Anatomical and physiological basis of writing. Written speech is a means of communication between people using certain graphic signs that reflect oral speech, thoughts, fixing them in time and being a way of transmitting them over a distance. Writing became possible due to the complication of human work activity as a result of the emergence of a second signaling system. It (writing) is a complex conditioned reflex process, mainly carried out with the help of speech motor, speech sensory, visual, and motor analyzers. External regulatory mechanisms of written speech are located in the left hemisphere. The muscular complex of writing movements is carried out with the help of efferent systems (pyramidal, pallidal-pyramidal, cerebellar) and peripheral nerves. Violation of these analyzers and efferent systems leads to various manifestations of writing disorders, which are mainly detected in two forms: 1. analytical-synthetic, and 2. changes in handwriting.
Agraphia. Analytical-synthetic writing disorders are usually observed in adults suffering from various forms of aphasia and are referred to as agraphia. The latter is mainly characterized by the following symptom complex:
[1
] literal, syllabic, verbal paragraphs (rearrangement of letters, syllables, etc.);
[2
] disintegration of the structure of letters into component elements without the possibility of their synthesis;
[3
] preservation of the writing of individual letters, a meaningless set of letters when writing words and sentences;
[4
] optical-spatial agraphia;
[5
] mirror letter;
[6
] violation of writing by stereotypical repetitions of the same letters and numbers.
Agraphia, observed in sensory aphasia, is characterized by the fact that a patient who can copy a test and sign (i.e., motor stereotypes are preserved) has gross impairments in the written reproduction of a dictation test, as well as independent writing. Often such patients cannot identify the sound they hear.
If a patient experiences the phenomenon of “jargonophasia,” then it manifests itself when expressing thoughts in writing: the patient writes in jargon that is incomprehensible to others. Perseverations are often found in a written text (once having used a designation for an object, the patient gets stuck on it, using it inadequately in subsequent sentences) [jargon Greek. aphasia - loss of speech, muteness - a manifestation of sensory aphasia in the form of logorrhea and multiple literal, verbal paraphasias, which makes the patients’ speech incomprehensible neither to themselves nor to the people around them;].
Agraphia in motor aphasia manifests itself in the distortion of the spelling of words, namely in the sequence of syllables (paragraph). In this case, the patients’ sentences are constructed grammatically incorrectly.
Lesions of the occipital or occipito-parietal region can be detected in the visual form of agraphia: distortion of the descriptive image (size and shape) of written characters due to a violation of the correct perception of space. The handwriting of such patients is characterized by uneven letter sizes, their angularity, and unstable line direction.
With damage to the parietal or parieto-occipital region of the left hemisphere ( fields 39 and 40) sometimes mirror writing can be observed.
Impaired writing due to damage to the analyzers and intercalary efferent systems. A disturbance of the motor analyzer (for example, damage to the posterior columns), manifested in the form of disappearance of information from the muscle-articular receptors of the right hand, also causes a disorder of motor coordination. Handwriting is characterized by inconsistent slant and size of letters, lack of straight long strokes, which are usually refracted in several places. The patient cannot draw a straight line accurately.
Damage to the palidar-nigral system (parkinsonism syndrome) is also accompanied by changes in handwriting, which becomes small (micrography). Trembling causes the rhythmic sinuosity of strokes. Pi chorea, an early symptom of the disease may be a change in handwriting, which becomes sloppy, disorderly, and sharply tactful.
Damage to the cerebellopontine systems, manifested by motor ataxia of the limbs and intentional tremor, significantly changes handwriting: there is a kink and tortuosity of the strokes of letters, which become uneven in size (sometimes too large, sometimes too small). Sometimes such patients cannot put a period - it turns out to be a dash.
Source:“Workshop on neurology” G.V. Arkhangelsk; Publishing house "Medicine", Moscow, 1967.
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The ability to write and the process of writing text itself is a complex, inherently psychological process, which psychologists put on a par with such human abilities as speech and perception of information, in its spontaneous and systemic form, as well as human motor abilities.
By the medical term agraphia, doctors mean a disorder in the writing process itself, caused by, but all movements of the arm and hand are preserved. Intelligence and mental abilities are also fully preserved, as are already acquired writing skills.
The disease itself arises and develops as a result of damage to the patient’s left part of the cerebral cortex in right-handed people or the right hemisphere in left-handed people.
Types of disorders - their characteristics
The following types of agraphia are distinguished:
- Pure or amnestic– in this case, the patient experiences a failure in writing, when the text is written under dictation or it is written from an audio original, and when copied, the ability to write is preserved to a greater or lesser extent. Often in its course it is combined with, acting as its vivid symptom, and in a severe form of its course it manifests itself in the mirror spelling of words. In the latter case, a mirror subtype of pure agraphia develops.
- Apraxic form of pathology– manifests itself as an independent disease or can be a manifestation of ideation. The child is simply unable to understand how to hold a pen, and subsequent movements do not contribute to the correct writing of letters and words, or their sequence. This form of the disorder is diagnosed in any type of writing, both under oral dictation and when copying text independently.
- Aphasic form of the disorder is formed when the left temporal cortex in the structure of the brain is affected, which causes problems with auditory and speech memory, as well as the phonemic type of hearing.
- Constructive form of the disorder– develops with a constructive type of pathological changes in the brain.
What parts of the brain are affected?
When the left temporal cortex is damaged in the brain, an aphasic form of pathology develops, which provokes a violation of the auditory-verbal type of memory and damage to the phonemic type of hearing.
If disturbances are diagnosed in the functioning of the posterior sections of the 2nd frontal gyrus, located in the patient’s dominant hemisphere, then doctors diagnose a pure form of agraphia, not associated with other pathologies and diseases.
If the patient writes in a mirror order, a mirror subtype of the disorder develops, and this form of pathology is most often diagnosed in left-handed people, in intellectually retarded patients, when there is a failure in the interaction between the hemispheres of the brain.
Dysgraphia is a special case of agraphia
The symptoms of the pathology may vary - it depends on the root cause of the disease. Children diagnosed with dysgraphia are smart, with a high level of intelligence, they can do well in other school subjects, but they make a lot of mistakes in their notebooks, confusing the spelling of letters such as R and Z, E and Ъ.
Where to look for the reason?
Doctors call the main reason that provokes the development of agraphia.
The following factors can also provoke this disorder:
- or development or ;
- negative effects of toxins on the body and brain;
- inflammatory processes provoked.
Often the cause of the development of this pathology is birth trauma - at a younger age, the child cannot speak, does not learn to write, at an older age, a failure in written speech is combined with an inability to express his thoughts through oral speech.
Also, a failure in the ability to write can also be a sign of the development of another pathology, the course of the underlying disease, for example, with the development of - this disorder indicates the development of a lesion on the border of the temporal and parietal lobes of the brain. In children or adults, phonemic perception of information and its interpretation into graphic symbols are impaired.
As medical statistics show, agraphia most often affects children who have underdeveloped oral speech and whose language and vocabulary development has not reached their age level of development.
Let's complete the clinical picture
The most striking manifestation of the disease is the complete and irreversible loss of the ability to write. There is a strong disturbance in the structure of the word itself, letters are missing, the patient is not able to connect syllables, but the intellect remains unaffected, and previously developed writing skills are not impaired.
A child or an adult cannot write a text under dictation or simply rewrite it from the original; mirror placement of letters, words and entire sentences manifests itself.
Making a diagnosis
The process of diagnosing the disorder itself is not difficult. At the very beginning, the doctor conducts a detailed examination of the patient, conducts, and studies an example of the patient’s text. In practice, it is more difficult to diagnose the root cause that leads to the development of this disease. 
First, the brain is examined and the lesion is identified and, as a result, the cause of the disorder. To do this, the doctor conducts a survey of the patient and parents, if it is a child, then additional methods of neurological examination are used - or an X-ray examination of the skull.
Doctors also use it in the diagnostic process.
Treatment and correction
First of all, the patient is registered with a neurologist, prescribed a course of medication, and re-taught writing skills using a specially developed program.
In it, first of all, the goal is to overcome inertia in the links responsible for the structure of the syllable, the choice of words and the restoration of all language functions, speech - both its written and oral forms. Experts conduct both individual and group sessions with adults and children; this is the only way to achieve a positive effect.
The patient is monitored by a psychiatrist and speech therapist, where he undergoes a course of psychiatry and speech therapy lessons. As an example, rhythmic exercises will help restore the functioning of the cerebral cortex.
Exercise therapy also has a positive effect on the level of mental development of the patient, since the relationship between movement, physical and motor activity and mental training of a particular affected part of the brain has been scientifically proven.
Music and singing help develop motor skills of the vocal cords, muscles and ligaments of the larynx. Playing musical instruments helps develop finger motor skills, which also has a beneficial effect on the functioning of the cerebral hemispheres.
The treatment is carried out by a speech therapist - logo-rhythms and musical exercises have the most positive results in the treatment of agraphia.
The main thing is that when you first experience problems with writing, you should not start the disease, but you should consult a specialist. Among them are a speech therapist or a neurologist, a psychotherapist. You should never take risks and you need to consult a doctor in a timely manner. This is the only way to eliminate the pathology in a timely manner.
Dysgraphia is a partial specific disorder of the writing process. It manifests itself in the instability of the optical-spatial image of the letter, in mixing or omission of letters, in distortions of the sound-syllable composition of the word and the structure of sentences.
In the classroom, it is recommended, based on the results of the diagnosis, to implement a system of correctional education to overcome violations of written speech. Classes to overcome dysgraphia should not turn into an endless process of writing or rewriting. It is necessary to provide varied speech practice for students - to develop language ability and observation, to develop speech communication skills. For these purposes, there are various exercises, most of which are performed orally with a clearly organized system of feedback signals (cards, symbols, numbers, actions with a ball and clapping, etc.), that is, to some extent we form writing operations without notebook and pen. Entertaining speech material should also help relieve tension and fear of writing in children who feel their own inadequacy in grapho-lexical activity, and create a positive emotional mood in children during the lesson.
Written speech is one of the forms of language existence, opposed to oral speech. This is a secondary, later in time form of the existence of language. For various forms of linguistic activity, both oral and written speech can be primary (compare folklore and fiction). If oral speech separated man from the animal world, then writing should be considered the greatest of all inventions created by mankind. Written speech not only revolutionized the methods of accumulating, transmitting and processing information, but it changed man himself, especially his ability to think abstractly.
The concept of written speech includes reading and writing as equal components. “Writing is a symbolic system for recording speech, which allows, with the help of graphic elements, to transmit information at a distance and consolidate it in time. Any writing system is characterized by a constant composition of characters.”
Russian writing refers to alphabetic writing systems. The alphabet marked the transition to symbols of higher orders and determined progress in the development of abstract thinking, making it possible to make speech and thinking objects of knowledge. “Only writing allows one to go beyond the limited spatial and temporal framework of speech communication, as well as preserve the impact of speech even in the absence of one of the partners. This is how the historical dimension of public self-awareness arises.”
Both oral and written forms of speech are a type of temporary connections of the second signaling system, but, unlike oral, written speech is formed only under conditions of purposeful learning, i.e. its mechanisms develop during the period of learning to read and write and are improved during all further education. As a result of reflex repetition, a dynamic stereotype of a word is formed in the unity of acoustic, optical and kinesthetic stimulation (L. S. Vygotsky, B. G. Ananyev). Mastering written language is the establishment of new connections between the audible and spoken word, the visible and written word, because The writing process is ensured by the coordinated work of four analyzers: speech-motor, speech-auditory, visual and motor.
A.R. Luria defined reading as a special form of impressive speech, and writing as a special form of expressive speech, noting that writing (in any form) begins with a specific plan, the preservation of which helps to inhibit all extraneous tendencies (running ahead, repetitions, etc. The letter itself includes a number of special operations:
· Analysis of the sound composition of the word to be recorded. The first condition of writing is determining the sequence of sounds in a word. The second is clarification of sounds, i.e. transformation of currently heard sound options into clear generalized speech sounds - phonemes. At first, both of these processes occur completely consciously; later they become automated. Acoustic analysis and synthesis proceed with the closest participation of articulation;
· Translation of phonemes (audible sounds) into graphemes, i.e. into visual schemes of graphic signs, taking into account the spatial arrangement of their elements;
· “re-encoding” the visual patterns of letters into a kinetic system of sequential movements necessary for writing (graphemes are translated into kinemes).
Recoding is carried out in the tertiary zones of the cerebral cortex (parieto-temporo-occipital region). Morphologically, the tertiary zones are finally formed in the 10th - 11th year of life. The motivational level of writing is provided by the frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex. Their inclusion in a functional writing system ensures the creation of an idea that is retained through internal speech.
Retention of information in memory is ensured by the integral activity of the brain. As noted by A.R. Luria, “the proportion of each of the writing operations does not remain constant at different stages of motor skill development. At the first stages, the writer’s main attention is directed to the sound analysis of the word, and sometimes to the search for the desired grapheme. In the established writing skill, these moments recede into the background. When writing well-automated words, writing turns into smooth, kinetic stereotypes.”
4.1 TYPES OF WRITING IN CORRECTIONAL WORK
During the first three years of schooling, schoolchildren practice various types of writing, each of which has a certain significance for the formation of full-fledged written speech skills, meeting the objectives of learning, consolidating and testing relevant knowledge and skills. Let us consider certain types of writing, refracted in relation to the tasks of correctional work.
Copying: a) from handwritten text, b) from printed text, c) complicated by tasks of a logical and grammatical nature.
Cheating, as the simplest type of writing, is most accessible to children suffering from dysgraphia. Its value lies in the ability to coordinate the pace of reading recorded material, pronouncing it and writing it with the individual capabilities of children. It is necessary as early as possible to teach children to remember the syllable, and not the letter, when copying, which follows from the provision about the syllable as the basic unit of pronunciation and reading. Consequently, the specific task of writing becomes correct syllable-by-syllable pronunciation, consistent with the tempo of writing.
In cases where a child poorly assimilates this requirement and allows numerous omissions of letters, it is useful to offer for copying words and texts already divided into syllables by dashes.
From the first exercises in cheating, it is advisable to develop self-testing skills in schoolchildren, for which the teacher, while looking at the work, does not correct errors, but only notes them in the margins of the corresponding lines, inviting the student to check his note with the text of the textbook, card, or board.
In all types of writing, reading performs a control function.
Auditory dictation with visual self-control corresponds to the principle of interaction between the analyzers involved in the act of writing. After writing the auditory dictation, walking around the students, the teacher notes and announces the number of mistakes of each student. The dictation text written on the board is opened for a few minutes to correct errors. Students make corrections not with a pen, but with a colored pencil, in order to distinguish them from corrections that may have taken place during the writing of the dictation. When checking the work, the teacher notes the number of corrected errors, writing this number in the form of a fraction: 5/3, that is, out of five mistakes made, three were corrected. Such tasks gradually accustom children to re-reading and checking what they write. By keeping records of errors, the teacher can assess the dynamics in the development of this skill.
Selecting speech material for auditory dictation for children with mental retardation and dysgraphia is not an easy task, since even the simplest text may contain something inaccessible to students at this stage of education.
This circumstance became the reason for the development of a new, unconventional form of writing under auditory dictation - graphic dictation. This form most fully meets the task of testing children’s mastery of the topics covered in differentiating mixed pairs of phonemes, that is, topics that make up a significant part of the total volume of speech therapy work in the correction of dysgraphia.
Graphic dictation performs a control function, but is a gentle form of control, since it excludes other spellings from children’s field of view. Testing the assimilation of what has been learned takes place under simplified conditions, and therefore is not the last stage of control, like a regular text dictation, where the student is faced with many tasks at the same time. However, it is graphic dictation that allows students to train students in distinguishing mixed sounds on words with complex sound composition that cannot be included in text dictations. Here, as it were, the child’s “ray of attention” narrows, concentrating on two mixed sounds, which he must isolate from a rich sound range (word, phrase, text).
The graphic dictation is carried out as follows.
Children are given the task of identifying by hearing only the sounds being studied, for example, voiced z and voiceless s (cases of deafening of a voiced consonant are not included in the text at this stage). Words that do not contain the indicated sounds are indicated by a dash when written; containing one of the sounds are indicated by one corresponding letter; containing both sounds - two letters in the sequence in which they appear in words. If one of the sounds is repeated twice in a word, then the letter is repeated twice. Thus, the dictated phrase: “There is a resinous smell in the pine forest” - in the recording it looks like this: “- ss ss s”.
During graphic dictation, you should pronounce the words of the phrase separately. When listening for the first time, students bend their fingers according to the number of words. When reading again, write down, checking the number of written notations with the number of words in the sentence. Each sentence is written on a new line, since such a record does not contain capital letters and periods.
In addition to checking the main topic of the dictation, this type of work allows you to consolidate a number of other writing skills: students perceive by ear and reflect in the recording the division of the text into sentences, sentences into words; learn to identify prepositions. Graphic dictations expand children's vocabulary, while with text recording the choice of words is limited by the complexity of their spelling.
Errors in graphic dictations boil down to the following: omission of a dash word in a sentence; omission of a letter, especially if it occurs 2-3 times in a word. For example, when differentiating vowels i-y:
the word caught is indicated and (instead of ii),
surprised - ii (instead of iii).
Errors of the first type are overcome with the help of a preliminary analysis of the phrase into words, selective naming of the second, fourth, and first words. Students consciously strive to memorize each sentence. The volume of auditory memory increases noticeably. Anyone who has made a second type error when checking a dictation must say the word out loud, “feeling every sound.” The skill of accurate and quick analysis of sound composition based on articulation is gradually improved.
Graphic recording can also be used to reinforce other topics of the remedial course.
Usually children willingly write all graphic dictations. New notations do not cause any difficulties for them, since the principle of notation for different topics is the same.
4.2. DEVELOPMENT AND CLARIFICATION OF SPATIO-TEMPORAL REPRESENTATIONS
The temporal sequence of sounds and syllables that make up a word, as well as the temporal sequence of words that make up a phrase, in writing is reflected in the corresponding spatial sequence of letters, syllables, and words located on the lines of the notebook when writing. Exercises in determining sequence in space and time create the basis for developing sound-syllable and morphemic analysis of words.
The starting point in the development of spatial orientation is children’s awareness of their own body diagram, determination of directions in space, and orientation in the surrounding “small” space. Next, students practice determining the sequence of objects or their images (for example, a series of object pictures depicting fruits, animals, etc.), as well as graphic signs. Such tasks help train the hand and gaze in sequential movement in a given direction.
The next most difficult task is to isolate one of the links in a chain of homogeneous objects, images, graphic signs. Such exercises create the prerequisites for developing a positional analysis of sounds in words.
A peculiar continuation of the development of spatial differentiation is the study of the topic “Prepositions” (those that have a specific spatial meaning).
Clarifying the range of students' temporal representations involves clarifying and activating the corresponding vocabulary, as well as propaedeutics for mastering verb tenses.
Therefore, during the lesson it is necessary to include tasks and exercises that solve specific problems in the formation of spatial and temporal concepts. Here are some examples of relevant tasks.
Checking and clarifying children's ideas about the body diagram.
Raise your “main” hand, call it (right).
Raise your other hand, call it (left).
For some children (left-handed) the answers will be the opposite. It is good to consider such cases and note that the names of the hands remain generally accepted, which should be remembered.
According to the teacher's instructions, show, for example, the right eyebrow, left elbow. Children should be exercised until they become confident in their orientation in the scheme of their own body.
Sitting at the table, determine its right and left edges. Raise your hand to those students sitting at the right half of the table. Likewise for those sitting on the left.
Consideration of dysgraphia from the perspective of understanding it as a disorder of the formation of a new and complex type of mental activity in children also meets the practical needs of today. This situation is due not only to the increase in the number of children still traditionally called “with mental retardation,” but also to the emergence in modern children of qualitatively new features of the formation of higher mental functions and processes, forms of mental activity (L. S. Tsvetkova, 2001).
Chapter 1. Childhood dysgraphia
1.1. Definition of dysgraphia, its symptoms, causes
The content of the term “dysgraphia” is defined differently in modern literature. Here are some of the most well-known definitions. R. I. Lalaeva (1997) gives the following definition: dysgraphia is a partial violation of the writing process, manifested in persistent, repeated errors caused by the immaturity of the higher mental functions involved in the writing process.
I. N. Sadovnikova (1995) defines dysgraphia as a partial writing disorder (in younger schoolchildren - difficulties in mastering written language), the main symptom of which is the presence of persistent specific errors. The occurrence of such errors in secondary school students is not associated either with a decrease in intellectual development, or with severe hearing and vision impairment, or with irregular schooling.
A. N. Kornev (1997, 2003) calls dysgraphia the persistent inability to master writing skills according to the rules of graphics (i.e., guided by the phonetic principle of writing) despite a sufficient level of intellectual and speech development and the absence of severe visual and hearing impairments.
A. L. Sirotyuk (2003) defines dysgraphia as a partial impairment of writing skills due to focal damage, underdevelopment or dysfunction of the cerebral cortex.
Until now, there is no common understanding at what age or at what stage of schooling, as well as at what degree of manifestation of the disorder a child can be diagnosed with dysgraphia. Therefore, the separation of the concepts of “difficulties in mastering writing” and “dysgraphia”, understood as persistent disruption in the child of the process of implementing writingMA at the stage of schooling, when mastery of the “technique” of writing is considered complete, in our opinion, it is more correct both from the point of view of understanding the essence of dysgraphia and in terms of organizing pedagogical activities to prevent or overcome this disorder.
Dysgraphia is a partial specific disorder of the writing process. Writing is a complex form of speech activity, a multi-level process. Various analyzers take part in it: speech-auditory, speech-motor, visual, general motor.
In the process of writing, a close relationship and interdependence is established between them. The structure of this process depends on the stage of mastery of the skill, the tasks and the nature of the writing. Writing is closely related to the process of oral speech and is carried out only on the basis of a sufficiently high level of its development.
Children who are incapable of normal acquisition of reading and writing have the greatest difficulty in mastering it with the help of long-term special training. In severe cases, in the first grade of a public school, for several years they do not even learn the alphabet; in milder cases, they cannot connect letters into words and, at best, write with extreme distortions of the letter composition of the word (omissions, confusion, rearrangement of letters, merging of several words in one, etc.). Such students do not notice their mistakes, although they are aware of their shortcomings and experience it hard. Meanwhile, they are intellectually normal, study satisfactorily, and often very well in other subjects. Such children are rare (no more than one in several hundred), but they require special attention.
Writing mechanisms are formed in the central nervous system much later than oral speech apparatuses during the period of learning to read and write. The comparative youth of these mechanisms makes them especially vulnerable.
Any kind of damage to the central cerebral apparatus of oral speech usually causes writing disorders.
Writing disorders are the most common form of speech pathology in primary schoolchildren. Dysgraphia is mostly a congenital disorder in which the writing process is initially distorted. In the case of acquired dysgraphia, writing was formed, and then the skill suffered or disappeared, which is observed in aphasia. Dysgraphia may be based on various etiological factors: organic and functional, biological and social.
In the etiology of written speech disorders, three groups of phenomena are distinguished:
1. Encephalopathic disorders caused by harmful effects of the prenatal, natal, and postnatal periods of development. Damage in the early stages of ontogenesis often causes anomalies in the development of subcortical structures. In addition to damage to brain tissue and subsequent loss of functions, in most cases there are deviations in the development of the brain system, called dysontogeny (non-severe, residual (residual) conditions).
2. Constitutional prerequisites (hereditary predisposition).
3. Social and environmental factors.
The history of children with dysgraphia indicates the presence of a number of pathological factors affecting the prenatal, natal and postnatal periods. These include underdevelopment or damage to the brain at different periods of the child’s development, pregnancy pathologies, fetal trauma, asphyxia, meningoencephalitis, severe somatic diseases and infections that deplete the child’s nervous system. As a result, parts of the brain that provide psychological functions involved in the writing process suffer.
In the presence of organic brain damage, dysgraphia in most cases is preceded by dysarthria, alalia, aphasia, or it occurs against the background of cerebral palsy, mental retardation, mental retardation, and delayed psychomotor development.
A certain place in the etiology of dysgraphia is given to hereditary factors that create an unfavorable background that predisposes to the occurrence of writing disorders, when the qualitative immaturity of individual brain structures involved in the organization of written speech is transmitted. The significance of genetic factors in the etiology of dyslexia is also confirmed by twin studies.
Social and psychological reasons include insufficient speech contacts, pedagogical neglect, hospitalism syndrome, etc. A. N. Kornev identifies the following social and environmental factors of dysgraphia: - excessive level of demands on the child in terms of literacy; - age at which literacy began (individually); - methods and pace of learning, which, ideally, should be individual for each child.
The state of psychological maladaptation usually occurs when etiological factors are combined with unfavorable micro- and macrosocial conditions. Reading and writing disorders can be associated with long-term somatic diseases of children in the early period of their development, as well as with unfavorable external factors: incorrect speech of others, bilingualism, insufficient attention to the development of the child’s speech in the family, insufficient speech contacts, unfavorable family environment.
Research in recent decades has proven that often one of the causes of impairments in written speech is the difficulties in developing the process of lateralization (functional asymmetry in the activity of paired sensorimotor organs).
According to A.N. Kornev, the mechanism of dysgraphia is: 1. Lack of formation of sensorimotor operations (visuospatial analysis of letters and their combinations in a word); 2. Lack of formation of language operations at the phonemic, morphological and syntactic levels; 3. Disorders of attention and memory, successive and simultaneous processes; 4. Violation of the emotional-volitional sphere (ADHD)
When analyzing the works of a number of authors, differences in the interpretation of the origin of dysgraphic errors were noted. The basis of substitutions and mixtures of letters when writing R.E. Levina, L.F. Spirova, A.V. Yastrebova, A.N. Kornev see insufficient development of phonemic hearing (either primary or secondary), I.N. Sadovnikova - incorrect designation of a sound by a letter.
The basis for missing letters is a violation of sound analysis (I.N. Sadovnikova, A.N. Kornev).
I.N. Sadovnikova associates the permutations of letters only with the insufficiency of sound analysis. At the same time, A.N. Kornev points to a violation of phonemic analysis with insufficient auditory-verbal memory and attention.
The reason for inserting the letters I.N. Sadovnikova sees the appearance of overtones when slowly pronouncing a word during writing. Other authors explain them by the immaturity of phonemic hearing and perception.
Errors that manifest themselves in violation of the structure of a sentence, highlighting the boundaries of a sentence are explained not only by a poor vocabulary, limited understanding of words (R.E. Levin), but also by the state of intellectual abilities and prerequisites for intelligence: voluntary concentration and switching of attention, dynamic praxis (A.N. Kornev).
Agrammatisms expressing violations of coordination and control are explained by most authors in the same way: poverty of vocabulary, insufficient linguistic communication, immaturity of morphological analysis and syntax.
Optical errors when writing R.I. Lalaeva explains by the undifferentiation of ideas about similar forms of underdevelopment of optical-spatial perception of visual analysis and synthesis. I.N. Sadovnikova, A.N. Kornev is distinguished from the group of optical errors of mixing letters by kinetic similarity, explaining them by the immaturity of the kinesthetic and dynamic side of the motor act, and the slow formation of kinema.
