In the summer of 1588, Spain built a huge fleet, called it the Invincible Armada, and sent it to the shores of England. The British let the armada sink, Spanish hegemony in the world came to an end, and Britain began to be called the “mistress of the seas”...
This is how this event is presented in historical literature. In fact, the defeat of the Invincible Armada is a historical myth.
Spain at that time was led by a king Philip II was a huge power that included southern Italy, the Netherlands, parts of France, Portugal and vast territories in Africa, India, the Philippines, South and Central America. They said that the sun never sets on the domain of the Spanish king. The population of Spain was more than 8 million people. Its army was considered the best in the world, its fleet invincible. Ships loaded with gold came from Peru and Mexico, and caravans with spices came from India. And so England decided to take a piece of this “pie”.
In 1498, Columbus already regarded England as a maritime power and offered King Henry VII organize a western expedition in search of India. The king refused, and soon he had to regret his decision. Following Columbus, the British sent their expedition, which discovered Newfoundland, but the furs and timber of North America did not inspire the British. Everyone was hungry for gold.
Robbery as a means of replenishing the treasury
Elizabeth I, who ascended the English throne in 1558, was left with an empty treasury and debts. And then she gave tacit permission to rob Spanish ships and settlements in the West Indies. Joint-stock companies were organized throughout England. The shareholders equipped the ship, hired a team of thugs, and the ship set off. And Elizabeth I all this time she was engaged, in modern slang, in protecting all the letters of “beloved brother Philip”, answering: “The culprits will be found and punished!” - but she did not find anyone and did not punish.
In 1577, the queen decided to put the robbery of Spain on a state basis, equipping an expedition and sending it to “discover new lands.” The expedition was led by Francis Drake, who had the reputation of a highwayman. Drake visited the Spanish ports in Peru and brought back 500,000 pounds worth of booty, which was one and a half times the country's annual income. Philip II demanded the extradition of the pirate - and Elizabeth I knighted Drake.
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| Francis Drake |
Philip's income fell, and Elizabeth's grew. Only in 1582In 2010, Spain was robbed by English privateers for 1,900,000 ducats! In addition, Elizabeth supported the Dutch rebellion against Spanish rule, sending a military contingent of 5,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry there in 1585.
Philip perceived British intervention in his affairs as a rebellion of vassals: after a four-year marriage with Queen Mary of England I (Elizabeth's elder sister) formally Philip could lay claim to the throne of Foggy Albion. Advisors whispered to the king that the Catholics oppressed in Protestant England would be happy to see a faithful servant of the Catholic Church on the throne.
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| Execution of Mary Stuart |
Casusbelli
The official reason for sending the squadron was the news received by the Spaniards about the execution of the Scottish Queen Mary Stuart in England. The execution of the “righteous Catholic woman” caused a storm of indignation in Spain. Philip decided that it was time to take decisive action. We urgently remembered the Catholics oppressed in England who needed to be saved. On May 29, 1588, the sailors and officers of the squadron were absolved of their sins, and the Invincible Armada left Lisbon to the sound of bells.
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| Spanish invincible armada |
It was truly an armada: more than 130 ships, half of them military, 2,430 guns, about 19,000 soldiers, almost 1,400 officers, sailors, priests, doctors, a total of 30,500 people. In addition, the Spaniards expected to unite with the army of the Duke of Parma, which was fighting in Flanders - another 30,000 people.
The sailors were going to land in Essex and, relying on the support of local Catholics, move on London. The threat of invasion was more than real. In England, having learned about the departure of the armada, they urgently began to form a militia and build new ships. A fleet of 100 ships was ready by summer. On July 29, the British saw the armada from the coast of Cornwall.
Naval battles
On July 31, near Plymouth, the Spaniards suffered their first losses: the Rosario collided with the Santa Catalina and was left without a mast; a fire broke out on the San Salvador. On August 1, the British captured ships abandoned by the Spaniards and celebrated their first victory. The next four days were spent in skirmishes, during which neither side lost a single ship. On August 8, the two fleets met near Gravelines.
The British started the battle. Having deployed into battle formation, they opened artillery fire. The Spaniards responded sluggishly, having clear instructions from the king to avoid battle: the goal of the campaign was a landing, and not the destruction of the English fleet. The battle lasted more than nine hours. And although the British did not lose a single ship, the general opinion about the battle was expressed by one of the officers of the Royal Navy: “They spent so much gunpowder, and it was all in vain.”
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| "Defeat" of the Invincible Armada |
And then he got up strong wind and began to drive the armada away from the shore. Since there was no news from the Duke of Parma, the Spaniards decided to retreat and move north, intending to go around Scotland. When the armada left, the army of the Duke of Parma came ashore. She was literally a few days late.
Way home
The return of the Spanish fleet was terrible. The ships required repairs, there was not enough water and food, and the sailors did not have maps of these areas. Off the northwestern coast of Ireland, the armada was caught in a severe two-week storm. This is where its defeat took place. 60 of the 130 ships and about 10,000 people returned to Spain. It was truly a defeat, only the British had nothing to do with it.
In 1588, the British honestly admitted: “The Lord saved England” - and did not attribute too much to themselves. Having caught their breath and appreciating the gift, they began to urgently prepare a return visit, and by 1589 they equipped their armada of 150 ships. The end of the English Armada was the same as the Spanish one, only this time there was no “divine intervention”.
The Spaniards, having learned the lesson of an unsuccessful campaign, began to build small maneuverable ships instead of huge, clumsy ships and equipped them with long-range artillery. The renewed Spanish fleet repelled the British attack. And two years later, the Spaniards inflicted several serious defeats on the British. In fact, Britain became the “mistress of the seas” only 150 years later.
Plan
Introduction
1 The purpose of the armada's campaign
2 Trip plan
3 Organization
4 Beginning of the hike
5 Battles of the English Channel
6 Storms and wrecks
7 Meaning
References
Introduction
Invincible Armada (Spanish) Armada invincible or "The Great and Most Glorious Armada", Spanish. Grande y Felicísima Armada) - a large military fleet (130 heavy ships), created and assembled by Spain in 1586−1588 to defeat the English fleet and conquer England during the Anglo-Spanish War (1587−1604). The Armada campaign took place in 1588 under the command of Alonso Perez de Guzman, Duke of Medina Sidonia.
As a result of several bloody battles, the Invincible Armada was badly battered by the Anglo-Dutch fleet of light and maneuverable ships, commanded by Lord Effingham, in a series of skirmishes that ended at the Battle of Gravelines. The “pirates of Elizabeth” distinguished themselves in battles, among them the most famous was Sir Francis Drake.
The battles lasted 2 weeks. The Armada failed to regroup and went north, abandoning the invasion, and the English fleet harassed it at some distance, sailing along the east coast of England. The return to Spain was difficult: the Armada sailed across the North Atlantic, along the west coast of Ireland. But strong storms disrupted the formation of the fleet, and over 24 ships were thrown ashore in the northern and west coast Ireland. About 50 ships were unable to make it back to Spain. Of the 130 combat units of the Spanish fleet, only 65 (or 67) ships returned home, and 3/4 of the personnel died.
1. The purpose of the armada's campaign
For decades, English filibusters robbed and sank Spanish ships. In addition, Queen Elizabeth I of England supported the Dutch rebellion against Spanish rule. The Spanish monarch Philip II considered it his duty to help English Catholics in their fight against Protestants. Therefore, almost 180 priests and confessors were gathered on the decks of the Invincible Armada. Even during recruitment, every soldier and sailor had to confess to a priest and receive communion.
The religious sentiments of the Spanish king and his subjects are reflected in the words of the outstanding Jesuit Pedro de Ribadeneira:
“We will be led by the Lord God himself, whose work and most holy faith we protect, and with such a Captain we have nothing to fear.”
The British, for their part, also hoped for a decisive victory, which would open the way for England to freely use the sea, break Spain's monopoly on trade with the New World, and also contribute to the spread of Protestant thought in Europe.
2. Hiking plan
The Spanish king ordered the Armada to approach the English Channel and unite with the Duke of Parma and his 30,000-strong guard located in the Dutch province of Flanders, which was controlled by Spain at that time. This combined force was to cross the English Channel, land in Essex, and then march on London. Philip II counted on the fact that English Catholics would leave their Protestant queen and come over to his side.
Philip's plan, however, was not fully thought through. Although he counted on God's providence, he did not take into account two most important circumstances: the power of the English fleet and the shallow waters, which did not allow the ships to approach the shore and take on board the troops of the Duke of Parma.
Philip appointed Duke Alonso Perez de Guzman as chief naval commander. Although the Duke was not experienced in navigation, he was a skillful organizer who was able to quickly find an approach to experienced captains. Together, they created a powerful fleet, supplied it with provisions and equipped it with everything necessary. They carefully developed a system of signals, commands and order of battle that united the multinational army.
3. Organization
The fleet included 130 ships, 2,430 guns, 30,500 people, including 18,973 soldiers, 8,050 sailors, 2,088 slave rowers, 1,389 officers, nobles, priests and doctors.
Food supplies included millions of biscuits, 600,000 lbs. salted fish and corned beef, 400,000 lb. rice, 300,000 lb. cheese, 40,000 gal. olive oil, 14,000 barrels of wine, 6,000 bags of beans. Ammunition: 500,000 charges of gunpowder, 124,000 cannonballs.
The main forces of the fleet were divided into 6 squadrons: “Andalusia” (Pedro de Valdez), “Bizcaya” (Juan Martinez de Recaldo), “Levant” (Martin de Bertendon), “Castile” (Diego Flores de Valdez), “Gipuzkoa” (Miguel de Oquendo) and "Portugal" (Alonso Perez de Guzman).
The fleet also included: 4 Neapolitan galleasses - 635 people, 50 guns (Hugo de Moncada); 4 Portuguese galleys - 320 people, 20 guns; many light ships for reconnaissance and dispatches (Antonio de Mendoza) and ships with supplies (Juan Gomez de Medina).
4. Start of the hike
On May 29, 1588, the Spanish Armada left Lisbon harbor. But the storm drove her to the port of La Coruña, located in northwestern Spain. There the Spaniards had to repair ships and replenish provisions. Concerned about the lack of food and illness among the sailors, Duke Perez de Guzman frankly wrote to the king that he doubted the success of the entire enterprise. But Philip insisted that his admiral adhere to the plan. And so, only two months after leaving Lisbon harbor, the huge and clumsy fleet finally reached the English Channel.
5. Battles in the English Channel
When the Spanish fleet approached the southwestern coast of the English county of Plymouth, English warships were already waiting for it. The parties had the same number of ships, differing in design. The Spanish fleet consisted of high-sided ships, with many short-range cannons. With massive towers at the bow and stern, they resembled floating fortresses, well adapted to boarding combat and assault. The British ships were lower, but more maneuverable. In addition, they were equipped with a larger number of long-range cannons. The British hoped that they would not get close to the enemy and would destroy him from a distance.
Given the greater maneuverability and artillery power of the English fleet, the Spanish admiral for better protection positioned his fleet in a crescent, placing the strongest warships with long-range artillery at the edges. From whichever direction the enemy approached, the Armada could turn around and repel the attack.
Throughout the English Channel, the two fleets exchanged fire and fought two small battles. The defensive position taken by the Spaniards justified itself: the British did not manage to sink a single Spanish ship with the help of long-range weapons. The English captains decided to disrupt the enemy's formation at all costs and approach him within firing distance. They succeeded on August 7th.
Medina Sidonia did not evade the orders of the command and sent the Armada towards the Duke of Parma and his troops. While awaiting a response from Parma, Medina Sidonia ordered the fleet to anchor off Calais, off the coast of France. Taking advantage of the vulnerable position of the Spanish ships at anchor, the British sent eight fireships - set fire boats with flammable materials and explosives - to the armada. Most of the Spanish captains were feverishly trying to get away from danger. Then a powerful wind and strong current carried them north.
The next day at dawn the decisive battle took place. The British fired at the Spanish ships at close range. At least three ships were destroyed and many ships were damaged. Since the Spaniards lacked ammunition, they found themselves helpless in the face of the enemy.
Due to a strong storm, the British suspended their attack. In the morning next day The Spanish Armada, having very little ammunition, again formed a crescent and prepared for battle. Before the British had time to open fire, a strong wind and sea current carried the Spanish ships to sandy shores Dutch province of Zeeland. It seemed that disaster was inevitable. However, the wind changed direction and drove the Armada north, away from the dangerous shores. The return route to Calais was blocked by the English fleet, and the winds continued to carry the beaten Spanish ships north. The Duke of Medina Sidonia had no choice but to stop the campaign to save By more ships and sailors. He decided to return to Spain by a roundabout route, going around Scotland and Ireland.
6. Storms and wrecks
Returning home the battered Armada was also not easy. Food was running out, barrels were leaking, and there was not enough water. During the battles with the British, many ships were seriously damaged and barely stayed afloat. Off the northwestern coast of Ireland, the fleet was caught in a severe two-week storm, during which many ships went missing or were wrecked on the rocky coast of Ireland.
As a result, on September 23, the first ships of the Armada, after much ordeal, reached Santander, a city in northern Spain. Only about 60 ships and half the crew that left Lisbon returned home. Thousands of people drowned. Many died from wounds and illnesses on the way home. Even for those who were able to return to their native land, the trials were not over.
The book "The Defeat of the Invincible Armada" says that, already anchored in the Spanish port, "the crews of several ships were literally starving to death due to the fact that they had no food at all." The same book says that in the Spanish port of Loredo, one ship ran aground “because the surviving sailors did not have the strength to lower the sails and drop anchor.”
7. Meaning
After the defeat of the Armada, Spain never recovered. The death of the Spanish fleet accelerated the end of the Anglo-Spanish War and brought closer the liberation of Flanders from Spanish dominance. Spain began to lose its position of dominance at sea, gradually giving way to Great Britain, which, in turn, began to turn into a powerful maritime power.
Although the religious wars did not stop there, the defeat of the Armada instilled confidence in the hearts of Protestants Northern Europe. They believed that triumph was bestowed upon them from above.
THE DEATH OF THE “INVICTABLE ARMADA”
Philippe-Jean de Loutherbourg. The death of the Spanish Armada
The failure of the military expedition to England meant a lot for Spain, and for the whole world, although some time had to pass for this to become obvious. The implementation of “Rule Britain, the Seas” was just around the corner. In addition, the death of the “Invincible Armada” meant the failure of the Catholic Counter-Reformation 1, the stronghold of which was Spain. Very soon the Spaniards were defeated in the Netherlands, they were forced to stop supporting French Catholics, even the papal curia realized that it was not worth counting on a power that was declining.
In the second half XVI V. England is increasingly making its territorial claims. Unlike agricultural Spain, this country moved along the path of technological progress. Merchants and factory owners increased their influence. The English Church was not subject to Rome. The Protestant religion corresponded to the aspirations and wishes of the young bourgeoisie.
Portrait of King Philip II of Spain by an unknown artist, 16th century.
The interests of the two powers in the 80s XVI V. collided in several places. Firstly, Philip II laid claim to the English throne, for which he married Mary I Tudor. Secondly, he wanted to return England to the fold of Catholicism, and Elizabeth I pursued a tough policy towards the king's English co-religionists and was an example for Protestants in other countries. Third, Philip resented the English support given to the Huguenots in France and his own rebellious Netherlands. Fourthly, with the permission and support of London, numerous pirate ships went to sea, plundering Spanish transports, and raiding the coast in the New World. The name of the pirate Francis Drake was used to scare Spanish children; in literature he was depicted as a dragon.
Philip was prompted to take decisive action by the raids on Spanish ships and settlements in the Caribbean carried out by Drake in 1585–1586. In February 1587, on the orders of Elizabeth, Mary Stuart was executed, on whom the Spanish king was counting as a symbol in the unrealized Catholic uprising in England. Preparations began for a grand expedition to the British Isles.
To protect the planned company from interference from France, Philip tried to distract the then reigning Henry III , providing support to the Guises. When financing the expedition, the king relied on loans from Italian and German bankers, regular revenues from the royal treasury, as well as wealth collected in the American colonies.
Portrait of the Duke of Medina Sidonia. XVI century.
From all the fleets (Mediterranean, Atlantic, Portuguese), the monarch assembled a squadron of more than 130 large and medium-sized and 30 auxiliary ships. The “Invincible Armada” was supposed to carry 19 thousand soldiers on its sides, which were supposed to be joined by a 30 thousand-strong army fighting in the Netherlands under the command of Alesandro Farnese, Duke of Parma. The organization of the campaign was carried out by Alonso Perez de Guzman, Duke of Medina Sidonia, an experienced military leader, but little familiar with maritime affairs. Realizing his incompetence, he even tried to recuse himself, but to no avail.
Otto van Veen. Portrait of Alesandro Farnese
The English and Dutch had been aware of Philip's plans since 1586. To prevent the land army of Parma from joining the Spanish naval forces, the commander-in-chief of the English fleet, Howard, sent small squadrons under the command of Winter and Seymour to patrol the coast along with the Dutch. B 1 5 The Anglo-Spanish War began in 87 and lasted 10 years. In April of the first year of the war, Drake made an exceptionally daring and equally successful raid on the port of Cadiz with 4 ships, in the harbor of which he destroyed over 20 enemy ships. On the way back, he attacked ships standing off the coast of Portugal and captured one ship loaded with spices. The Spaniards were forced to postpone the expedition.
In the same year, in order to prepare a base on the Dutch coast, Farnese's troops besieged and on August 5 captured the port of Sluys, defended by an English garrison. Small flat-bottomed ships were built in Flanders, on which it was planned to transfer troops to the Armada ships. A canal was dug from Sas van Ghent to Bruges and the Yperle fairway from Bruges to Nieuport was deepened so that ships approaching the shore would not come under fire from the Dutch fleet. Troops were transferred from Spain, Italy, Germany and Burgundy and volunteers flocked in to take part in the expedition against England.
Campaign of the "Invincible Armada"
The “Invincible Armada” left Lisbon on May 9, 1588. On July 29, the Spanish squadron appeared near the Isles of Scilly at the western tip of the Cornish peninsula. The first collision occurred in sight of Plymouth on July 31st. There were few casualties, but both sides expended a lot of ammunition. Only the British could replenish them on the shore, and their enemies did not have such an opportunity. The English ships were superior to enemy ships in maneuverability, they were commanded by experienced admirals: Lord Howard, Drake, Hawkins, Frobisher. Experienced sailors, the Dutch, also came to the aid of the British. There were fewer soldiers on the British ships, but they were faster and had better knowledge of the area. The English artillery also demonstrated its superiority, simply preventing the Spaniards from getting closer.
But the Armada continued its journey to the northeast, deep into the English Channel. The British again approached the enemy on the night of 7–8 August when their ships anchored opposite Calais in the Strait of Dover. Howard sent several burning fireships 2 to the center of the formation of enemy ships. Panic began among the Spaniards. One Spanish galleas ran aground and many ships were damaged. Without giving the enemy time to regroup, the British attacked him again in the morning. During the eight-hour battle, the Spanish ships were blown onto banks northeast of Calais; the Armada did not run completely aground only thanks to an unexpected change in the wind, which allowed it to escape into the North Sea. The British pursued the enemy to Scotland until a storm separated the opponents on August 12.
The Spaniards had to abandon the idea of union with the Duke of Parma. The ships required repairs, and there were significant losses in personnel. The Armada sailed around Britain, passed along the west coast of Ireland and returned home. On the way back, a storm near the Orkney Islands scattered the already battered fleet in all directions. Many ships sank, crashed against rocks, and thousands of corpses were thrown ashore. Only 86 ships and less than half of the sailors and soldiers returned to the Spanish port of Santader on the Bay of Biscay. Thus ended the campaign of the “Invincible Armada” ingloriously.
Portrait of Alonso Perez De Guzman. Unknown artist.
Invincible Armada (Spanish) Armada Invencible) or The Great and Most Glorious Armada (Spanish) Grande y Felicísima Armada) - a large military fleet (about 130 ships), assembled by Spain in 1586−1588 for the invasion of England during the Anglo-Spanish War (1587−1604). The Armada campaign took place in May-September 1588 under the leadership of Alonso Perez De Guzman, Duke of Medina Sidonia.
Prerequisites for the creation of the Invincible Armada
For decades, English privateers plundered Spanish ships heading to the American colonies. Thus, in 1582 alone, due to the actions of Elizabeth I’s privateers, the Spanish treasury lost more than 1,900,000 gold ducats, which at that time was a fabulous sum. Also important was the fact that Elizabeth I supported the Dutch uprising against Spanish rule. Another important reason for the creation of the Armada was religious differences between traditionally Catholic Spain and Protestant England.
Armada campaign plan
The Spanish King Philip II counted on the unification of the Armada and the 30,000-strong army of the Duke of Parma in the English Channel, off the coast of Flanders. Then the combined forces were to land in the English county of Essex, and then march to London. The Spanish monarch was betting that English Catholics would side with him. However, the Spanish monarch did not take into account two important factors: the power of the English fleet, and the shallow waters off the coast of Flanders, which did not allow the Armada to take on board the army of the Duke of Parma.
The Armada was to be commanded by Alvaro de Bazan, Marquis of Santa Cruz, rightfully considered the greatest Spanish admiral of his time. He was the author of the concept of the Armada, the first organizer of this campaign. According to contemporaries, if he had led the campaign, the outcome of the campaign could have been completely different. However, in February 1588, the 62-year-old admiral died. In his place, Philip II appointed Alonso Perez De Guzman, Duke of Medina Sidonia. The Duke was not experienced in navigation, but was an excellent organizer. With the help of experienced captains, he created a powerful fleet, supplied it with provisions and equipped it with everything necessary. The Duke carefully developed a system of signals, commands and order of battle that united a multinational army, which included not only the Spaniards, but also Catholic volunteers from all over Europe.
Organization
The fleet included about 130 ships, 2,430 guns, 30,500 people, including 18,973 soldiers, 8,050 sailors, 2,088 slave rowers, 1,389 officers, nobles, priests and doctors. The main forces of the fleet were divided into 6 squadrons: Portugal (Alonso Perez de Guzman, Duke of Medina Sidonia), Castile (Diego Flores de Valdes), Vizcaya (Juan Martinez de Recaldo), Guipuzcoa (Miguel de Oquendo), “Andalusia” (Pedro de Valdez), “Levant” (Martin de Bertendon). The armada also included: 4 Neapolitan galleys - 635 people, 50 guns (Hugo de Moncada), 4 Portuguese galleys - 320 people, 20 guns, many light ships for reconnaissance and messenger service (Antonio de Mendoza) and supply ships (Juan Gomez de Medina).
Food supplies included millions of biscuits, over 600,000 pounds of salted fish and corned beef, 400,000 pounds of rice, 300,000 pounds of cheese, 40,000 gallons of olive oil, 14,000 barrels of wine, 6,000 bags of beans. Ammunition: 500,000 charges of gunpowder, 124,000 cannonballs.
Course of events
On May 29, 1588, the Armada left the harbor of Lisbon. Due to a storm, the Armada was forced to anchor in the northern Spanish port of La Coruña. There the Spaniards repaired ships and replenished supplies. Concerned about the lack of supplies and illness among the sailors, the Duke of Medina Sidonia frankly wrote to the king that he doubted the success of the entire enterprise. But Philip insisted that his admiral adhere to the plan. And so, only more than two months after leaving Lisbon harbor, the huge and clumsy fleet finally reached the English Channel.
When the Armada approached the southwestern coast of England, the English fleet was already waiting for it. The parties had approximately the same number of ships, but in design the ships of the British and Spaniards were very different from each other. The Spaniards had more massive and tall ships that were well suited for boarding combat. The English ships were more maneuverable due to their smaller size and had longer-range guns that were suitable for long-range combat.
On July 30, the Armada was within sight of the English coast, and observation posts alerted English headquarters. The first battle took place on the afternoon of July 31 on the Plymouth meridian. The Lord Admiral sent his personal pinnace to the vanguard of the Spanish Armada to challenge the Spanish flagship. The “flagship” turned out to be La Rata Santa Maria Encoronada, galleon of Alonso de Levia. However, the first salvo was fired, and Medina Sidonia San Martin raised the admiral's standard to avoid further mistakes.
Given the greater maneuverability and artillery power of the English fleet, the Spanish admiral, for better protection, positioned his fleet in the shape of a sickle, placing the strongest warships with long-range guns at the edges. In addition, closer to the enemy, he placed a “vanguard” (actually a rearguard) of a dozen ships under the leadership of Admiral Recalde, who was assigned the role of a “fire brigade.” No matter from which side the enemy approached, this detachment could turn around and repel the attack. The rest of the fleet was required to maintain formation and not lose mutual support.
Taking advantage of their advantage in maneuverability, the British set the Armada into the wind from the very beginning. From this advantageous position the English fleet could attack or evade at will. With prevailing westerly winds, this meant that the British pursued the Armada as it moved across the English Channel, harassing it with attacks. However, the British were unable to break the defensive formation of the Spanish fleet for a long time.
Throughout the English Channel, both fleets exchanged fire and fought several small battles. Plymouth was followed by clashes at Start Point (1 August), Portland Bill (2 August) and the Isle of Wight (3–4 August). The tactics with a defensive formation in the shape of a crescent justified itself: the English fleet, even with the help of long-range weapons, did not manage to sink a single Spanish ship. However, the heavily damaged galleon Nuestra Señora del Rosario fell out of action and was captured by Admiral Francis Drake on 1 August. In the same way the Spaniards left the immobilized San Salvador, and by the evening of August 2 he was captured by Hawkins' squadron. The English captains decided to disrupt the enemy's battle formation at all costs and approach him within firing distance. They succeeded only on August 7 at Calais.
The Duke of Medina Sidonia did not evade the orders of the command and sent the Armada towards the Duke of Parma and his troops. While awaiting a response from the Duke of Parma, Medina Sidonia ordered the fleet to anchor off Calais. Taking advantage of the vulnerable position of the Spanish ships at anchor, the British at night sent eight fireships to the Spanish fleet - set fire to ships with flammable materials and explosives. Most of the Spanish captains cut anchors and frantically tried to get away from danger. Then a powerful wind and strong current carried them north. They no longer had the opportunity to return to the meeting place with the Duke of Parma.
Early the next morning the decisive battle took place. The British managed to get closer to the Spaniards and began to fire directly. At least three ships of the Spanish fleet were sunk and many were damaged. Since they did not have enough ammunition, they found themselves helpless in the face of the enemy.
Battle of the Armada with the English fleet. Unknown artist.
Due to the onset of a strong storm, the English fleet suspended the attack. The next morning, the Armada, its ammunition dwindling, again formed a crescent formation and prepared to give battle. Before the British had time to open fire, strong winds and sea currents carried the Spanish ships to the sandy coast of the Dutch province of Zealand. It seemed that disaster was inevitable. However, the wind changed direction and drove the Armada north, away from the dangerous shores. The return route to Calais was blocked by the English fleet, and the winds continued to carry the battered Spanish ships northward. The Duke of Medina Sidonia had no choice but to stop the campaign in order to save as many ships and people as possible. He decided to return to Spain in a roundabout way, going around Scotland and Ireland.
Storms and wrecks
The Armada's return home was not easy, food was running out, there was a catastrophic shortage drinking water, many ships barely stayed afloat due to damage received during the battles. Off the northwestern coast of Ireland, the fleet was caught in a strong two-week storm, during which many ships went missing or crashed against the rocks.
As a result, on September 23, the Armada ships reached the Spanish port of Santadera. Only a third of the ships returned home; casualties were estimated at 1/3 to 3/4 of the crew. Most of the losses were non-combat. Many sailors died on shore due to hunger, scurvy and other diseases.
Results of the campaign
Spain suffered heavy losses. However, this did not lead to the immediate collapse of Spanish naval power: in general, the 90s of the 16th century were marked by Spain’s successful defense of seemingly shaky positions. The British attempt to organize a “symmetrical response” by sending their own “Armada” to the shores of Spain ended in a crushing defeat (1589), and two years later the Spanish fleet inflicted several defeats on the English in the Atlantic Ocean, although they did not compensate for the death of the Invincible Armada. The Spanish learned from the failure of the Armada by abandoning heavy, clumsy ships in favor of lighter ships equipped with long-range guns.
The Invincible Armada or The Great and Most Glorious Armada- the largest naval fleet of its time (about 130 ships), assembled by Spain in 1586−1588 for the invasion of England during the Anglo-Spanish War (1587−1604). The Armada campaign took place in May-September 1588 under the command of Alonso Perez de Guzman, Duke of Medina Sidonia. For decades, English filibusters robbed and sank Spanish ships carrying silver and other valuable goods from America. In addition, Queen Elizabeth I of England supported the Dutch rebellion against Spanish rule. The Spanish monarch Philip II, on the other hand, considered it his duty to help the English Catholics in their fight against the Protestants. Therefore, almost 180 priests and confessors were gathered on the decks of the Invincible Armada. Even during recruitment, every soldier and sailor had to confess to a priest and receive communion.
The British also hoped for a decisive victory that would open the way for England to freely use the sea, break Spain's monopoly on trade with the New World, and also contribute to the spread of Protestant thought in Europe.
Hiking plan.
The Spanish king ordered the Armada to approach the English Channel and unite with the Duke of Parma and his 30,000-strong army located in the Dutch province of Flanders, which was controlled by Spain at that time. This combined force was to cross the English Channel, land in Essex, and then march on London. Philip II counted on the fact that English Catholics would leave their Protestant queen and come over to his side. The Spaniards' plan, however, was not fully thought out and did not take into account two important circumstances: the power of the English fleet and shallow waters, which did not allow the ships to approach the shore and take on board the troops of the Duke of Parma.
Spanish King Philip II from the Habsburg family (South German dynasty).
Philip appointed Alonso Perez de Guzman, Duke of Medina Sidonia, as chief naval commander. Although the Duke was not experienced in navigation, he was a skillful organizer who was able to quickly find an approach to experienced captains. Together, they created a powerful fleet, supplied it with provisions and equipped it with everything necessary. They carefully developed a system of signals, commands and order of battle that united the multinational army.
The fleet included about 130 ships, 2,430 guns, 30,500 people, including 18,973 soldiers, 8,050 sailors, 2,088 slave rowers, 1,389 officers, nobles, priests and doctors. The main forces of the fleet were divided into 6 squadrons.
Food supplies included millions of biscuits, 600,000 pounds of salted fish and corned beef, 400,000 pounds of rice, 300,000 pounds of cheese, 40,000 gallons of olive oil, 14,000 barrels of wine, 6,000 bags of beans. Ammunition: 500,000 charges of gunpowder, 124,000 cannonballs.
Alonso Perez de Guzman, commander of the "Invincible Armada"
On May 29, 1588, the Armada left Lisbon harbor. But the storm drove her to the port of La Coruña, located in northwestern Spain. There the Spaniards had to repair ships and replenish provisions. Concerned about the lack of food and illness among the sailors, the Duke of Medina Sidonia frankly wrote to the king that he doubted the success of the entire enterprise. But Philip insisted that his admiral adhere to the plan. And so, only two months after leaving Lisbon harbor, the huge and clumsy fleet finally reached the English Channel.
When the Spanish fleet approached the southwestern coast of the English county of Plymouth, English warships were already waiting for it. The parties had the same number of ships, differing in design. The Spanish fleet consisted of high-sided ships, with many short-range cannons. With massive towers at the bow and stern, they resembled floating fortresses, well adapted to boarding combat. The British ships were lower, but more maneuverable. In addition, they were equipped with a large number of long-range cannons. The British hoped that they would not get close to the enemy and would destroy him from a distance.
Francis Drake, corsair and admiral.
Given the greater maneuverability and artillery power of the English fleet, the Spanish admiral, for better protection, positioned his fleet in a crescent, placing the strongest warships with long-range artillery at the edges. From whichever direction the enemy approached, the Armada could turn around and repel the attack.
Throughout the English Channel, both fleets exchanged fire and fought two small battles. The defensive position taken by the Spaniards justified itself: the British did not manage to sink a single Spanish ship with the help of long-range weapons. The English captains decided to disrupt the enemy's battle formation at all costs and approach him within firing distance. They succeeded on August 7th.
Medina Sidonia did not evade the orders of the command and sent the Armada towards the Duke of Parma and his troops. While awaiting a response from the Duke of Parma, Medina Sidonia ordered the fleet to anchor off Calais, off the coast of France. Taking advantage of the vulnerable position of the Spanish ships at anchor, the British sent eight fireships to the Armada - set fire to boats with flammable materials and explosives. Most of the Spanish captains were feverishly trying to get away from danger. Then a powerful wind and strong current carried them north.
The next day at dawn the decisive battle took place. The British fired at the Spanish ships at close range. At least three ships were destroyed and many ships were damaged. Since the Spaniards lacked ammunition, they found themselves helpless in the face of the enemy.
The battle of the Invincible Armada with the English fleet. Painting by an unknown artist English school(XVI century)
Due to a strong storm, the British suspended their attack. The next morning, the Armada, its ammunition dwindling, again formed a crescent formation and prepared for battle. Before the British had time to open fire, strong winds and sea currents carried the Spanish ships to the sandy shores of the Dutch province of Zealand. It seemed that disaster was inevitable. However, the wind changed direction and drove the Armada north, away from the dangerous shores. The return route to Calais was blocked by the English fleet, and the winds continued to carry the beaten Spanish ships north. The Duke of Medina Sidonia had no choice but to stop the campaign in order to save more ships and sailors. He decided to return to Spain by a roundabout route, going around Scotland and Ireland.
The Armada's homecoming was also not easy. Food was running out, barrels were leaking, and there was not enough water. During the battles with the British, many ships were seriously damaged and barely stayed afloat. Off the northwestern coast of Ireland, the fleet was caught in a severe two-week storm, during which many ships went missing or crashed against rocks.
Scheme of the campaign of the Invincible Armada.
As a result, on September 23, the first ships of the Armada, after much ordeal, reached Santander in northern Spain. Only about 60 (out of 130) ships returned home; losses in people were estimated from 1/3 to 3/4 of the crew size. Thousands of people drowned. Many died from wounds and illnesses on the way home. Even for those who were able to return to their native land, the trials were not over. The book "The Defeat of the Invincible Armada" says that, already anchored in the Spanish port, "the crews of several ships were literally starving to death due to the fact that they had no food at all." The same book says that in the Spanish port of Loredo, one ship ran aground “because the surviving sailors did not have the strength to lower the sails and drop anchor.” It should be noted that the main losses occurred on privateer ships (private merchant ships that occasionally engaged in piracy). Most of the Royal Navy's galleons returned to their bases.
Elizabeth I
English Armada, also known as "Anti-Armada" or the Drake-Norris expedition. After the crushing failure of the Invincible Armada, the inspired Elizabeth I of England decided to consolidate her success and finish off Spain, which had not yet recovered. In this difficult task there were three main tasks: to burn the Spanish Atlantic Fleet, to carry out a landing in Lisbon and to raise popular uprising in Portugal against Philip II and seize the Azores, establishing a permanent naval base there. And finally, based on a base in the Azores, capture the Spanish fleet transporting mined silver from America.
The expedition was organized as a joint stock enterprise with a capital of £80,000. A quarter of the amount was allocated by the queen, one eighth was given by Holland. The rest of the amount was to be supplemented by noble people, merchants and guilds. At first things were going slowly, because... the queen never paid the participants in the victory over the Invincible Armada. At first, the Dutch refused to deploy their warships, then it turned out that a third of the supplies prepared for the raid had already been used up and, finally, it turned out that only 1,800 experienced soldiers were recruited, but there were too many new volunteers: 19,000 instead of the planned 10,000. The fleet also turned out to be without siege weapons.
When the fleet finally went to sea, it consisted of 6 royal galleons, 60 English merchant ships armed with cannons, 60 Dutch warships and 20 pinnaces. The English pinnasa is a ship with a displacement of about 100 tons, armed with cannons (from 5 to 16 pieces). In addition to the troops, there were 4,000 sailors, 1,500 officers and adventurers on board. Drake divided his armada into 5 squadrons.
A modern copy of a pinasse.
Instead of attacking Santander, where most of the galleons of the "invincible armada" were being repaired, but where there was no hope of good loot, the British attacked La Coruña. Norris captured the lower city, killed about 500 Spaniards and destroyed the wine cellars. During this time, Drake destroyed 13 Spanish merchant ships in the bay. After spending two weeks, the British lifted the siege of the city, losing four captains and several hundred soldiers. Many privateers, primarily the Dutch, began to think about ending the expedition. But still the armada moved towards Lisbon.
Monument in honor of the heroine Maria Fita in the square in La Coruña.
While the British were besieging La Coruña, the Spaniards strengthened the garrison of Lisbon. The expected uprising after the British landing did not happen and was unlikely to happen in the near future. But Drake managed to capture rich booty - 20 French and 60 Hanseatic (i.e. German) merchant ships and it seemed that the costs of equipping the expedition would be repaid with profit. But after a big diplomatic scandal, the ships of neutral countries had to be released.
Elizabeth refused to send reinforcements and siege weapons to take Lisbon - she did not want to transfer the main theater of the land war to Portugal. And it was decided to concentrate on the third goal of the expedition - the creation of a permanent base in the Azores.
Azores.
But the death knell for the English “counter-armada” had already been heard. As often happened in those days, widespread illnesses began among soldiers and sailors on board ships.
English galleon Ark Royal, 1587
It soon became clear that the issue of landing on the Azores was no longer on the agenda and Drake made a final attempt to justify the expedition (in financially- Drake himself invested a tidy sum in the preparation). Most people were sick or wounded, and only 2,000 were in service. Many ships were damaged by the storm. When the wounded and sick Norris sailed home, Drake, in order to cover costs, set off with 20 ships to hunt for merchant ships, but again found himself in a strong storm and could not even complete this task. Although Porto Santo on Madeira was destroyed, his flagship, Revenge, suffered a serious leak and nearly sank while leading the remnants of the fleet to Plymouth.
Having sunk or captured 18 Spanish ships near La Coruña and Lisbon, the English fleet lost about 30 ships. Of these, 14 were as a result of hostilities and 16 were lost in storms. The disease brought by sailors spread to the population of the port city. None of the expedition's goals were achieved. The British suffered heavy losses in ships, men and resources. The total booty of war amounted to 150 captured guns and looted valuables worth £30,000. Two years later, the Spanish fleet inflicted several defeats on the English in the Atlantic Ocean, although they did not compensate for the death of the Invincible Armada. The Spanish learned from the failure of the Armada by abandoning heavy, clumsy ships in favor of lighter ships equipped with long-range guns.
Signing of peace at Somerset House (1604). Painting by an unknown artist.
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