interested in the value proposition and agreed to the experiment, hoping for good profits.; in the second - it is enough to replace the verb: not grabbed, A took with them.
Errors in the use of stylistically colored vocabulary should not be confused, however, with a conscious mixture of styles, in which writers and publicists find a life-giving source of humor and irony. The parodic clash of colloquial and official business vocabulary is a proven technique for creating a comic sound of speech in feuilletons. For example: " Dear Lyubanya! It’s already spring soon, and in the park where we met, the leaves will turn green. And I love you still, even more. When will our wedding finally be, when will we be together? Write, I'm looking forward to it. Yours Vasya». « Dear Vasily! Indeed, the area of the park where we met will soon turn green. After this, you can begin to resolve the issue of marriage, since spring is the season of love. L. Buravkina».
2. Comparative characteristics of subordinate clauses and isolated participial constructions. Typical mistakes when using participial phrases.
| Parallel syntactic constructions Participial phrases In modern literary language, forms in -schy from verbs of the perfect form (with the meaning of the future tense), for example: “he who takes it into his head to compose”, “who tries to assure”, “who is able to explain”. Participles are also not used in combination with the particle would, since participles are not formed from verbs in the subjunctive mood, for example: “a project that would raise objections,” “employees who would like to work overtime.” Occasionally, however, such forms were found among writers, for example: The mind sleeps, perhaps finding a sudden spring of great means(Gogol); It is worth going into any of the countless churches of Venice, asking the minister to turn on the light, and from the darkness the magnificent colors of the canvases will appear, which would be the pride of any art gallery(N. Prozhogin). An isolated participle phrase has a greater semantic load compared to the same phrase if it is not isolated. Wed: Written in small handwriting, the manuscript was difficult to read(a common definition, expressed as a separate participial phrase, contains an additional causal meaning). – The manuscript, written in small handwriting, was difficult to read.(the non-isolated participial phrase has only a definitive meaning). The non-isolated participial phrase is more closely adjacent to the defined noun. Wed: face covered with large wrinkles(stable sign) – face covered with large drops of sweat(temporary sign; the lexical composition of both constructions also plays a role). The participle, as a verb form, is given the meaning of time, type, voice. 1) The meaning of tense in the participle is relative: in some cases there is a correlation between the times expressed by the participle and the predicate verb, for example: saw children playing on the boulevard(saw while they were playing); in other cases, the time expressed by the participle correlates with the moment of speech and precedes it, for example: saw children playing on the boulevard. Wed: In one of the rooms I found young guy sorting papers at the table(Soloukhin); That night, as if on purpose, empty barns belonging to tax farmers caught fire(Herzen). When the predicate verb is in the past tense, the present participle indicates constant sign, past participle - for a temporary sign. For example: We were interested in a house located on the edge of the forest(cf. ...which is worth...). – Artyom grabbed the heavy hammer that stood at the anvil...(N. Ostrovsky) (cf.: ...who stood...). Wed. Also: All delegates arrived at the meeting, with the exception of two who were absent due to illness.(the meeting is still taking place). – All delegates took part in the meeting, with the exception of two who were absent due to illness.(the meeting has already ended). An inaccurate participle tense is used in the sentence: “The work was completed in five days instead of supposed six" (the assumption refers to the past, so the present participle form is not suitable supposed; the shape doesn't fit either assumed having the meaning of the perfect form, whereas the meaning of the phrase requires a participle imperfect form– from the verb assume, not from assume; the correct form for this case is supposed). On the contrary, we need the form of the present, and not the past, participle in the sentence: “ Existing Until now, the situation in the field of using electric locomotives does not satisfy the already increased requirements of transport” (if it does not satisfy, then it means that it still exists, so it should have been said: The current situation...). 2) The value of the pledge is taken into account in the forms of participles on -xia; they may contain a mixture of reflexive and passive meanings (see § 173, paragraph 4). In such cases, the forms should, where possible, be replaced by -xia other (usually forms on -my). For example, instead of “a girl being raised by her grandmother,” you should say: girl raised by grandmother; instead of “work performed by students” - work performed by students. Depending on the meaning, different agreements of participles are possible. Wed: Some of the books intended for the exhibition have already been received(books intended for the exhibition were received). – Some of the books intended for the exhibition have already been received(not all books intended for the exhibition were received). Such variants of agreement occur in cases where the participial phrase defines not a single word, but a phrase. Wed. Also: The amount of electricity consumed...(the quantitative side is emphasized) – The amount of electricity consumed...(characterizes the object whose part is in question); Two thousand rubles borrowed. – Ten thousand rubles taken from my sister(L. Tolstoy). In some cases, participial phrases, like subordinate attributive clauses (see § 210, paragraph 4), allow double correlation, which gives rise to the ambiguity of the sentence, for example: “Statement of the chairman of the committee dealing with these issues” (is the chairman or the committee involved?) . Possible editing options: Statement made by the chairman of the committee dealing with these issues - ...dealing with these issues. The participial phrase can be found either after the word being defined ( letter received from the author), or in front of it ( letter received from the author), but must not include the qualifying word (“received letter from author”). More often the participial phrase is found after the word being defined. Participles are usually accompanied by explanatory words necessary for the completeness of the statement. Thus, the combinations are stylistically unsuccessful: “entering citizens are asked to pay for the journey” (cf.: citizens boarding the bus...); “received manuscripts have been sent for review” (cf.: manuscripts received by the editor...). Explanatory words may be omitted if their absence is justified by the conditions of the context, the meaning of the sentence itself, the situation of the statement, etc., for example: The work in question has a number of positive aspects; All the proposals made deserve attention; Plans were completed ahead of schedule(these plans were discussed earlier). Participial phrases are used to replace synonymous subordinate clauses: 1) if the statement is bookish in nature, for example: Numerous facts accumulated by science have confirmed the correctness of the hypothesis put forward by the young scientist; Our boats, drawn by the current, floated in the middle of the river(Arsenyev); 2) if in complex sentence the conjunctive word is repeated which, in particular when consistent subordination subordinate clauses (see § 210, paragraph 3, subparagraph “e”), for example: “At a scientific and methodological conference, which was devoted to teaching issues foreign languages, a number of messages were made, which contained interesting data on the use of a programmed training system” (each of the subordinate clauses or both of them can be replaced by participial phrases); 3) if it is necessary to eliminate ambiguity associated with the possible different correlation of the conjunctive word which(see § 210, paragraph 4), for example: “Words in sentences that are used for grammatical analysis are highlighted in bold” (or used, or used, depending on what is used for parsing); 4) if the statement is given brevity justified by stylistic considerations. For example: “The convoy stood on a large bridge, stretched out across a wide river. Below the river there was dark smoke, a steamer was visible through it, dragged barge in tow. Ahead across the river was a huge mountain, dotted houses and churches..." (Chekhov). Using the advantages of the participle phrase, one should at the same time take into account such a significant drawback of participles as their cacophony in the case of an accumulation of forms on -schy And -former(see § 142). § 212. Participial phrases An action denoted by a gerund (adverbial phrase) usually refers to the subject of a given sentence, for example: Summing up the debate, the chairman of the meeting noted the commonality of views of the speaker and meeting participants. If the producer of the action expressed by the predicate verb, and the producer of the action, expressed by a gerund, do not coincide, the use of the participial phrase is stylistically erroneous, for example: “Crossing the rails, the switchman was deafened by the unexpected whistle of a locomotive” ( passing refers to the switchman, and stunned- to the whistle). In a number of cases, it is possible to use an adverbial phrase that does not express the action of the subject: 1) if the producer of the action designated by the gerund coincides with the producer of the action designated by another verb form, For example: The author was asked to make additions to the manuscript, taking into account latest achievements science in this field; It was impossible to hold back the pressure of the waves that rushed onto the shore, sweeping away everything in their path.; 2) in impersonal offer with the infinitive, for example: Had to work in difficult conditions, without having a single free day for rest for many weeks. If in an impersonal sentence there is no infinitive to which the participial phrase could relate, then the use of the latter is stylistically unjustified, for example: “Leaving my hometown, I felt sad”; “After reading the manuscript a second time, it seemed to the editor that it needed serious revision”; 3) in circulation with words based, forming a special construction without the value of an additional action, for example: The calculation is based on average production rates. The use of a participial phrase in a passive construction does not meet the norm, since the producer of the action expressed by the predicate verb and the producer of the action expressed by the gerund do not coincide, for example: “Having received recognition from the broad masses of readers, the book was republished.” An adverbial phrase usually precedes a predicate if it denotes: a) a previous action, for example: Pushing me away, my grandmother rushed to the door...(Bitter); b) the reason for another action, for example: Frightened by an unknown noise, the flock rose heavily above the water(Perventsev); c) a condition for another action, for example: With exertion, a person of the most average abilities can achieve anything.(V. Panova). Participial turnover usually follows the predicate if it denotes: a) a subsequent action, for example: Once in the forest I fell into a deep hole, cutting my side with a branch and tearing the skin on the back of my head.(Bitter); b) mode of action, for example: Here, near the carts, wet horses stood with their heads hanging, and people walked, covered with bags from the rain.(Chekhov). Participial phrases are synonymous with subordinate clauses. When choosing the desired option, its grammatical and stylistic features are taken into account. The participial phrase gives the statement a bookish character. The advantage of this construction compared to the adverbial clause is its compactness. Wed: As you read this manuscript, pay attention to the underlined passages.. – As you read this manuscript, pay attention to the underlined passages.. On the other hand, the advantage of subordinate clauses is the presence in them of conjunctions that give the statement various shades of meaning, which are lost when replacing the subordinate clause with an adverbial phrase. Wed: when he entered..., after he entered..., as soon as he entered..., as soon as he entered... etc. and synonymous variant entering, indicating only a previous action, but devoid of subtle shades of temporal meaning. When using the participial phrase in such cases, the loss of the conjunction should be compensated, where necessary, by lexical means, for example: upon entering... he immediately (right away, immediately and so on.). Participial phrases may be synonymous with other constructions. Wed: walked wrapped in a warm fur coat - walked wrapped in a warm fur coat; looked with his head held high - looked with his head held high; was in a hurry, anticipating something bad - was in a hurry, anticipating something bad; read the manuscript, making notes - read the manuscript and made notes. § 213. Constructions with verbal nouns Orverbal nouns are widely used in various styles of language: a) in science and technology as terms formed: using a suffix -ni-e (-ani-e, -eni-e), For example: concreting, loosening; idea, sensation; subtraction, addition; coordination, management; using a suffix -k-a, For example: masonry, putty(process and result of the process); if there are options of both types ( marking - marking, pressing - pressing, milling - milling, grinding - grinding) the first option has a more bookish character; in a suffixless way, for example: reach, press, burn, measure, reset; if there are options ( heating - heating, firing - burning, draining - draining) for forms at -nie a greater degree of bookishness remains; b) in official business speech, for example: The nomination of candidates has begun; The negotiations ended with the establishment of diplomatic relations; An extension of the agreement for the next five years has been reached; Request for leave granted. c) in headings, for example: Space rocket launch; Showing new films; Presentation of orders and awards; Homecoming. The undoubted advantage of constructions with verbal nouns is their brevity. Wed: When spring arrived, field work began. – With the onset of spring, field work began; If the first symptoms of illness appear, consult a doctor. – When the first symptoms of illness appear, consult a doctor. However, constructions with verbal nouns have a number of disadvantages: a) the lack of clarity of the statement due to the fact that verbal nouns are usually deprived of the meaning of time, aspect, collateral For example: “The speaker spoke about the implementation of the plan” (it is unclear whether he is talking about the fact that the plan has been implemented, or about the progress of its implementation, or about the need to implement it, etc.); b) and artificial formations, created according to a certain model, but not accepted in the literary language, for example: “due to lack of necessary details”, “stealing state property”, “undressing and taking off children’s shoes”. The use of such words can only be justified by stylistic intent, for example: Death occurred due to drowning(Chekhov); c) n a n i s i n g d e v e r (see § 204, p. 1). Often caused by the use of verbal nouns, for example: “In order to improve the process of training young programmers...”; d) splitting the predicate (see § 177, paragraph 2). Usually associated with the use of verbal nouns, for example: “Seal the warehouse”, “Understatement of requirements is in progress”; d) C a n t e l e r s k a r i c a t e r of the statement. Often due to the presence of verbal nouns in it, for example: “In the new novel, the author gives a broad demonstration of the formation of unusual relationships”; “Critics noted the director’s failure to use all the possibilities of color cinema.” If, in connection with the development of terminology in scientific, technical, professional, journalistic speech, many expressions with verbal nouns have already acquired citizenship rights (cf.: the plane is descending, the boat is turning around, the garden has begun to bear fruit, letters are removed five times a day etc.), then their use in other styles of speech produces a negative impression. Stylistic correction of the structures under consideration is achieved through various types of substitutions. For this purpose, the following is used: a) a subordinate clause, for example: “We were unable to leave on time due to failure to receive the necessary documents” - ...because we didn’t receive it Required documents ; b) turnover with the union to, for example: “The manuscript has been corrected to eliminate repetition and improve its style” – ...to eliminate repetition and improve her style; c) participial phrase, for example: “It is necessary to deepen the knowledge and strengthen the skills of students by attracting additional material” - …by attracting additional material. |
3. Stylistic analysis text.
Many words not only name concepts, but also reflect the speaker’s attitude towards them. For example, admiring the beauty of a white flower, you can call it snow-white, white, lily. These adjectives are emotionally charged: the positive evaluation contained in them distinguishes them from the stylistically neutral word white. The emotional connotation of a word can also express a negative assessment of the called concept (blond). Therefore, emotional vocabulary is called evaluative (emotional-evaluative). However, it should be noted that the concepts of emotional words (for example, interjections) do not contain evaluation; at the same time, words in which the assessment constitutes their very lexical meaning (and the assessment is not emotional, but intellectual) do not belong to emotional vocabulary (bad, good, anger, joy, love, approve).
A feature of emotional-evaluative vocabulary is that the emotional coloring is “superimposed” on the lexical meaning of the word, but is not reduced to it; the purely nominative function is complicated here by evaluativeness, the speaker’s attitude to the named phenomenon.
The following three varieties can be distinguished as part of emotional vocabulary. 1. Words with a clear evaluative meaning are usually unambiguous; “the assessment contained in their meaning is so clearly and definitely expressed that it does not allow the word to be used in other meanings.” These include words that are “characteristics” (forerunner, herald, grumbler, idle talker, sycophant, slob, etc.), as well as words containing an assessment of a fact, phenomenon, sign, action (purpose, destiny, businessmanship, fraud, wondrous, miraculous , irresponsible, antediluvian, dare, inspire, defame, mischief). 2. Polysemantic words, usually neutral in their basic meaning, but acquiring a strong emotional connotation when used metaphorically. Thus, they say about a person: hat, rag, mattress, oak, elephant, bear, snake, eagle, crow; in a figurative sense they use verbs: sing, hiss, saw, gnaw, dig, yawn, blink, etc. 3. Words with suffixes of subjective assessment, conveying various shades of feeling: containing positive emotions - son, sunshine, granny, neat, close, and negative - beard, fellow, bureaucratic, etc. Since the emotional connotation of these words is created by affixes, the evaluative meanings in such cases are determined not by the nominative properties of the word, but by word formation.
Depicting feelings in speech requires special expressive colors. Expressiveness (from the Latin expressio - expression) means expressiveness, expressive - containing a special expression. At the lexical level, this linguistic category is embodied in the “increment” of special stylistic shades and special expression to the nominative meaning of the word. For example, instead of the word good, we say beautiful, wonderful, delightful, wonderful; you can say I don’t like, but you can find stronger words: I hate, I despise, I am disgusted. In all these cases, the lexical meaning of the word is complicated by expression. Often one neutral word has several expressive synonyms, differing in the degree of emotional stress (cf.: misfortune - grief - disaster - catastrophe, violent - unrestrained - indomitable - frantic - furious). Vivid expression highlights solemn words (unforgettable, herald, accomplishments), rhetorical (sacred, aspirations, herald), poetic (azure, invisible, chant, incessant). Special expression distinguishes humorous words (blessed, newly minted), ironic (deign, Don Juan, vaunted), familiar (good-looking, cute, poking around, whispering). Expressive shades delineate words that are disapproving (pretentious, mannered, ambitious, pedant), dismissive (painting, penny-pinching), contemptuous (insulting, servile, sycophantic), derogatory (skirt, wimp), vulgar (grabber, lucky), abusive (boor, fool ).
The expressive coloring in a word is layered on its emotional-evaluative meaning, and in some words expression predominates, in others - emotional coloring. Therefore, it is not possible to distinguish between emotional and expressive vocabulary. The situation is complicated by the fact that “unfortunately, there is no typology of expressiveness yet.” This is associated with difficulties in developing a unified terminology.
By combining words that are similar in expression into lexical groups, we can distinguish: 1) words expressing a positive assessment of the named concepts, 2) words expressing their negative assessment. The first group will include words that are lofty, affectionate, and partly humorous; in the second - ironic, disapproving, abusive, etc. The emotional and expressive coloring of words is clearly manifested when comparing synonyms:
The emotional and expressive coloring of a word is influenced by its meaning. We received sharply negative assessments of such words as fascism, separatism, corruption, hired killer, mafia. Behind the words progressive, law and order, sovereignty, openness, etc. positive coloring is fixed. Even different meanings of the same word can noticeably diverge in stylistic coloring: in one case the use of the word can be solemn (Wait, prince. Finally, I hear the speech not of a boy, but of a husband. - P.), in another - the same word receives an ironic connotation (G. Polevoy proved that the venerable editor enjoys the fame of a learned man, so to speak, on his word of honor. - P.).
The development of emotionally expressive shades in a word is facilitated by its metaphorization. Thus, stylistically neutral words used as tropes receive vivid expression: burn (at work), fall (from fatigue), suffocate (in unfavorable conditions), flaming (gaze), blue (dream), flying (gait), etc. d. The context ultimately determines the expressive coloring: neutral words can be perceived as lofty and solemn; High vocabulary in other conditions takes on a mockingly ironic tone; sometimes even a swear word can sound affectionate, and an affectionate word can sound contemptuous. The appearance of additional expressive shades in a word, depending on the context, significantly expands the figurative capabilities of the vocabulary
The expressive coloring of words in works of art differs from the expression of the same words in non-figurative speech. In an artistic context, vocabulary receives additional, secondary semantic shades that enrich its expressive coloring. Modern science attaches great importance to expanding the semantic scope of words in artistic speech, associating with this the appearance of new expressive colors in words.
The study of emotional-evaluative and expressive vocabulary directs us to the identification of different types of speech depending on the nature of the speaker’s impact on the listeners, the situation of their communication, attitude towards each other and a number of other factors.” It’s enough to imagine, wrote A.N. Gvozdev, “that the speaker wants to make people laugh or touch, to arouse the listeners’ affection or their negative attitude towards the subject of speech, so that it becomes clear how different linguistic means will be selected, mainly creating different expressive colors.” With this approach to the selection of linguistic means, several types of speech can be outlined: solemn (rhetorical), official (cold), intimate-affectionate, playful. They are contrasted with neutral speech, using linguistic means devoid of any stylistic coloring. This classification of speech types, dating back to the “poeticists” of ancient antiquity, is not rejected by modern stylists.
The doctrine of functional styles does not exclude the possibility of using a variety of emotionally expressive means in them at the discretion of the author of the work. In such cases, “the methods of selecting speech means... are not universal, they are of a particular nature.” For example, journalistic speech can take on a solemn tone; “one or another speech in the sphere of everyday communication (anniversary speeches, ceremonial speeches associated with the act of one or another ritual, etc.) can be rhetorical, expressively rich and impressive.”
At the same time, it should be noted that expressive types of speech have been insufficiently studied and there is a lack of clarity in their classification. In this regard, certain difficulties arise in determining the relationship between the functional-style emotional-expressive coloring of vocabulary. Let's dwell on this issue.
The emotional and expressive coloring of the word, layered on the functional, complements its stylistic characteristics. Words that are neutral in an emotionally expressive sense usually belong to commonly used vocabulary (although this is not necessary: terms, for example, in an emotionally expressive sense, are usually neutral, but have a clear functional definition). Emotionally expressive words are distributed between book, colloquial and colloquial vocabulary.
Book vocabulary includes lofty words that add solemnity to speech, as well as emotionally expressive words that express both positive and negative assessments of the named concepts. In book styles, the vocabulary used is ironic (loveliness, words, quixoticism), disapproving (pedantic, mannerism), contemptuous (mask, corrupt).
Colloquial vocabulary includes words of endearment (daughter, darling), humorous (butuz, laugh), as well as words expressing a negative assessment of the named concepts (small fry, zealous, giggle, boast).
In common parlance, words are used that are outside the literary vocabulary. Among them there may be words containing a positive assessment of the named concept (hard worker, brainy, awesome), and words expressing the speaker’s negative attitude towards the concepts they designate (crazy, flimsy, stupid).
A word can intersect functional, emotionally expressive and other stylistic shades. For example, the words satellite, epigonic, apotheosis are perceived primarily as bookish. But at the same time, we associate the word satellite, used in a figurative meaning, with a journalistic style; in the word epigonic we note a negative assessment, and in the word apotheosis - a positive one. In addition, the use of these words in speech is influenced by their foreign language origin. Such affectionately ironic words as zaznoba, motanya, zaletka, drolya, combine colloquial and dialect coloring, folk-poetic sound. The richness of stylistic shades of Russian vocabulary requires a particularly attentive attitude to the word.
Modern science of language distinguishes, along with functional styles, expressive styles, which are classified depending on the expression contained in the linguistic elements. Expression– means expressiveness (from lat. expressio– expression), the power of manifestation of feelings and experiences. For these styles, the most important function is the impact.
Expressive styles include solemn(high, rhetorical), official,familiar(reduced) and also intimately affectionate,playful(ironic), mocking(satirical). These styles are opposed neutral, that is, devoid of expression.
The main means of achieving the desired expressive coloring of speech is evaluative vocabulary.
Many words not only define concepts, but also express the speaker’s attitude towards them, a special kind of evaluativeness. For example, admiring the beauty of a white flower, you can call it snow-white, white, lily. These words are emotionally charged: a positive assessment distinguishes them from the stylistically neutral definition of white. The emotional connotation of a word can also express a negative assessment of the concept being called: blond, whitish. Therefore, emotional vocabulary is also called evaluative (emotional-evaluative).
At the same time, it should be noted that the concepts of emotionality and evaluation are not identical, although they are closely related. Some emotional words (such as interjections) do not contain evaluation; and there are words in which evaluation is the essence of them semantic structure, but they do not belong to emotional vocabulary: good, bad, joy, anger, love, suffer.
A feature of emotional-evaluative vocabulary is that the emotional coloring is “superimposed” on the lexical meaning of the word, but is not reduced to it: the denotative meaning of the word is complicated by the connotative one.
As part of the emotional vocabulary we can distinguish three groups.
Words with bright estimated value, containing an assessment of facts, phenomena, signs, giving an unambiguous description of people: inspire, admirable, daring, unsurpassed, pioneer, destined, herald, self-sacrifice, irresponsible, grumbler, double-dealer, businessman, antediluvian, mischief, defame, fraud, sycophant, windbag, slob. Such words, as a rule, are unambiguous; expressive emotionality prevents the development of figurative meanings in them.
Polysemantic words, neutral in basic meaning, receiving a qualitative-emotional connotation when used figuratively. So, about a person of a certain character we can say: hat, rag, mattress, oak, elephant, bear, snake, eagle, crow, rooster, parrot; Verbs are also used in a figurative meaning: saw, hiss, sing, gnaw, dig, yawn, blink, etc.
Words with suffixes of subjective assessment, conveying various shades of feelings: son, daughter, granny, sunshine, neat, close - positive emotions; beards, brats, bureaucrats - negative. Their evaluative meanings are determined not by nominative properties, but by word formation, since affixes impart emotional coloring to such forms.
The emotionality of speech is often conveyed by particularly expressive vocabulary. There are many words in the Russian language that add an element of expression to their nominative meaning. For example, instead of the word good when we are delighted with something, we say wonderful, wonderful, delightful, wonderful, one might say I do not like, but it’s not difficult to find stronger, more colorful words - I hate, I despise, I disgust. In all these cases, the semantic structure of the word is complicated by connotation.
Often one neutral word has several expressive synonyms that differ in the degree of emotional stress; Wed: misfortune - grief, disaster, catastrophe; violent - uncontrollable, indomitable, frantic, furious. Vivid expression highlights solemn words(herald, accomplishments, unforgettable), rhetorical(comrade, aspirations, proclaim), poetic(azure, invisible, silent, chant). Expressively colored words humorous(blessed, newly minted), ironic(deign, Don Juan, vaunted), familiar(good-looking, cute, poke around, whisper). Expressive shades delimit words disapproving(mannered, pretentious, ambitious, pedant), dismissive(painting, petty play), contemptuous(to whisper, toady), derogatory(skirt, wimp), vulgar(grabber, lucky), abusive(boor, fool). All these nuances of the expressive coloring of words are reflected in the stylistic notes for them in explanatory dictionaries. The expression of a word is often layered on its emotional-evaluative meaning, with some words dominated by expression, and others by emotionality. Therefore, it is often necessary to distinguish emotional and expressive coloring is not seems possible, and then they talk about emotionally expressive vocabulary(expressive-evaluative).
Words that are similar in the nature of expressiveness are classified into: 1) vocabulary expressing positive assessment of the called concepts, and 2) vocabulary expressing negative assessment of the named concepts. The first group will include words tall, affectionate, partly playful; in the second - ironic, disapproving, abusive, contemptuous, vulgar, etc. The emotional and expressive coloring of a word is influenced by its meaning. Thus, we received sharply negative assessments of words such as fascism, Stalinism, repression, totalitarianism, mafia, bribe taker. Positive assessment stuck with words progressive, law and order, publicity, honest, merciful. Even different meanings of the same word can differ noticeably in stylistic coloring: in one meaning the word appears as solemn, lofty: Wait, prince. Finally, I hear the speech not of a boy, buthusband (P.), in another - as ironic, mocking: G. Polevoy proved that the venerable editor enjoys the fame of a scientisthusband (I.).
The development of expressive shades in the semantics of a word is also facilitated by its metaphorization. Thus, stylistically neutral words used as metaphors receive vivid expression: burning at work, falling from fatigue, suffocating in conditions of totalitarianism, flaming gaze, blue dream, flying gait, etc. The context ultimately reveals the expressive coloring of words: in it, units that are stylistically neutral can become emotionally charged, tall units can become contemptuous, affectionate ones can become ironic, and even a swear word (scoundrel, fool) can sound approving.
Correlation between functional-style fixation and emotional-expressive coloring of words.
The emotional and expressive coloring of a word and its belonging to a certain functional style in the lexical system of the Russian language are, as a rule, interdependent. Words that are neutral in terms of emotional expression are usually included in the layer of commonly used vocabulary. The exception is terms: they are always stylistically neutral, but have a clear functional definition.
Emotionally expressive words are distributed between book and colloquial (colloquial) vocabulary.
TO book vocabulary These include lofty words that add solemnity to speech, as well as emotionally expressive words that express both a positive and negative assessment of the named concepts. Thus, in book styles, the vocabulary used is ironic (beautiful, quixotic words), disapproving (pedantic, mannerism), contemptuous (mask, corrupt), etc. Therefore, it is sometimes incorrectly believed that book vocabulary consists only of words of positive evaluative meaning, although such, of course, predominate in it (all poetic, rhetorical, solemn vocabulary).
TO colloquial vocabulary These include words of endearment (darling, mommy), humorous words (butuz, smeshinka), as well as some units expressing a negative assessment of the named concepts (however, not too rude): zealous, giggle, boast, small fry.
TO colloquial vocabulary belong to sharply reduced words that are outside the literary norm. Among them there may be forms containing a positive assessment of the named concepts (hard worker, brainy), but there are many more forms expressing the speaker’s negative attitude towards the designated concepts (lawlessness, crazy, flimsy, stupid, etc.).
The word often intersects functional characteristics with emotionally expressive and other stylistic shades. For example, words satellite, epigonic, apotheosis are perceived primarily as bookish. But at the same time the word satellite, used figuratively, we associate with the journalistic style; in a word epigonous we mark a negative assessment, and in the word apotheosis– positive. In addition, the use of these words in speech is influenced by their foreign language origin (phonetic design, which is not characteristic of the Russian language, can lead to their inappropriateness in a certain context). And affectionately ironic words sweetheart, motanya, fledgling, drolya combine colloquial and dialect coloring, folk poetic sound. The richness of stylistic shades of Russian vocabulary requires a particularly attentive attitude to the word.
Using stylistically colored vocabulary in speech
The stylistic coloring of a word indicates the possibility of using it in one or another functional style (in combination with commonly used, neutral vocabulary). However, this does not mean that the functional assignment of words to a certain style excludes their use in other styles. The modern development of the Russian language is characterized by mutual influence and interpenetration of styles, and this contributes to the movement of lexical means (simultaneously with other linguistic elements) from one style to another. Thus, in scientific works, journalistic vocabulary often coexists with terminological vocabulary. This can be observed in the example of literary works: Publication of “The Northern Tale” by K.G. Paustovsky dates back to 1939. This is a romantic story about people different generations and nationalities, whose destinies are closely and sometimes intricately intertwined.
The heroes of the story are united common features– the struggle for social justice and freedom, moral purity. ...The writer's ideological plan determined the features of the composition and plot of the story. The plot parallelism of the first and second-third parts, the peculiar repetition of the plot line are not accidental(L. A. Novikov). Scientific style does not exclude emotional speech, and this determines the use of evaluative vocabulary, high and low words.
The journalistic style is even more open to the penetration of foreign style vocabulary. In a newspaper article you can often find terms next to colloquial and even colloquial vocabulary:
The word “perestroika” entered many languages without translation, just like “sputnik” did in its time. However, it is much easier for a foreigner to learn this word than to implement everything that stands behind it. I will show this using facts from the economic sphere... Planning, as you know, is based on standards. I hasten to immediately and clearly make a reservation so as not to be accused of being against any standards at all. No, of course not! And at enterprises, I am sure, they will not reach the point of stupidity to indiscriminately deny their necessity. Just depends on what standards. When, for example, the percentage of deductions from profits to the budget is established, or payment for the consumption of natural resources, or the amount of payments to the bank for a loan received, who will be against it? But when regulations regulate everything inner life enterprises: structure and number, salaries and bonuses, deductions for all kinds of needs (even the purchase of pens and pencils) - this is, excuse me, utter nonsense, which leads to results that are often funny, sometimes dramatic, and sometimes tragicomic.(L. Volin)
Here, scientific, terminological vocabulary is intertwined with expressively colored colloquial vocabulary, which, however, does not violate the stylistic norms of journalistic speech, but, on the contrary, helps to enhance its effectiveness. Here, for example, is a description of a scientific experiment that appeared on a newspaper page: The Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry....thirty-two laboratories. One of them studies the evolution of sleep. At the entrance to the laboratory there is a sign: “Do not enter: experience!” But from behind the door comes the clucking of a chicken. She's not here to lay eggs. Here a researcher picks up a corydalis. Turns upside down... Such an appeal to foreign-style vocabulary is completely justified; colloquial vocabulary enlivens speech and makes it more accessible to the reader.
Of the book styles, only official business style is impenetrable to colloquial vocabulary, to emotionally expressive words Although in special genres of this style it is possible to use journalistic elements, and therefore, evaluative vocabulary (but from the group of book words). For example, in diplomatic documents (statements, government notes) such vocabulary can express an attitude towards
25. Lexical compatibility: limited and unlimited
Lexical compatibility is determined by the semantic features of the word. Depending on the lexical meaning of a word, there are two main types: free and non-free, limited to a fairly strict list of words. In the first case, we mean the combinability of words with a direct, nominative meaning. It is determined by the subject-logical nature of words; it is based on the semantic incompatibility of lexemes. For example, the verb to take is combined with words denoting objects that can be “taken into hand, grabbed with hands, teeth, or any other devices”: take a stick, pen, spoon, knife, glass, lamp, branch, etc. Such lexical connections correspond to real, logical connections and relationships of objects and concepts expressed by combining words.
The boundaries of the lexical compatibility of words with a nominative, or direct, meaning are determined primarily by subject-logical relationships in the reality of the denotations of the corresponding words.
The combination of words that are semantically incompatible with each other leads to alogisms (ringing silence, an ordinary miracle, a smart fool, dragging along quickly, etc.).
Non-free compatibility is due to intralingual, semantic relationships and relationships. It is typical for words with phraseologically related meanings. Compatibility in in this case selective, lexemes are not combined with all semantically compatible ones. For example, the adjective inevitable is combined with the nouns death, death, failure, but is not combined with the nouns victory, life, success, etc. And in the case of polysemy, individual meanings of a word can be phraseologically related. So, for the lexeme deep, such a meaning is ‘reached the limit in development, flow’. The range of its lexical connections in this meaning is limited: it can be combined with the words old age, night, autumn, winter, but not combined with the words youth, day, spring, summer, the semantics of which does not contradict its own.
The rules of lexical compatibility are of a dictionary nature, they are individual for each word and have not yet been codified consistently and completely. Therefore, one of the most common errors in speech is a violation of the norms of lexical compatibility: sudden departure (instead of unexpected), increase the level (the level can only increase or decrease), increase the pace, etc. Quite often (especially in colloquial speech) errors arise in the result of contamination (from the Latin contaminatio - bringing into contact; mixing) - crossing, combining two combinations related to each other by some associations. Usually contamination is the result of incorrect formation of a phrase in speech. For example, the incorrect combination have a reflection - the result of contamination of the phrases take place and find reflection, render harm - provide assistance and cause harm. More often than others, the phrases subject to contamination are to matter, to play a role, to pay (pay) attention. Violation of the structure of standardized phrases makes it difficult to perceive speech.
The use of phraseological combinations requires special attention. When using phraseological units, one should take into account their semantics, figurative nature, lexico-grammatical structure, emotional-expressive and functional-style coloring, as well as the compatibility of the phraseme with other words in the sentence. Unmotivated deviation from these requirements leads to speech errors similar to those observed in the use of individual words. In addition, unmotivated changes in the composition of a phraseme (its reduction or expansion, replacement of one of the components without expanding the composition of a phraseological unit or with its simultaneous expansion) or structural and grammatical changes, as well as distortion of the figurative meaning of a phraseological combination are common in speech.
Stylistically unmotivated, unintentional violations of lexical compatibility lead to inaccuracy of speech, and sometimes to unjustified comedy. For example: At the meeting, the shortcomings achieved were sharply criticized (the lexeme lack is semantically incompatible with the lexeme achieved).
The boundaries of lexical compatibility may change over time (expand or narrow). In the 30s, for example, combinations of only a terminological nature (such as atomic weight) were possible with the lexeme atomic, but nowadays it is combined with the lexemes war, bomb, weapon, threat, blackmail, politics, century, etc. Combination The word breeding ground in modern use is limited to words denoting negative phenomena (infection, banditry, contagion, etc.). Gorky freely used the combination of a hotbed of enlightenment.
The rules of lexical compatibility, determined by intralingual patterns, are specific to each language and national. This creates certain difficulties when translating from one language to another, forcing one to select equivalents not for individual words, but for entire phrases. For example, the equivalent of the Russian phrase inform is the Belarusian phrase davodzitsy da veda; to take flight - to take flight or to take flight, the hour is uneven - what good will happen or what will not happen.
One of the main reasons for violation of the norms of lexical compatibility in the conditions of Russian-Belarusian bilingualism is the transfer of models of the Belarusian language into Russian. The following phrases can be considered as a result of interference: get (instead of win) a victory (the equivalent to this phrase in the Belarusian language is atrymats peramogu, atrymats translated into Russian - get, hence - get a victory); to take (instead of taking) into account - brats (prymats) pad respect, to consider (instead of considering) the question - to consider the question.
26. Stylistic differentiation of Russian vocabulary
Words not only name the phenomena of reality, but also convey the speaker’s attitude towards them, his assessment. For example, you could say baby, maybe baby, baby.sheet can be called white, Can i snow-white. Can a person kick out, Can i expose. From the examples it is clear that synonyms contain different assessments of the same phenomenon. And there are a huge number of such examples in the language: sloppy - sloppy - pig; hit - move - hit the face; hands - paws - rake. Words expressing the speaker's assessment are called emotionally expressive vocabulary. Such words are always stylistically marked. Their use is determined both by the speech situation and the sphere of communication. However, the emotionally expressive coloring is clearly noticeable against the background of neutral vocabulary, devoid of emotionality. Thus, all words of the Russian language can be divided into 2 groups - (1) neutral vocabulary and (2) stylistically colored vocabulary. It is clear that the words of the first group constitute a kind of center of the language system. They are used in any functional style, they are appropriate in any communicative situation. Words of the second group are used in different areas of communication. In addition, they have or have a reduced stylistic coloring - mug, poke, run into someone, kick, defraud, steal, throw off, push off; or book accessory - above-mentioned, face, future.
Words of the second group are strictly assigned to a particular style and sphere of communication. It is believed that the words of the second group, that is, emotionally expressive vocabulary, are distributed between book and colloquial vocabulary.
Schematically, the stylistic stratification of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language can be represented as follows:
Literary language vocabulary
Special mention should be made about terms. These words do not have an emotionally expressive connotation, they are stylistically neutral, but they belong to the scientific style of speech. Although many terms become interstitial, this is especially true for computer terminology.
Interstyle vocabulary is the basis of the vocabulary fund. It is freely used in all functional styles. It is devoid of an emotional-evaluative component, which is why it is called neutral. For example, house, knife, wooden, red, talk, answer, have, round. The following features of neutral vocabulary are distinguished:
1. names everyday concepts of everyday life of society: household items, the realities of human life, indicate temporal and spatial characteristics, natural phenomena forest, bread, water, weather, minute, negative;
2. deprived of terminological names;
3. does not convey the speaker’s assessment.
Interstyle vocabulary includes words naming specific objects: table, chair, notebook; abstract concepts of cold, heat, frost, shock; signs, actions, states, quantity. Neutral vocabulary ensures the unity of the Russian literary language. Thanks to it, the presentation is made publicly accessible. It must be remembered that polysemantic words in some meanings can act as neutral, and in others - as assigned to a certain style. Compare: run over a pole ‘to bump into something’ and run over a subordinate ‘to insult, scold’. The latter meaning has a reduced emotional and expressive connotation and is used in a colloquial and everyday style. The word Duma in the meaning of ‘reflection’ is stylistically assigned to the book style of the Duma about the Motherland, and in the meaning of ‘the name of the authority’ it is stylistically neutral and refers to inter-style vocabulary.
Similarly, the words club, pig, donkey, goat, ram in the literal sense are stylistically neutral, but in the figurative sense they are emotionally charged, abusive, and roughly colloquial.
From the point of view of stylistic stratification, a distinction is made between neutral, bookish and colloquial vocabulary.
Book vocabulary serves primarily the sphere of literary and written speech. It is used in official business, scientific and journalistic styles. In terms of character and degree of emotional coloring, book words are not the same. Scientific vocabulary and vocabulary of official business style are neutral. These words in context realize direct meaning. Scientific vocabulary, in addition to terms, includes abstract words analyze, relevant, identical. Regarding, argument, argue, hypothesis, version.
The most closed vocabulary is the official business style. It is divided into several thematic groups:
1) names of business papers: application, appeal, instruction, certificate;
2) names of documents: passport, diploma, certificate, charter, decree;
3) nomenclature names: directorate, ministry, administration, inspector.
A special group of book words consists of lexemes with a touch of solemnity. They form a group of high vocabulary: good, erect, future, inspiration, eyes, lips, accomplishments, so that. Typically these words are used in poetry or journalism. Journalistic vocabulary is always emotionally charged, as it is designed to have an impact on the reader. It always contains an evaluative component, as it forms public opinion. Compare:
Kursk roads for a long time were the subject sharp criticism both from residents of the region and visiting guests. This year our road workers They have proven that they can do the job. They had never managed to reach so serious volume of work.
Journalistic vocabulary is devoid of stylistic isolation. It is characterized by the use of words in a figurative meaning
In colloquial vocabulary, two groups are traditionally distinguished: (1) literary and colloquial vocabulary, used in various spheres of oral communication - stupid, balk, fall into ambition, mediocrity, put on airs; (2) everyday vocabulary used in everyday communication- to be a troublemaker, to screw up, a hooligan, brainless, to blurt out, daughter. Colloquial vocabulary has the following features:
1) widespread use of demonstrative words he, this, here, over there;
2) reduced emotional-expressive coloring to jabber, flicker, blurt out, blurt out;
3) the use of verbal nouns: balabolka, ringleader, sing along.
Colloquial vocabulary includes endearing words, darling, mommy; humorous. These are words that are used in casual, informal communication. They allow us to judge the nature of relationships between people. Colloquial vocabulary is widely recorded in dictionaries with the marks swearing, joking, ironic, affectionate, colloquial. For example: to be ashamed (colloquial), to wear out (colloquial), rumors (colloquial). Recently, colloquial vocabulary has been introduced into official speeches, reports, and interviews.
Colloquial vocabulary differs from colloquial vocabulary in its greater power of expression. This is a socially determined, non-literary variety of Russian vocabulary. Vernacular speech does not have a territorial fixation, unlike dialect words. It can be distinguished from literary vocabulary by the following features:
1) shift of accent p O rtfel, d O cent.
2) Changes in the morphological indicators of surnames and statues.
It indicates a familiar relationship between the interlocutors. In the dictionary it has the marks bran., colloquial. For example: catch ‘catch in the act’, zaslanets, mod e ryny, dash off ‘quickly write’.
Colloquial words are characterized by the presence of their own diminutive suffixes: babulence, bratukha, konyachishko, papa, mordulence.
Many colloquial words have a rude connotation, so the scope of their use is limited to such speech acts as a quarrel, squabble, showdown. Let me remind you of some words: mug, muzzle, mug, crazy, talker, stunned.
The periphery of common speech consists of swear words. They are called vulgarisms: bitch, creature, creep. Sometimes they appear in works of art. Remember how K. Vorobyov’s story “Killed near Moscow” ends.
27. Synonymy as a property of lexical units
2.3. Synonymy of phraseological and lexical units. This section describes the synonymy of phraseological and lexical units, their properties, functions and systemic connections.
As you know, phraseological units make up the bulk of the richness of the lexical stock of a language. Phraseological units express meanings that can be conveyed in one word:
Lumae chand az sari ishtiyo tanovul qard va dame chand o dar sarash oshomid, then devi darunash bioromid va bihuft (11,260-261). He greedily swallowed several pieces and after that drank several sips of water, so that the demon of his insides calmed down and he fell asleep (11.141).
Many words not only define concepts, but also express the speaker’s attitude towards them, a special kind of evaluativeness. For example, admiring the beauty of a white flower, you can call it snow-white, white, lily. These words are emotionally charged: a positive assessment distinguishes them from the stylistically neutral definition of white. The emotional connotation of a word can also express a negative assessment of what is called a witness: blond, whitish. Therefore, emotional vocabulary is also called evaluative (emotional-evaluative).
At the same time, it should be noted that the concepts of emotionality and evaluation are not identical, although they are closely related. Some emotional words (such as interjections) do not contain evaluation; and there are words in which evaluation is the essence of their semantic structure, but they do not belong to emotional vocabulary: good, bad, joy, anger, love, suffer.
A feature of emotional-evaluative vocabulary is that the emotional coloring is “superimposed” on the lexical meaning of the word, but is not reduced to it: the denotative meaning of the word is complicated by the connotative one.
The emotional vocabulary can be divided into three groups.
- 1 Words with a vivid connotative meaning, containing an assessment of facts, phenomena, signs, giving an unambiguous description of people: inspire, delightful, daring, unsurpassed, pioneer, destined, herald, self-sacrifice, irresponsible, grump, double-dealer, businessman, antediluvian, mischief, defame, fraud, sycophant, windbag, slob. Such words, as a rule, are unambiguous; expressive emotionality prevents the development of figurative meanings in them.
- 2 Polysemantic words, neutral in basic meaning, receiving a qualitative-emotional connotation when used figuratively. So, about a person of a certain character we can say: hat, rag, mattress, oak, elephant, bear, snake, eagle, crow, rooster, parrot; Verbs are also used in a figurative meaning: saw, hiss, sing, gnaw, dig, yawn, blink, etc.
- 3 Words with suffixes of subjective assessment, conveying various shades of feelings: son, daughter, granny, sunshine, neat, close - positive emotions; beards, brats, bureaucrats - negative. Their evaluative meanings are determined not by nominative properties, but by word formation, since affixes impart emotional coloring to such forms.
The emotionality of speech is often conveyed by particularly expressive vocabulary. Expressiveness (expression) (lat. expressio) means expressiveness, the power of manifestation of feelings and experiences. There are many words in the Russian language that add an element of expression to their nominative meaning. For example, instead of the word good, when we are delighted with something, we say beautiful, wonderful, delightful, wonderful; you can say I don’t like, but it’s not difficult to find stronger, more colorful words I hate, despise, disgust. In all these cases semantic structure words are complicated by connotation.
Often one neutral word has several expressive synonyms that differ in the degree of emotional stress; Wed: misfortune - grief, disaster, catastrophe; violent - uncontrollable, indomitable, frantic, furious. Vivid expression highlights solemn words (herald, accomplishments, unforgettable), rhetorical (comrade-in-arms, aspirations, herald), poetic (azure, invisible, silent, chant). Words that are playful (blessed, newly-minted), ironic (deign, Don Juan, vaunted), familiar (good-looking, cute, poke around, whisper) are also expressively colored. Expressive shades delineate words that are disapproving (mannered, pretentious, ambitious, pedant), disdainful (paint, petty ), contemptuous (to gossip, toady), derogatory (skirt, wimp), vulgar (grabber, lucky), abusive (boor, fool). All these nuances of the expressive coloring of words are reflected in the stylistic notes for them in explanatory dictionaries.
The expression of a word is often layered on its emotional-evaluative meaning, with some words predominant by expression, and others by emotionality. Therefore, it is often not possible to distinguish between emotional and expressive coloring, and then they talk about emotionally expressive vocabulary (expressive-evaluative).
Words that are similar in the nature of expressiveness are classified into: 1) vocabulary expressing a positive assessment of the named concepts, and 2) vocabulary expressing a negative assessment of the called concepts. The first group will include words that are lofty, affectionate, and partly humorous; in the second - ironic, disapproving, abusive, contemptuous, vulgar, etc.
The emotional and expressive coloring of a word is influenced by its meaning. Thus, such words as fascism, Stalinism, and repression received a sharply negative assessment in our country. A positive assessment was attached to the words progressive, peace-loving, anti-war. Even different meanings of the same word can differ noticeably in stylistic coloring: in one meaning the word appears as solemn, lofty: Wait, prince. Finally, I hear the speech not of a boy, but of a husband (P.), in another - as ironic, mocking: G. Polevoy proved that the venerable editor enjoys the fame of a learned husband (P.).
The development of expressive shades in the semantics of a word is also facilitated by its metaphorization. Thus, stylistically neutral words used as metaphors receive vivid expression: burning at work, falling from fatigue, suffocating under totalitarian conditions, flaming gaze, blue dream, flying gait, etc. The context ultimately reveals the expressive coloring of words: in it, units that are stylistically neutral can become emotionally charged, tall units can become contemptuous, affectionate ones can become ironic, and even a swear word (scoundrel, fool) can sound approving.
