Galamart models low prices. Prices and pricing in retail trade

Chapter 1. Price as an economic category of commercial pricing

1.1. The essence of prices and their classification

The tangible value of a product (work, service), or how much at a certain moment the buyer will be able to pay the seller, is called the price of this product. The moment when the seller transfers the goods to the buyer is considered the current moment, it occurs during:

1) delivery of goods to the buyer, if the contract specifies this obligation of the seller;

2) placing the goods at the disposal of the buyer, if the goods must be transferred to the buyer at the location of the goods.

Determining the price at the current moment means a certain amount of money that the last buyer paid or the next one will pay. Karl Marx in his work “Capital” defined price as “the monetary name of labor embodied in a commodity: an indicator of the value of a commodity...”.

Price – This:

1) ordinate of the point of intersection of the supply and demand curves;

2) the most important indicator the effectiveness of the economic and commercial activities of an enterprise (one of the factors for its survival in modern conditions).

To make a decision on the price of a specific product, you need to establish:

1) the amount of demand for a given product (work, service) and the degree of its duration;

2) the boundaries of the product market in terms of volume and duration;

3) the presence and nature of competitors in the market;

4) prospects for sales growth;

5) price level on the market for similar products;

6) the relationship between price and sales volumes;

7) the degree of influence on the market and the scope of government intervention;

8) the amount of production costs;

9) the ability to quickly launch a product into production;

10) the reality of increasing the volume of production of goods.

Consequently, price is a complex and complex category, it intersects almost all the main problems of the development of the economy, society as a whole, mainly it concerns the production and sale of products, determining its value, division and use of GDP and national income. Basically, the formation of the value of goods (works, services) occurs in the process of production and sales, when the use of cash savings is regulated using a set price. From the above it follows that prices are based on necessary costs labor, the value of goods, which through the monetary form are reflected in price. The price is also influenced by many factors, such as transportation costs, which make up a significant share of the product price. Transport costs, in turn, are affected by the type of transport and the period during which the goods must be delivered to the consumer. The cost of goods delivered by air will be much higher than the cost of goods delivered by rail.

The price of a certain quantity of a product constitutes its value, therefore it is correct to speak of price as the value of the product in monetary terms (exchange value).

When exchanging goods for goods, a new price category appears - this is the commodity price of this type of product. You can get a complete picture of the price by considering it as economic category, which will combine concepts such as seller price and buyer price.

The market mainly uses a management approach to purchasing pricing issues, where price is a characteristic of the product that considers key concepts market economy, such as needs, requests, demand, supply, etc. The strategy for ensuring cost-effectiveness of an enterprise includes a set of measures that are aimed at structuring and high-quality implementation of the control and accounting function of the organization, the basis of which and the final indicator characterizing the product is the price, taking into account interests of all participants in the process of commodity exchange (producers and consumers).

Prices also largely regulate the structural proportions of social production. When, at a given price level, supply and demand are completely balanced, the volume of production and consumption can be considered optimal. If such a balance is disturbed, then the price is a signal to expand (contract) production or consumption. Intra-industry and inter-industry price ratios show the directions of effective capital investments and characterize the relative efficiency of certain industries. The price, which takes into account the effectiveness of the product, can play a regulatory role in the development of new technology and innovation processes.

Prices also act as a macroeconomic regulator of economic activity. Changes in retail prices and tariffs affect the living standards of the population. Price level for primary Natural resources affects the production efficiency of all intermediate and final industries. The regulatory function of price is also manifested in the fact that in the current market prices are a regulator of the development (not development) of any types of new products, assessment of the effectiveness of economic activities, the direction of investment, etc. The dynamics of domestic prices is related to the efficiency of foreign trade, the value of the gross domestic product (GDP), national income, the required money supply and directly depends on the price level in the national economy, and this also reveals their regulatory function.

The results of an organization's activities, such as profit and profitability, often depend on the price level, which is why prices play an important role in the economy. The basis for making decisions on setting purchase prices can be the results marketing research and balanced expert assessments of market conditions, not only within the region, but also much wider than its borders, since prices, as a rule, are the main factor in determining sales markets and investment volumes, and are also a determining indicator of the feasibility of producing a given product, with calculation of production costs.

Based on the nature of the turnover of industrial products, three types of prices are distinguished.

Bulk prices– these are the prices for goods that are delivered by the seller (supplier) to the buyer for the purpose of its subsequent resale (professional use). This type of price is used when selling goods in large quantities to enterprises, sales and intermediary organizations, and trade organizations. International trade uses wholesale prices, which are usually lower than domestic wholesale prices. The peculiarity of the wholesale price is that in its size it is lower than the retail price by the amount of the retail markup (cape), and its level will always be slightly higher than the wholesale price when selling goods in small wholesale. Sales at wholesale prices arise only in the case when the production of products is carried out in a limited number of points, and the sphere of consumption of these products has a large segment.

Retail prices- These are the prices paid by retail buyers of products. Retailers buy products from wholesalers and then raise the price by the amount they cost and the profit they can make. Manufacturers initially offer a list of their retail prices for products, but retailers may adhere to these prices or provide a discount (markup) on these products. The retail price is set for products that are sold in small quantities; usually retail prices are higher than wholesale prices. There is such a phenomenon in the market as maintaining retail prices - a type of restrictive trade in which the supplier sets a price that is binding on all retailers.

For example, the suggested retail price of books is printed on the covers because, under the non-discount book agreement, booksellers are not allowed to sell below that price. When products are supplied to the seller through intermediaries, the retail price is often formed from the purchase price and the trade markup, and the trade markup, in turn, is determined by the seller based on market conditions (existing supply and demand). At retail prices, not only trade is carried out in the retail network, but also by parcel, both domestically and internationally.

Purchase price, under which the state purchases products from enterprises, organizations, and the population. Under market relations, purchase prices have become the actual selling price of agricultural products, which is under the influence of monopolists, intermediaries of supply and demand. The state, trying to control the price level, introduced guaranteed prices for basic food products in 1995, but was unable to finance the implementation of this idea, so these prices were used as indicative prices for procurement for the formation of federal (regional) food funds.

However, price liberalization has led to faster growth in prices for inputs compared to increases in prices for agricultural products. It was reflected in the proportions of exchange, for example, if in 1991 it was necessary to sell 54.7 tons of wheat to purchase one tractor, then in 1995 it was necessary to sell 126.4 tons of wheat.

And in order to prevent the massive ruin of rural producers, support prices were introduced, such prices include guaranteed purchase prices, which determine the lower limit of free market prices, taking into account reimbursement of transport costs, as well as target and threshold prices.

Prices for services are usually formed according to tariffs (rates) approved by the organization, therefore, when drawing up tariffs for services, not only the volume of work is taken into account, but also the amount of time spent and the quality of the service performed. The Ministry of Economy of the Russian Federation has developed Methodological recommendations for the formation and application of free prices and tariffs for products, goods and services (letter No. 7-1026 dated December 20, 1995), which do not apply to products for which state regulation of prices and tariffs is carried out (clause 1.3 Methodological recommendations):

“Free prices and tariffs for paid services for the population are formed based on the cost and required profit, taking into account market conditions, the quality and consumer properties of services, the degree of urgency of order execution and value added tax. When calculating the taxable turnover of goods that are subject to excise taxes, they include the amount of excise taxes...”

There are also other types of prices, for example prices for construction products.

Construction products are valued at three types of prices:

1) estimated cost - the maximum amount of costs for the construction of each facility;

2) list price - the average estimated cost of a unit of final product of a typical construction project;

3) contract price - a price established by agreement between customers and contractors.

Transfer prices are formed during the exchange of goods between enterprises belonging to one transnational organization. For example, if the customs authorities decide that the transaction price declared by the importer was influenced by a “connection” between legally recognized partners in business (one of them directly controls the other or both of them are controlled by a third party; they are employers and employees; members of the same family), they have the right not to recognize the transaction price and must then enter into consultation with the importer.

Prices are also divided according to the degree and method of regulation: rigid (prices set by the state); established (regulated by standards); negotiated (contractual); free.

Stiff prices prevent self-regulation of the economy, they are set by monopolistic producers for products that have high elasticity of demand in relation to prices; in content, these prices act as the antipode of flexible prices that quickly and naturally respond to changes in supply and demand.

Managed prices (fixed) usually set administratively by the state. Without responding to changes in supply and demand, they are an obstacle to market self-regulation of the country's economy and impede market freedom.

When determining a fixed price, the forecasting method based on proportional dependencies has become widespread (indicators are “tied” to the base indicator using proportional dependencies). The base indicator is sales revenue or cost of goods sold, to which the standard profit is added or the government price subsidy is subtracted.

In accordance with Art. 424 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, the execution of the contract is paid at the price established by agreement of the parties, but sometimes, in cases provided for by law, prices (tariffs, rates, rates) regulated by authorized state bodies are applied.

The Tax Code of the Russian Federation provides for a special rule according to which, when selling goods (work, services) at state regulated prices (tariffs) established for tax purposes, regulated prices (tariffs) are applied (clause 13 of Article 40 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation).

Bodies regulating natural monopolies may use certain methods of regulating the activities of subjects of natural monopolies, including price regulation (Article 6 of the Federal Law of August 17, 1995 No. 147-FZ “On Natural Monopolies”). The government's influence on prices during regulation is usually indirect (limited) in nature and is carried out by influencing changes in demand and supply. State regulation of tariffs of natural monopolies is sometimes replaced by market regulation mechanisms (through the application of relevant norms of antimonopoly legislation). Thus, when setting a higher (lower) price for a product, the state can reduce the taxes paid by buyers (consumers) of these products to stimulate this particular type of production, which in turn can lead to an increase in demand for the product. Since the beginning of 2008, the growth of tariffs for the services of natural monopolies and housing and communal services has increased sharply, the average annual increase in electricity for the population was 15.7%, for natural gas - 26.8%, for housing and communal services - 18.3%. This increase is significantly higher than in previous years. Therefore, from the beginning of 2008, the state planned a reversal of prices in the other direction; up to this point they had been declining, but now they will rise. And since this will directly affect producers, this can be called a contribution to the development of inflation expectations.

Having analyzed the situation that arose, we found out that the primary influence on the fact that domestic producers began to raise prices in the fall of 2007 was not the rise in world food prices, but the influence decisions made to increase tariffs for services of natural monopolies and housing and communal services from January 2008. Domestic commodity producers, in turn, included this increase in the price of products in advance, so product prices increased. The process of rising prices or depreciation of money (inflation) arises as a result of the overflow of commodity circulation markets with the money supply and is the result of instability when demand exceeds supply. Uneven price growth creates inequality in profit rates and stimulates the outflow of resources from one sector of the economy to another, but timely examination of such actions makes it possible to identify such risks.

Indexation of regulated prices (tariffs) for goods (services) needs to be carried out more evenly throughout the year, and as long as state regulation of tariffs for natural monopolies remains in place, its impact on inflation dynamics can be reduced by reducing indexation from the beginning of the year. For many years, there was a practice when prices (tariffs) were raised from January 1 of the next year, this led to the fact that inflation processes were already forming before this date, therefore, as a rule, an unreasonably high jump in prices occurred at the beginning of the year. All this has led to the fact that proposals to introduce state regulation of prices for certain products are again beginning to be discussed, and as soon as this begins to be implemented, inflation will accelerate and the forgotten problem of commodity shortages will again become a reality.

The contract price is set for products that are produced in a small batch. The basis of the contract price is the cost price (cost estimate) for the product, when, by mutual agreement between the seller and the buyer, the price is set in the manner determined by the pricing authorities.

This type of price is also used in foreign economic relations in commodity exchange transactions, within the framework of direct economic relations of enterprises, with the help of a business agreement, supply agreement, purchase and sale agreement and other agreements as agreed with the parties to the agreement. Additions (discounts) may be added to the contract price for quality and urgency; the price is highlighted in contracts in a special section.

The price that is set by the investor (customer) and the general contractor (subcontractor) on an equal basis when concluding a contract for capital construction, repair of buildings and structures (subcontract agreement), including based on the results of tenders (contract bidding), is called free (negotiable ) prices.

Inconsistency of contractual terms, such as price, quality and range of products received, is one of the most common violations of the terms of the purchase and sale agreement.

You can set a contract price in foreign currency (clause 2 of Article 317 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation). And until the obligation is paid, its size is revalued (with the formation of an exchange rate difference in tax accounting), and the final price in rubles is formed only at the time of repayment of the debt, and until this moment the contract price is indicated in all primary documents.

Free prices for products are established (including VAT) by product manufacturers in agreement (on an equal basis) with retail and other enterprises selling products to the public, non-market consumers, as well as with intermediaries (including trade and purchasing, supply and marketing enterprises and organizations). If the consumer does not have the opportunity to choose another supplier of such products, the final decision on the price level and their application is made by government agencies for establishing and regulating prices (tariffs). In the world market, multiple types of prices are used, so the same product can be sold at different prices depending on the terms of the commercial transaction, the nature of the market and the sources of price information. The most general expression of price used in international transactions is the concept of world prices, which refers to the prices of large export-import transactions concluded in the main centers of world trade. When negotiating a price, participants in a trade transaction begin with a base price, which is based on the price that is published in reference books (reference price) and price lists (list price).

The base price is determined by the international trade price index (export and import) in general and for individual groups of goods. Basic prices are published in international and national foreign trade statistics and economic periodicals.

Base price– this is the price of products with certain quality parameters, which is established at the time of concluding a transaction, and when market conditions change, the base price remains stable, and premiums and discounts change significantly.

Reference price– this is a type of wholesale prices in domestic and international trade. Reference prices for the seller and buyer serve as the starting point for determining the contract price; otherwise, they are nominal in nature, representing a source of official information on prices. Reference prices are used for the supply of small and medium-sized batches of products and serve as the basis for establishing discounts (surcharges). In practice, reference prices for exported (imported) goods are called list prices. Reference prices are published in periodicals (newspapers, bulletins, industry and economic magazines), catalogs issued by publishing houses and other directories. The retail price for a consumer product, which is recommended by its manufacturers, is also called the list price.

Price reductions organized by the manufacturer are accompanied by the provision of discounts to the retail chain, and an ideally executed operation can lead to an increase in sales, therefore, in order to attract buyers, the seller may give them a discount from the list price in the absence of an agreement to maintain a minimum retail price. In this case, the supplier's price, which is indicated on the invoice issued to the wholesaler (retailer), before deduction of discounts, will also be called the list price.

The price of a specific trade transaction reflected in the document for the supply of goods is called invoice price. The invoice price for the same goods may vary depending on transport costs and insurance costs; in trade, this is the price indicated on the invoice for the goods delivered. Depending on the delivery method, the invoice price sometimes includes the costs of transporting the goods, loading and unloading, insurance, payment of export duties, and various fees.

World prices are formed as a monetary expression of the price of production, determined by the specific technologies of countries participating in the world market. World prices are set in freely convertible currencies, since payment in non-convertible currencies leads to unreasonably inflated prices; this type of price is set by leading producers who have a significant share in the total volume of products produced and constantly maintain their leading position in commodity markets. World prices can also be called the prices of large-scale transactions that involve unrelated export (import) transactions, because otherwise, when carrying out barter transactions, trading partners will be able to allow significant deviations in prices, these are the prices of basic or representative markets.

World prices are not an absolute indicator, since they change along with the conditions of world production and consumption. Thus, the depletion of deposits and the corresponding reduction in world resources from which a particular product is produced (while maintaining stable demand for it) lead to a change (increase) in the world price for it. On the other hand, if new deposits are discovered and the demand for this product decreases, then with an excess of resources, the price for it will certainly decrease.

World prices can also be formed as a result of agreements between leading industrialized countries and change if such agreements are canceled. The level of world prices is also influenced by monetary reforms carried out by the governments of countries, as a result of which the scale of prices within the country changes, which in turn affects the formation of exchange rates. For example, the level of world oil prices is influenced by OPEC countries, grain prices by the USA and Canada, etc.

The relationship between supply and demand for certain products has a great influence on the level of world prices due to the fact that prices differ depending on the characteristics of the concluded contract, the place and conditions of sale of the product, as well as the time of year.

Comparable prices– these are prices of a certain period (year, month), on a certain date or in a certain region (economic region, territorial-administrative entity, etc.), conditionally taken as the base when comparing cost indicators. Comparable prices make it possible to identify patterns of development of the displayed phenomena, changes occurring in them, in time and space. For revaluation of consolidated cost economic indicators(gross domestic product (GDP), national income, capital investments, fixed assets and others) in comparable prices, deflators are used - summary (aggregate) price indices showing the average change in prices for the corresponding aggregate groups of goods (services), types of activities, sectors of the economy , in general for the national economy. The calculation of summary price indices - deflators for the retrospective period and the recalculation of summary economic indicators in comparable prices is carried out by state statistics bodies.

Comparable can be called a price given in value under the conditions of a certain period of time; it is used when comparing production volumes, trade turnover, and other indicators in certain periods in order to avoid distortions introduced by inflation. Comparable prices are used when comparing consumption levels in different years; they reflect the dynamics of the mass of consumer values. The price of products in this case acts only as a means of comparison, of bringing products that are incommensurable in physical terms to a common denominator. If you compare products over two years as the comparable price, you can take the price of any year, while when analyzing a longer period, you need to take the price of the base year preceding the year of major changes in the price system as the comparable price.

For example, in order to eliminate differences in price levels, when comparing cost economic indicators across regions, the prices of a single region with an average price level can be conditionally taken as comparable prices.

The regulatory approach to tariff regulation is evolving as telecommunications markets move from monopoly to competition. Prices are subject to regulation only for the services of existing operators in certain markets where the operators have a dominant position. While basic local telephone services provided by dominant operators are regulated in almost all countries, local telephone services provided by competitive fixed and mobile market participants are often exempt from price regulation.

Discretionary price regulation– this is setting prices below cost for connection, subscription and local call services. Discretionary price regulation is aimed at achieving social (political) goals, and not at solving financial (economic) problems. This regulation remains where the state continues to manage telecommunication networks; in our country, such regulation is carried out by Rossvyaz. It regulates them by setting maximum (maximum or minimum) prices for connection services and traffic transmission services. Rossvyaz also establishes the volume of traffic transmission services (for example, no more than 1 thousand minutes per month per connection point), which is subject to guaranteed payment by the consumer of services if their volume in the billing period is less than the established value.

There have been changes in the legal regulation of communication services that affected the procedure for maintaining separate records, the list of licensing conditions, connection services and traffic transmission. Changes have been made to the procedure for establishing maximum prices for connection and traffic transmission services, for example, when determining the price for connection services, the tariff unit is one point of connection or the size of state-regulated prices for communication services by operators occupying a significant position in the public network creates conditions for the reproduction of functional equivalent in the part of the telecommunications network that is used with additional load. All this makes it possible to reimburse the costs of operating maintenance of the used part of the telecommunications network and include a reasonable rate of profit (profitability) from the capital used in the provision of such services.

For communication services and parts of the telecommunications network, as well as for all types of activities that are carried out and used to provide these services, operators must keep separate records of income and expenses. The procedure for maintaining separate records is determined by the federal executive body in the field of communications.

Prices for household and utility services- this is a payment for services provided to the population by household and utility services, for example, prices for laundries, hairdressers, dry cleaners, prices for clothing and shoe repairs, as well as rent for an apartment, telephone, etc.

Geographically, the classification of prices for household and utility services is divided into:

1) prices are standard (uniform throughout the country);

2) prices are local (regional).

Zone prices (uniform throughout the country) are established only for the main types of products and through government regulation; these types of products include energy resources, electricity, rent, transport and some others.

Prices are local (regional) are determined by regional authorities and management; in the process of formation, these prices are guided by production and sales costs that are characteristic of a given region. Regional are the prices and tariffs for most utilities and household services provided to the population, as well as purchase prices for agricultural products.

Determination of the current internal price of a security is based on the dynamics of its price in the past. Current prices financial assets reflect all relevant information regarding the future of the security and assume that the current price always absorbs all necessary Additional information, it concentrates all future expectations. The most common is the fundamentalist theory of estimating the theoretical value of financial assets. There are three main theories of financial asset valuation: fundamentalist, technocratic and guesswork.

Securities have inherent value, which is quantified as the discounted value of future earnings associated with that security (fundamentalist valuation).

To determine the current intrinsic value of a security, it is enough to know only the dynamics of its price in the past, as technocrats believe.

Best Method analysis is the one that brings money - all investors agree with this. And many organizations employ on their staff those with both investment mindsets.

Those who use guesswork assume that current prices of financial assets flexibly reflect all relevant information, including the future of the security. However, sometimes both approaches are useless. For example, an investor decided to buy a block of freely floated shares from an organization, and the overvaluation (undervaluation) of the “target” does not matter to him. Since technical analysis is better suited for short transactions with liquid instruments, which can be used without forgetting fundamental factors operating on the market, but for strategic investments a fundamental assessment is needed.

Taking into account the goals and pricing factors, the retail trade enterprise develops overall strategy prices for a brand or group of products, which determines the price range in accordance with the positioning of the store. As an example, we can cite the Kopeyka discounter chain, which provides a minimum set of trading services, which allows the price to be set lower than in other retail chains.

Pricing strategies must take into account two important factors: the potential a basic level of retail price and price change relative to the established level. All decisions regarding the choice of pricing strategies are directly related to the positioning of the retail enterprise: an exclusive/expensive store designed for fairly wealthy people, or a store that sells exclusively goods at low prices. Another important decision that must be made when determining prices for the entire range is whether to change the set prices or keep them stable.

Pricing strategies vary for traditional conditions of sale of goods, for new goods or changed terms of sale and for the sale of assortment groups of goods(Fig. 4.3).

Currently for traditional conditions for the sale of familiar goods The most commonly used strategies are: a strategy of stable low prices and a strategy of changing high/low prices.

Stable low price strategy targeted at price-sensitive consumer segments. A number of factors have prompted trading companies to pay more attention to this strategy. Growing popularity private labels, unbranded goods and discount stores reflects the price elasticity of consumer demand. This strategy is used by many stores, which emphasize that their retail prices constantly remain somewhere between the regular price level and the level of sales offered by competitors. Using this strategy does not mean setting the lowest prices for the goods sold, we are talking about general level prices and the corresponding positioning of the store in the minds of the consumer. Once customers realize that prices are consistently at an acceptable level for them, they increase their one-time purchase volume as well as the frequency of their visits.

Rice. 4.3. Basic Pricing Strategies

store. In addition, price stability in this situation due to the lack of sales practices leads to a reduction in promotion costs and an increase in the quality of service. In a quiet environment, without a large crowd of buyers attracted by sales, sellers are able to devote more time to each visitor.

Variable High/Low Price Strategy aimed at a market segment that places less importance on price. Many people use this strategy for several reasons, in particular when there is little profit from inexpensive goods or there is too much competition in the market.

The high price strategy is also driven by the creation of a prestigious image. A higher price corresponds to the desired level of quality of trading services; a low price can reduce demand, since it does not fit into the price range familiar to the buyer.

Retailers using this strategy in some cases offer products at higher prices than competitors who follow a stable low price strategy, but often hold sales and other sales promotions. Like the stable low price strategy, the variable high/low price strategy has gained great popularity in recent years. Once upon a time, fashion stores reduced prices on goods only at the end of the season, grocery stores and pharmacies held sales only when their suppliers offered special prices if warehouse stocks exceeded standards or the goods were about to expire. Today, in the fashion trade, the response to increased competition is a significant reduction in the intervals between sales. With this strategy, the store is able to gradually offer the same product to different market segments. When a fashion product first hits the store, it is offered at the highest price (a high trade margin is determined by the “fork” of values). Fashion leaders who are least price-sensitive and consumers who find it difficult to find a product that suits them often buy new items as soon as they go on sale. Then a gradual reduction in trade margins begins, and the number of consumers increases. At the end of the season, when the biggest sales begin, the last ones in line are the buyers attracted by the low prices of the goods.

Stores must plan a certain number of price reductions and be prepared for forced markdowns, but it is very important to strive to optimize their number. To correctly determine the moment of markdown, trading companies should accumulate sales statistics. Items that have had price cuts in the past and items that are not selling well this season need to be closely monitored. If, for example, you had to significantly discount certain clothing sizes, it would be advisable to reduce their purchases next season.

There is a possibility early And late markdowns of goods. Many stores begin to reduce prices on slow-selling items early in the season, when demand is still quite active, avoiding end-of-season sales, making room for new inventory and increasing cash flow, which contributes to an increase in the number of store visitors. Store-wide inventory releases (late markdown policy) are typically done twice a year after peak sales. This policy is most widespread in expensive department stores and specialty stores (although other stores selling seasonal goods do not neglect it), its main advantage is the ability to sell goods at regular prices for a long period.

In recent years it has gained popularity combined strategy early and late markdowns. Stores selling fashionable clothes, for example, after the first six weeks of sales reduce prices by 20%, after nine - by another 30%, etc., until all the goods are sold. Staggered markdowns are thought to generate relatively higher profits than infrequent but sharp price cuts, perhaps because shoppers are eager to purchase items before stocks run out or a sale ends. Consumers who were hesitant to purchase during the first wave of price cuts have the opportunity to “catch up” during the second.

Setting the price of a new product and a new trade service is difficult because the retailer has little data to assess consumer demand. For this purpose they are used Pricing strategies for new products or stores. The more innovative a product or trade service is, the more difficult it is to assess consumer reaction before it enters the market. In these cases, retail trade, as well as product manufacturers, use strategies skimming and market penetration.

Using skimming strategies The store sets a high price for a new product, providing for its possible reduction as competitors become similar products or services. Thus, the store, as the owner of a unique product or trade service, sets an inflated price, which becomes a conditional payment for innovation and uniqueness, and has the opportunity to receive excess profits for a certain period until the product or trade service provided loses its uniqueness. This strategy is most effective if the demand for a product or service is inelastic, the manufacturing company enjoys patent protection, and the store has the exclusive right to sell this new product or provide another service.

Within market penetration strategies A retailer sets a low price for a new product or its unique trading service, as a result of which it rapidly gains a significant market share. Then, taking advantage of its position as a market leader, the store has the opportunity for significant competitive maneuvers due to increased potential.

Final retail prices in accordance with pricing strategy for assortment groups are established both for all products sold in the store, represented by various assortment groups, and for individual groups of goods.

Trading companies set prices for goods of one product group, resorting to price series strategies. In this case, the store can generate higher profits by offering products to different segments based on their price sensitivity. Following this strategy, the company covers the entire demand curve: from thrifty consumers to those interested in prestigious goods. Each product is designed for a segment characterized by its elasticity of demand. The situation of such pricing in trade marketing can be characterized as “conditional compensation”, i.e. When setting different prices for different groups of consumers, the store adjusts the trade markup in such a way that a decrease in the markup for one group of goods is compensated by an increase in the markup for another. The total amount of trade margins remains unchanged, but such manipulations with trade margins can speed up the sales process. The operation of Perekrestok supermarkets along with Mini-Perekrestoks (stores for socially disadvantaged segments of the population) can be considered as “conditional compensation.”

Purpose prices for additional devices- very interesting strategy retail pricing. Along with the main products, many trading companies offer additional devices that are not necessary to satisfy the buyer’s basic need. An example would be the situation of selling a car. The car is sold in a basic configuration, and additional devices can be ordered for it (electric windows, air conditioning, etc.). Some additional devices are sometimes already included in the declared price of the car; a list of other additions is offered separately. The basis of the strategy in this case is to determine the consumer price comparison base and set a low trade markup on it, which pays off with a higher markup level, for example, on an additional device that is quite unique.

Purpose prices for accessories- a strategy somewhat similar to the previous one. Some products require the use of accessories, e.g. they are actually mandatory. For example, a camera is the main product, and the film for it is auxiliary, a vacuum cleaner is the main product, and filters for it are auxiliary. In this case, a low price is set for the main product and a high price for the auxiliary product.

Stores often form kits goods, setting a single price for them. Perhaps buyers have no particular desire to purchase a complete set of all components of the set, but the savings are so significant that the consumer buys it. The ideal situation is when the set is compiled so competently that it is beneficial for both the seller and the buyer. This strategy is the main one in McDonald's pricing, where the consumer has the opportunity to save money by ordering lunch by number. This is also beneficial for the company - the time for one order is reduced, demand is easier to estimate, it becomes more predictable, which facilitates logistics tasks.

After determining pricing goals and strategies, the retailer is faced with the question of choosing pricing method.

It is important for market participants to formulate a company’s pricing strategy, taking into account the pricing actions of competitors, to justify decisions on setting or changing prices in the competitive conditions of new companies entering the market, taking into account market expectations and economic indicators. This book will introduce representatives of small and medium-sized businesses to modern approaches to organizing and increasing the efficiency of retail trade, show the connection between pricing and business development strategy, and teach how to make decisions on pricing. The book is intended for specialists in economic services, entrepreneurs, as well as for a wide range of people interested in pricing issues.

Chapter 1. Price as an economic category of commercial pricing

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The given introductory fragment of the book Pricing in retail trade (D. V. Sharmin) provided by our book partner - the company liters.

1.1. The essence of prices and their classification

1) delivery of goods to the buyer, if the contract specifies this obligation of the seller;

2) placing the goods at the disposal of the buyer, if the goods must be transferred to the buyer at the location of the goods.

Price – This:

1) ordinate of the point of intersection of the supply and demand curves;

2) the most important indicator of the effectiveness of the economic and commercial activities of an enterprise (one of the factors for its survival in modern conditions).

To make a decision on the price of a specific product, you need to establish:

1) the amount of demand for a given product (work, service) and the degree of its duration;

2) the boundaries of the product market in terms of volume and duration;

3) the presence and nature of competitors in the market;

4) prospects for sales growth;

5) price level on the market for similar products;

6) the relationship between price and sales volumes;

7) the degree of influence on the market and the scope of government intervention;

8) the amount of production costs;

9) the ability to quickly launch a product into production;

10) the reality of increasing the volume of production of goods.

Consequently, price is a complex and complex category, it intersects almost all the main problems of the development of the economy, society as a whole, mainly it concerns the production and sale of products, determining its value, division and use of GDP and national income. Basically, the formation of the value of goods (works, services) occurs in the process of production and sales, when the use of cash savings is regulated using a set price. From the above it follows that the basis of prices is the necessary labor costs, the cost of goods, which are reflected in the price through the monetary form. The price is also influenced by many factors, such as transportation costs, which make up a significant share of the product price. Transport costs, in turn, are affected by the type of transport and the period during which the goods must be delivered to the consumer. The cost of goods delivered by air will be much higher than the cost of goods delivered by rail.

The price of a certain quantity of a product constitutes its value, therefore it is correct to speak of price as the value of the product in monetary terms (exchange value).

When exchanging goods for goods, a new price category appears - this is the commodity price of this type of product. You can get a complete picture of price by considering it as an economic category that combines concepts such as the seller's price and the buyer's price.

The market mainly uses a management approach to purchasing pricing issues, where price is a characteristic of a product, which considers key concepts of a market economy, such as need, requests, demand, supply, etc. The strategy for ensuring cost-effectiveness of an enterprise includes a set of measures that are aimed at structuring and high-quality implementation of the control and accounting function of the organization, the basis of which and the final indicator characterizing the product is the price, which takes into account the interests of all participants in the process of commodity exchange (producers and consumers).

Prices also act as a macroeconomic regulator of economic activity. Changes in retail prices and tariffs affect the living standards of the population. The price level for primary natural resources affects the production efficiency of all intermediate and final industries. The regulatory function of price is also manifested in the fact that in the current market prices are a regulator of the development (not development) of any types of new products, assessment of the effectiveness of economic activities, the direction of investment, etc. The dynamics of domestic prices is related to the efficiency of foreign trade, the value of the gross domestic product (GDP), national income, the required money supply and directly depends on the price level in the national economy, and this also reveals their regulatory function.

The results of an organization's activities, such as profit and profitability, often depend on the price level, which is why prices play an important role in the economy. The basis for making decisions on setting purchase prices can be the results of marketing research and balanced expert assessments of market conditions, not only within the region, but also significantly wider than its borders, since prices, as a rule, are the main factor in determining sales markets and volumes investments, and are also a determining indicator of the feasibility of producing a given product when calculating production costs.

Based on the nature of the turnover of industrial products, three types of prices are distinguished.

There are also other types of prices, for example prices for construction products.

Construction products are valued at three types of prices:

1) estimated cost - the maximum amount of costs for the construction of each facility;

2) list price - the average estimated cost of a unit of final product of a typical construction project;

3) contract price - a price established by agreement between customers and contractors.

Prices are also divided according to the degree and method of regulation: rigid (prices set by the state); established (regulated by standards); negotiated (contractual); free.

Having analyzed the situation that arose, we found out that the primary influence on the fact that domestic producers began to raise prices in the fall of 2007 was not the rise in world food prices, but the decisions made to increase tariffs for the services of natural monopolies and housing and communal services from January 2008 . Domestic commodity producers, in turn, included this increase in the price of products in advance, so product prices increased. The process of rising prices or depreciation of money (inflation) arises as a result of the overflow of commodity circulation markets with the money supply and is the result of instability when demand exceeds supply. Uneven price growth creates inequality in profit rates and stimulates the outflow of resources from one sector of the economy to another, but timely examination of such actions makes it possible to identify such risks.

Inconsistency of contractual terms, such as price, quality and range of products received, is one of the most common violations of the terms of the purchase and sale agreement.

Comparable prices– these are prices of a certain period (year, month), on a certain date or in a certain region (economic region, territorial-administrative entity, etc.), conditionally taken as the base when comparing cost indicators. Comparable prices make it possible to identify patterns of development of the displayed phenomena, changes occurring in them, in time and space. To re-evaluate aggregate cost economic indicators (gross domestic product (GDP), national income, capital investments, fixed assets, etc.) in comparable prices, deflators are used - summary (aggregate) price indices showing the average change in prices for the corresponding aggregated groups of goods (services) , types of activities, sectors of the economy, the national economy as a whole. The calculation of summary price indices - deflators for the retrospective period and the recalculation of summary economic indicators in comparable prices is carried out by state statistics bodies.

Geographically, the classification of prices for household and utility services is divided into:

1) prices are standard (uniform throughout the country);

2) prices are local (regional).

Determination of the current internal price of a security is based on the dynamics of its price in the past. Current prices financial assets reflect all relevant information regarding the future of securities and assume that the current price always absorbs all the necessary additional information, it concentrates all future expectations. The most common is the fundamentalist theory of estimating the theoretical value of financial assets. There are three main theories of financial asset valuation: fundamentalist, technocratic and guesswork.

Securities have inherent value, which is quantified as the discounted value of future earnings associated with that security (fundamentalist valuation).

To determine the current intrinsic value of a security, it is enough to know only the dynamics of its price in the past, as technocrats believe.

The best analysis method is the one that makes money - all investors agree on this. And many organizations employ on their staff those with both investment mindsets.

Those who use guesswork assume that current prices of financial assets flexibly reflect all relevant information, including the future of the security. However, sometimes both approaches are useless. For example, an investor decided to buy a block of freely floated shares from an organization, and the overvaluation (undervaluation) of the “target” does not matter to him. Since for short transactions with liquid instruments, technical analysis is better suited, which can be applied without forgetting about the fundamental factors acting on the market, but for strategic investments a fundamental assessment is needed.

According to theory current intrinsic value (PV) any security in general view can be calculated using the formula:

Where FV i– expected cash flow in i-th period(usually a year);

r– acceptable (expected or required) profitability;

i– number of periods.

Indicators in the market of capital financial assets that are used by investors are:

1) average market return (k m );

2) risk-free return ( k rf ), which is understood as the yield of long-term government securities;

3) expected return of the security (k e ), the feasibility of the operation being analyzed;

4) coefficient β , characterizing the marginal contribution of a given stock to the risk of a market portfolio, which is understood as a portfolio consisting of investments in all securities quoted on the market, and the proportion of investments in a specific security is equal to its share in the total market capitalization, on average for the market β = 1. For a security that is riskier than the market, β > 1; for a security that is less risky compared to the market, β < 1.

The market premium for the risk of investing in market assets is the difference (k m –k rf). The expected premium for the risk of investing in a given security is the difference (k e –k rf ). These two indicators are related to each other by a proportional relationship through β -coefficient:

k e –k rf = β(k m –k rf ).

This formula is convenient for understanding the essence of the relationship between premiums and the risk of an organization’s securities. Since in practice we are talking about estimating the expected return of a specific security (or portfolio), then the formula is transformed as follows:

k e = k rf + β(k m –k rf ).

1.2. Composition and price structure

Pricing decisions for manufactured products cannot be made in isolation, they must take into account all aspects of production and are the main elements of a market economy.

Pricing- the process by which a price is set for manufactured products. The price for an enterprise's products can be: the demand price (the one that buyers agreed to pay for the volume of products offered by the manufacturer), the supply price (the one for which the manufacturer would agree to sell the products), these prices may not coincide. The demand price, as a rule, does not coincide with the supply price, but if such equality exists, this means that there is a single break-even price option for the seller and acceptable for the buyer. When making a pricing decision, they take into account internal restrictions, expressed by costs and profitability, and external restrictions, determined by purchasing power.

If a company receives products at a fixed price, it is possible from a management point of view to agree with customers on a fixed selling price.

However, sometimes the conditions (rules) that have developed in the market interfere. For example, a fixed price is much less common than a floating price, which is calculated using a complicated formula, and two types of price calculation are used: cost and value.

Cost pricing is based on the actual costs of the organization for the production and organization of sales of products, the pricing scheme looks something like this:

Product – Technology – Cost – Price – Value – Customers.

With value-based pricing the price is set in such a way as to ensure that the organization receives greater profits by reaching a favorable agreement; the scheme of such pricing looks something like this:

Buyers – Value – Price – Cost – Technology – Product.

If standard approaches (pricing management) do not work, then the company faces a choice: accept the risks of losses associated with a possible price drop, or refuse the transaction. If the organization tries to ensure the maximum difference between the value of the product for the buyer, which he can pay, and the costs necessary to produce this product with exactly these properties; In this case, the price can be called a monetary expression of the value of the produced product.

For such a case, the main task of pricing is to ensure that most of the difference turns into profit for the organization, and a smaller part into the buyer's gain.

Historically, price formation is preceded by valuation processes, which can later lead to an exchange act, and only the present time is expanding the zone of rational price construction, at least in limited spaces. In this case, such elements of trade are used as: sales channels, priority market segments, customer service.

The value of products is measured in the prices that buyers are willing to pay. However, the amount of money that buyers are willing to pay depends on the benefits they can get from consuming (owning) the item. The value can be represented as follows:

Product value = Buyer's gain + Organization's profit + Organization's costs.

The price is the result of a long-term process of growth in the elasticity of supply at which the buyer agrees to buy the product, or the minimum price at which the seller agrees to offer the product to the buyer:

Product price = Profit of the organization + Costs of the organization.

Purchasing process – This:

1) an exchange system in which the search for satisfaction compensates for financial costs;

2) the influence of forces that create balance in needs through the buyer’s attitude to the product and price.

Consider the perception of price by the buyer and the manufacturer:

price for buyer is a measure of the intensity of his need or the amount of satisfaction he expects;

seller price is the sum of costs and profits that the seller hopes to receive as a result of the sale.

consumption price– the total costs of the buyer associated with the purchase and consumption of goods. Moreover, the choice of a specific product by the buyer is dictated by the desire to purchase a product with a minimum unit consumption price, which is calculated:

Unit consumption price = Consumption price / Product lifespan.

Price serves as a defining, basic motive for purchase and acts as a determining criterion for making consumer decisions, an element of competitiveness and image of the organization.

The execution of the contract is paid at the price established by agreement of the parties. In cases provided for by law, prices (tariffs, rates, rates, etc.) established or regulated by authorized state bodies are applied (Article 424 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation).

Pricing applies:

1) for banking transactions (interest rates for using a loan, for individual banking transactions);

2) on labor Relations(prices, rates for work performed, technological operations).

Let's consider how the price structure is formed - the share of various elements of costs and net income, included in prices on the basis of relevant regulations or formed independently. The price structure largely depends on the type of price, and many elements of the structure are common to all types of prices and tariffs.

Enterprise wholesale price structure– cost, profit, value added tax (VAT). Industrial wholesale prices at which products are sold by sales organizations to the final consumer include, in addition to the wholesale price of the enterprise, the amount of costs, standard profit and VAT of the intermediaries themselves (supply and sales organizations).

Purchase price for agricultural products have a structure very close to the structure of the wholesale price of an enterprise, and the differences are mainly related to the content of cost elements included in the price.

Retail price structure is based on the structure of wholesale and purchasing prices: the former determine retail prices for industrial goods, the latter for food products. And ultimately, the retail price structure includes the wholesale price of the industry plus costs, profits and VAT of all intermediary trading organizations. The more intermediaries there are between the manufacturer and the end consumer, the higher the level of retail prices.

The pricing strategy determines the economic policy of the organization when price becomes the object of market competition, the results of which are one of the important elements that allows the organization to stand out among competitors and take a leading position, which significantly increases the organization’s responsibility for the quality of business decisions that, in one way or another, directly or indirectly related to price management.

The price of a certain quantity of goods is also called monetary value goods, with the help of which you can measure the cost spent on the production of goods work time. If the relationship between producer and consumer is of a commodity nature, price can act as a link that ensures balance between supply and demand (price and cost).

Function of price is the action of price that directly affects the distribution and redistribution of income between various industries, enterprises, social groups population. For example, the state may support relatively low level prices for the products of certain industries (coal industry, agriculture), using subsidies for them, thereby redistributing the income of other industries and productions. On the contrary, by setting relatively high prices for alcohol, tobacco and other products, the state accumulates high incomes, some of which are used as grants and subsidies.

Another meaning of price is its action as a regulator of supply and demand and a means of influencing production and consumption. Price dynamics are directly related to the dynamics of production costs and cash income. The price function in this case is manifested in the fact that the size of production costs can be regulated by changing the prices of production factors, and the level of consumption directly depends on the level of prices and tariffs.

In conditions of centralized (state) pricing, price setting is the determining area of production, where prices are set based on the costs of producing a product or service. Sometimes this occurs with the direct involvement of government agencies on a planned basis before production begins. And as a rule, with centralized (state) pricing, the market does not influence further price changes, but only fixes demand at the level of a given price level.

However, in the pursuit of profit, one must not forget that tax authorities can check prices even if they deviate by more than 20% from the level of prices used by the organization for identical goods (services) within a short period of time (clause 2 of article 40 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation ). The process of price formation in the conditions of market pricing takes place at the stage of product sales, when supply and demand collide and the usefulness of the produced product (service), as well as quality and competitiveness, is determined, and only then the final price of the product (service) is formed.

The main difference between market pricing is that prices are set in accordance with supply and demand by the owner (manufacturer of the product). Government bodies can regulate prices only for a limited range of goods, therefore the list of goods sold at state prices is determined by law.

When determining markets for products, many issues are resolved, such as the feasibility of producing a given type of product, costs are calculated, and the volume of investment is determined, but the determining factor is price.

The most common methods in international practice are the following methods for setting prices for an enterprise’s products:

1) based on cost;

2) based on analysis of break-even sales and ensuring target profit;

3) demand-oriented;

4) according to the current price level;

5) on the basis of closed tenders.

Despite the appearance of free pricing in a market economy, freedom is not absolute or unlimited. Sometimes a real price war unfolds in the market, the main characteristics of which are fierce competition, a pricing strategy on the verge of the competitor’s survival, and the presence of large players.

Price formation mechanism is a dynamic interconnected system of aggregate elements (multifactor analysis of the market environment highlighting the features of pricing, justification of the strategy and forms of its implementation).

The entrepreneur sets prices for goods, varies them depending on the situation on the local market, owns a certain share of the profit, solving his strategic and operational commercial and economic problems.

The main goals of pricing are to achieve profit, increase sales, and create a high reputation for the organization. Marketing research in the field of determining the elasticity of demand and the degree of sensitivity of consumers to price involves a predictive analysis of the market environment when, in accordance with the law of demand, the market tends to equilibrium.

The expression of demand's response to price changes is the price elasticity of demand, which determines the feasibility of price changes and the consequences of these changes. Elasticity of demand depending on price is the percentage change in sales volume of a product resulting from a 1% change in price.

Along with the analysis of demand elasticity, it is necessary to take into account factors of buyer sensitivity to price levels.

The buyer is most sensitive to price changes and increases if they fall outside the “fair price” range. At the same time, he is guided by mechanisms for comparing the current price with the previously valid one, the price of a given product with the prices of similar products, compliance with the consumption standard, taking into account consumer value:

1) the more often the buyer perceives price as an indicator of the level of quality, the less sensitive he is to changes in price - this expresses the effect of assessing quality through price;

2) the more unique the product is from the standpoint of prestige, antiques, and functional properties, the calmer its reaction to an increase in the selling price, especially during auctions, exhibitions, and presentations - this expresses the effect of uniqueness;

3) the higher the costs for effective positioning of a brand and the creation of its popular image, the less sensitive buyers are to the price level of their favorite company - this expresses the effect of brand promotion.

Underestimating the position of a product (service) on the product market can lead to consequences that will affect the position of the organization, so it is necessary to carry out timely monitoring of the media, intermediaries, and target audience to determine the current economic situation and objective prices for the product. This stage involves calculating the real and potential market capacities, taking into account all the factors influencing them.

Analysis internal environment (assessment costs) is made to obtain a full assessment of the organization’s market business, its true economic position in the market of goods and services, taking into account the totality of organizational, information, and personnel components. Also, do not forget that with the servitization of the global economy, the success of an enterprise will be ensured by effectively used service potential. To do this, you should conduct a cost assessment that allows you to determine how to obtain the most realistic commercial success using the average price of competing products; this price will be the base for negotiations with the buyer.

Strategic plan development is used to test bold business ideas as a tool for predicting results entrepreneurial activity On the market. Once you have determined the final price, you can begin implementing pricing strategies.

Skimming strategy which involves entering the market with a new unique product and the maximum price that consumers are willing to pay. Planning and management decisions on the implementation of the strategy are made when the high potential demand (hidden) for the “new product”, the low level of competition, and the product have a consumer value of super quality are precisely determined. However, after the initial demand for a “new product” has been saturated in a fairly narrow market segment, the organization, in order to expand its coverage and increase sales volumes, moves on to implementing a “penetration policy” strategy. The price for the “new product” is set low enough to gain a larger market share; this strategy can be afforded by an organization that has a strong position in the market.

Price leader strategy is selected in accordance with the price offered by the main competitor of the market; this strategy is fruitfully used by organizations that do not claim a large market share. They follow the industry leader and carry out corporate activities, the so-called followers of the leader will never set lower prices, otherwise a “price war” may begin, which will determine the competitor leader and organizations forced out of the market.

Prestige price strategy is typical for a network of boutique stores aimed at high-income buyers, for whom high prices are available, implying the quality characteristics of the purchased goods, service and comfort of service.

Organizations of large and medium-sized businesses focus not on one, but on several target market segments, however, this orientation requires taking into account the tastes and demands of various customers with different income levels.

A significant addition to the practice of pricing is its stimulation, which is based on the use of various types of discounts and offsets. With all the diversity of the discount system for market participants, the following can be distinguished.

Discounts for large volume purchases involve measures to reduce the selling price; these are wholesale discounts, which are formed taking into account the percentage reduction in the nominal price.

Seasonal discounts involve a price reduction guaranteed to customers if they purchase seasonal goods outside the period of the year for which these goods are intended.

Discounts for expediting payment involve measures to reduce the standard selling price, which is guaranteed if payment is made earlier than the deadline established by the parties.

Discounts for regular or prestigious customers involve measures to reduce the standard selling price in cases where the organization’s goods are purchased over a long period of time or are purchased from prestigious clients for advertising purposes.

Tests- these are discounts from current prices, which are taken into account as payment for purchased consignments of goods in cases where the buyer takes an active part in advertising campaigns, or in order to stimulate market participants.

Dumping prices(prices with minimal profitability) - they are used in the form of “artificial” discounts to increase corporate influence in the market, stimulate partners, etc. These prices are an expression of unfair competition and are prohibited by the laws of many countries.

Among the main directions for improving pricing, the expansion of computerization of pricing work comes to the fore, and primarily through the creation of automated databases. This allows us to significantly increase the amount of information used in the formation of price determination mechanisms, taking into account the overall commercial and technical and economic conditions for the supply of goods and services.

Let's take a closer look at some of the methods.

Comparable market price method, it is based on a comparative analysis of the transaction price between related parties with the transaction price between counterparties independent of each other. When applying this method, the following factors must be taken into account:

1) features of the goods supplied or services provided (quantity, batch size, quality characteristics, affiliation with well-known brands and other similar parameters that can affect the reduction (increase) of the price);

2) distribution of roles of the enterprises in question (proportionality of risk sharing and the amount of remuneration for the transaction);

3) the main terms of the transaction, for example, does the contract provide for obligations that would normally lead to an increase in price, such as deferred payment, the need to provide a bank guarantee, a third party guarantee or settlement through a letter of credit, etc.;

4) distinctive features of the market (possible impact on the price of a limited market, the presence of interchangeable goods on the market, geographical position market, status of the parties - wholesale or retail buyers (sellers), etc.);

5) the strategy of the enterprise, which includes interrelated organizations - parties to the relevant transaction (flexible pricing policy within the corporation in order to develop new markets).

Resale price method consists of determining the true transaction price based on the value at which the product or service is ultimately sold by one of the interdependent enterprises to an independent person, less the appropriate trading margin. In this case, the margin includes costs associated with the resale of a product or service, the cost of storing and transporting the product, as well as the cost of servicing external credits (loans) attracted in connection with the purchase of this product (service).

When using the resale price method, difficulties arise in determining the size of the margin, since the costs of one of the related organizations may be unreasonably high and do not correspond to reasonable costs in normal market practice.

Cost method used in cases where the use of two above methods does not allow us to determine the actual transaction price. In this case, the transaction price is determined by adding up all the expenses that the relevant enterprise incurred or should have incurred in connection with the creation or acquisition of goods and services, and adding to them a rate of profit (profitability) specifically determined for these types of transactions. The main disadvantage of the cost method is its subjectivity, since tax authorities, when using it, must take into account the direct and indirect costs incurred by the relevant company, and it is these authorities that have the right, at their own discretion, to decide whether to include certain costs among the expenses taken into account or not. The same can be said about the rate of return - there is no fixed rate, therefore the fiscal authorities have the right to special case determine its size yourself. Therefore, in practice, the method in question is usually used when determining prices for products with low added value. Determining the real price of high-tech products using the cost method is quite difficult, sometimes even impossible, since it does not allow taking into account the entire set of factors that influence pricing in this case.

If the previous methods do not allow one to determine the real price of the transaction, then income methods should be used. These methods are divided into the distributed profit method and the general rate of return method.

Within distributed profit method It is not a specific transaction that is analyzed, but the structure of relationships between counterparty enterprises, including the division of functions, risks, material assets, etc. between them. And based on the results of studying these relationships, the price is adjusted taking into account the role of each enterprise. The weak point of this method is its complete detachment from a specific transaction, which can ultimately lead to incorrect adjustment of the transfer price.

General rate of return method involves determining the organization's profit on transactions with independent counterparties and such an adjustment to the price of a transaction with an interdependent party in which the profit received from the transaction by this organization would be equal to the profit on transactions with third parties. The difficulty of using this method is that it is quite difficult to track the organization’s profit on each transaction, and it is almost impossible to determine the profit on transactions only with independent counterparties.

Comparable profit method The method is based on determining the total profit of the relevant organization and comparing it with the profit received by a completely independent enterprise that is not part of any holdings or other similar entities.

The main reason why this method is not recommended is that since holding companies enter into transactions not only among themselves, but also between organizations not related to them, in practice, using the method can lead to a distorted view of the profit of the corresponding enterprise.

Article 40 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation establishes the principles for determining prices for tax purposes, which are that the accepted price of goods (works, services), specified by the parties transactions must correspond to the level of market prices.

By monitoring the completeness of tax calculations, tax authorities can verify the correctness of the application of prices in the following cases:

1) transactions between related parties;

2) transactions on commodity exchange (barter) operations;

3) transactions on foreign trade operations;

4) if the transaction price deviates by more than 20% upward (downward) from the level of prices used by the organization for identical (homogeneous) goods (works, services) within a short period of time.

These deviations are determined by the formula:

(Market price – Transaction price) / Market price × 100%.

This does not consider cases where price reductions are caused by factors such as:

1) seasonal fluctuations in consumer demand for goods;

2) loss of consumer properties and product quality;

3) expiration of the product’s shelf life or approaching its expiration date;

4) marketing policy, such as promoting new products to markets that have no analogues, promoting products to new markets;

5) sale of experimental models (samples) of goods to familiarize consumers with them.

In order to determine the market price for products for a particular transaction, it is necessary to take into account only transactions concluded between non-related persons (who are not relatives or co-owners of the enterprise) or when the interdependence of these persons does not affect the outcome of the transaction.

Determining the market price for services is quite problematic, since the methods for determining identity established by clause 6 of Art. 40 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation, apply only to goods.

The remuneration of an attorney under a contract of agency may be established:

1) in a fixed amount specified in the contract and not dependent on the price of the transaction completed by the intermediary;

2) in the amount of the difference between the price set by the principal and the more favorable (lower) price of the purchased goods;

3) as a percentage of the transaction price.

The weighted average price applied for identical (homogeneous) goods for tax purposes is determined by the formula:

Weighted average price = B 1 × P 1 + B 2 × P 2 +… + B n × P n ,

Where P 1 , P 2 ,… R n – prices at which a batch of identical (homogeneous) goods was sold over a short period of time (for example, a quarter);

IN 1 , IN 2 ,… IN n is the ratio (weight) of goods sold at the corresponding prices. Weight means the ratio of the number of goods sold at a certain price to total number goods sold over a short period of time (for example, a quarter).

An organization's pricing strategy must be effective, that is, it must represent more than a sharp response to changing market conditions. Any pricing decision should reflect:

1) fundamental pricing strategy;

2) market segmentation;

3) market elasticity;

4) level of costs;

5) competitor potential, since knowledge of its competitors allows the company to more likely predict their responses, which are taken into account when developing pricing strategies;

6) competence of the organization’s management.

1.3. The price system and the features underlying it

There are three main factors that influence price: demand, costs and competition. They can be called the “magic triangle” of pricing. In addition, the price is influenced by other factors, such as the type and properties of the product, participants in the distribution channel, and government regulation.

Demand– the basic concept of a market economy. Demand is the intention of buyers to purchase a product or service, supported by monetary opportunity. The quantity of demand means the quantity of goods that buyers want and (most importantly) can purchase at this particular price and at this particular time. Demand directly depends on price, consumer income, prices of competitors’ goods, etc. Demand can be different, for example:

– individual demand refers to one person

– market demand characterizes a certain market,

– aggregate demand characterizes all markets for a given product.

The concepts of “quantity of demand” and “demand” have differences, for example, quantity of demand is the willingness to buy a certain quantity of a product at a specific price, and demand is the functional dependence of the quantity of demand on the price (the set of quantities of demand at all possible prices). If, when prices fall, buyers begin to buy more, then the quantity demanded increases accordingly, but the demand itself remains unchanged.

So, the higher the price, the lower the quantity demanded, and vice versa. In some cases, there is a so-called paradoxical demand– an increase in the quantity demanded with an increase in price. Demand is also characterized by elasticity, for example, if when the price of a product (service) increases (decreases) it is bought in the same quantities, demand is called inelastic, but if the change in price directly depends on the amount of demand, then demand will be elastic.

In practice, the demand for essential goods will be inelastic; the demand for other goods is much more elastic. Therefore, the main point when choosing a pricing strategy is the identified demand for goods.

Depending on the state of demand, marketing can be:

1) conversion, which helps overcome negative demand;

2) stimulating, which is aimed at replenishing the missing (insufficient) demand;

3) developing, which reveals hidden demand for products;

4) remarketing, when marketing aims to revive falling demand;

5) synchromarketing, in which marketing stabilizes irregular, fluctuating demand;

6) supporting, which maintains the level of demand that is declining;

7) demarketing, which slows down rush demand.

Costs- these are expenses of various types economic resources(such as raw materials, materials, labor, fixed assets, services, financial resources) in the production process (circulation of products, goods), which are expressed in monetary form. Total costs consist of fixed and variable costs. Formally, costs can be calculated as the product of the price of the resources expended and their quantity.

Costs play a major role in developing a pricing strategy and determine the minimum price that an organization can charge for a product offered for sale. Cost analysis (cost analysis) is often carried out at the planning stage to determine the break-even point. In the period when production capacity remains unchanged, the following types of costs exist.

Fixed costs(overhead costs, FC)– costs, the value of which does not depend on fluctuations in the volume of output. They are associated with the very existence of the organization and therefore must be paid, even if the products are not produced.

Variable costs( V.C.), the value of which depends on the volume of output, these are the costs of raw materials and basic wages.

General costs (TS) – consist of the sum of fixed and variable costs for a certain volume of production:

TC = FC + VC

Average fixed costs (AFC) are fixed costs per unit of production:

AFC = FC/Q,

Where Q– number of units of products produced.

Average variable costs (AVC) are variable costs per unit of production:

AVC = VC/Q.

Average total costs (PBX) is the total cost per unit of production:

ATS = TS / Q or PBX = AFC + AVC

With an increase in production output, costs per unit of output are reduced until a certain volume of production is achieved, but if production is further increased, additional costs will arise due to overloading of equipment and other costs, while average costs will increase.

Marginal cost (MS) - these are additional, or incremental, costs associated with the production of one more unit of product:

MS = ΔTC/ ΔQ,

Where ΔTS– change in total production costs;

ΔQ– change in production volumes.

Profitable enterprises in a market economy strive not to succumb to the elements of the market and pursue their own pricing policy, i.e., create favorable prices both for themselves and for the consumer.

Basic market principles:

1) the price of the product must be higher than its cost;

2) the price should be formed on socially justified market conditions;

3) the price should include the maximum possible profit.

The profitability of an organization's activities is characterized by an increase in the volume of products sold in physical terms, an increase in the amount of profit and the intensity of profit receipt per unit of time. The listed indicators are assessed depending on changes in price and volume of product sales.

Organizational cost analysis- this is an assessment of the relative dynamics of the shares of various types of costs in the overall cost structure of the organization, with its help you can find out the real reason changes in the organization's profitability indicators. When summarizing data on resources spent during production (planned and actual), it is necessary to take into account that, in addition to data on costs in monetary terms, data on costs per unit of cost are used to evaluate efficiency, but in this case it is necessary to determine what value of such indicator is considered acceptable. The main means of increasing profits (reducing losses) and ensuring a stable position of the organization in the market is minimizing production costs. A stable price for products sold leads to a reduction in costs per unit of production and an increase in profits. The market price for products, the quantity of which increases indefinitely, tends to converge with production costs and cannot remain significantly above or below the level of production costs for long.

Production becomes especially profitable for entrepreneurs if the price in a certain period of time rises above production costs, this makes it possible to enlarge enterprises that provide significant profits, as well as attract new enterprises to a profitable industry. Therefore, by virtue of the law of supply and demand, if the quantity of products delivered to the market increases, then this gives an impetus to lower prices, but if during a certain period the market price of the product becomes lower than production costs, then continuing the production of such products becomes unprofitable, due to this The supply of goods on the market is reduced, and this, due to the law of supply and demand, leads to an increase in the market price. Prices can be set below retail while reducing the amount of overhead costs, if spread over more types of production at a low cost, the advantage of a special supply agreement or an agreement to set prices based on a method will always guarantee a profit.

Each of these conditions may mean that the domestic market leads to negotiated or cost-based prices.

It is impossible to choose a single pricing option that would ideally suit all organizations, therefore, to set prices for products based on production costs, three possible options are used:

1) by income on capital;

2) demand-oriented;

3) according to the current price level.

The method of setting prices for products based on production costs (mark-up method) is widely used in business practice and reflects a typical orientation towards production and, to a lesser extent, towards market demand. There are two varieties of this method:

1) using full production costs;

2) using marginal production costs.

At full cost method to the total cost is added an amount that corresponds to the rate of profit equal to the desired income from turnover. If the price is calculated using the full cost method, then it is based on dividing production costs into constant and variable, in which:

1) conditions are created for obtaining normal profits and covering all costs;

2) the organization has complete information about its own costs and less information about the demand for its product on the market, therefore, when making a pricing decision, it relies on cost calculation;

3) price competition is minimized, for example, if all organizations use this method in pricing, then the prices for this type of product are approximately the same;

4) product prices are most justified and fair, since the interests of producers and consumers are respected.

The formula for determining the price using this method is:

P = ATC × (1 + P P / 100),

Where R– price of the product;

ATS– average total costs;

Example

If the total cost of producing a unit of product is 1200 rubles, the organization has determined its needs for the mass of profit (surcharge) at the level of 20%, then the price will be:

P = 1200 × (1 + 0.20) = 1440 rub.

At marginal cost method to the variable costs per unit of manufactured product, an amount is added that covers the costs and ensures the necessary norm arrived:

P = MS + MS × P P / 100,

Where: R– price of the product;

MS– marginal production costs;

R n – product profitability, %.

This method ensures full recovery of fixed costs and maximum profit; this is the main advantage of this method, and its use is also associated with the division of costs into fixed and variable. When choosing the level of profitability, the rate of return on invested capital is used.

Another pricing method return on capital method is based on the fact that interest on invested capital is added to the total costs per unit of production. Using this method, the organization, based on production costs, receives the planned return on capital. This method takes into account the payment of financial resources that are needed for the production and sale of this type of product. This is its advantage, but the disadvantage is that when inflation is high, interest rates are uncertain, which complicates the use of this method.

Another method is based on customer reaction and consumer assessment, it is called method of determining prices based on demand. This is an unusual pricing method because when setting prices, organizations usually focus on production costs rather than consumer perception of the product. In this case, the manufacturer bets that the consumer determines the relationship between the value of the product and its price, and also compares it with similar products from competitors. The method can be successfully used when the manufacturer knows the needs potential buyers and therefore draws attention to certain qualities of its products, realistically assessing the capabilities of competitors. However, you need to remember one feature of determining prices on the market: it will be almost impossible to sell products at a high price if they were previously sold on the market at a lower price, but a certain reference point in the market can be obtained when using such methods. Let us present the calculation of the new price for products, which is carried out on the basis of a clause in the contract.

Example

In the contract, the selling price of the product is 1000 rubles; the greatest impact on production costs is exerted by:

wage – 30 %;

cost of raw materials – 20 %;

electricity cost – 20 %.

The contractual clause on price changes in this case is presented as follows:

D 0 = P D / 100 % × (30% × Z P / W d + 20% × C P / WITH d + 20% × E P /E d ),

where 3 is wages, C is the cost of raw materials, E is the cost of electricity, d – the moment of signing the contract, P - moment of delivery.

To implement a pricing strategy in the market, the manufacturing organization collects and carefully studies information in the following main areas:

1) product market (type of competition);

2) the industry sector in which the organization operates;

3) competing industries;

4) government activities.

To take a stable position in the market, you need to clearly understand which competitors pose a real threat now, and who can strike tomorrow. Know what policies they follow and what to expect from them. Competition is a struggle, the forms of which at a certain moment can be called legal or illegal. Business is based on competition and there are tough methods of fighting for a place in the market.

Examples of successful businesses, as a rule, are unknown, and standard solutions are unacceptable in most cases, so in order to create a good business, you need to proceed from the fact that there is no ready-made advice, have a non-standard approach and your own view of the situation. The main task successful business is to discern some new opportunity to make money. When starting a business, you need to do everything possible to ensure that it survives in market conditions, and this requires some effort and luck. The level of competitors in the markets is quite high, so it is necessary to have some experience in the market to eliminate unnecessary competitors. There are several methods by which you can divide your competitors into different groups. Therefore, having collected and processed information on prices, the organization needs to:

1) study the products of the market in which the organization intends to sell its products;

2) study the degree of compliance of competitors’ products with consumer requirements, evaluating parameters such as: price, appearance, reliability, functionality;

3) study the reaction of competitors to the introduction of new products to the market, changes in product prices, changes in sales methods, active advertising products, improvement of services;

4) set the price of products taking into account government decisions on economic issues.

The market environment is formed a large number of economic, political and cultural factors, from which four main market models are distinguished pure competition, monopolistic competition, oligopoly, pure monopoly. From the point of view of pricing, the main distinguishing feature of such markets will be the ability of the organization to influence the setting of prices for manufactured products. Therefore, monopolists have the greatest influence, and the least influence in conditions of pure competition. The market price can be controlled by an individual organization, a group of organizations, the state and the market.

Pure competition market consists of sellers and buyers of the same products, and the buyer and seller cannot have the proper influence on the level of current market prices for the products sold. The peculiarities of the market are that if the seller asks for too high a price for a product, the buyer can purchase the required quantity of similar products on another market for a lower price.

As long as the market remains a market of pure competition, the role of marketing research in this market is minimal, sellers will not develop activities in product development, pricing policy, advertising, or sales promotion, since in conditions of pure competition none of the organizations plays a significant role in market.

The price level on the market is formed only under the influence of supply and demand, therefore, in conditions of fierce competition and the emergence of a huge market for cheap work force(China, India and other countries) promoted products are the only chance to increase competitiveness in such a market. The image of the seller is important here - an attractive image built by the person himself, and as for prices, the adjusted estimated price of the product can even be recognized if the result obtained corresponds to the most likely price at which the product can be sold on the open market in a competitive environment.

Therefore, in conditions of pure competition, the demand for the products of an individual organization is very flexible.

Type of industry market in which there is big number organizations that sell mixed products and exercise price control over the price of the goods they produce are called monopolistic competition. In a market with monopolistic competition, the market shares of organizations range from 1 to 10% of total sales, which is much more than in a purely competitive market (up to 1%). Rare products give a certain degree of monopoly power over price to each seller, for example, the price of a prestigious product is always set higher than the same product of a less famous brand.

The main advantage of monopolistic competition is that it makes it easy to found a new organization in a certain industry or leave this market, because entry into it is not hampered by certain barriers that a monopoly and oligopoly put in the way of a new organization. The main disadvantage is that new organizations have difficulty promoting their new products to customers.

Let us give an example of such markets: the market for women's, men's or children's clothing, fur, jewelry, shoes, furniture, soft drinks, books, as well as markets for various services - hairdressing salons, dry cleaners, laundries, etc.

A market in which there are certain products of several large organizations that control a significant part of production and sales and compete with each other is called oligopolies. Products sold by oligopolistic organizations can be mixed (cars, computers) or standardized (steel, aluminum). Oligopolistic organizations have the concept of collective dominance, but in any case, such an organization also has monopoly power, and therefore influences the price of products sold and keeps it at a level that exceeds the marginal cost of production.

In order to influence the supply and price of a product, price control is exercised, which is determined by the market share of individual sellers (oligopolistic markets are dominated by two to ten organizations, which account for more than half of total product sales).

Because of this, organizations become dependent on each other when each of them realizes that a change in price (volume of output) will cause a response from its competitors, and therefore must take it into account. Oligopolies are protected by barriers to entry into the market, and the factor that can intensify competition in an oligopoly is international competition in the domestic market. With the openness of the domestic market, the country's economy becomes open, which of course changes the nature of competition in the market.

If interactions are conducted in an atmosphere of cooperation rather than competition, then organizations can charge prices well above marginal cost and realize greater profits.

Organizations sometimes enter into an overt (secret) conspiracy, called a cartel, in order to maximize joint profits and jointly coordinate their prices and production volumes. Sometimes oligopolistic organizations begin to aggressively compete with each other, starting “price wars”, and thereby losing a significant share of profits. Let us give examples of oligopoly that prevails in the modern industrial market: the automotive industry, the production of steel, aluminum, petrochemicals, electrical equipment, and computers.

The type of industry market in which there is a single seller of a product that has no analogues is called pure monopoly. Prices influence the different terms of the transactions being compared and the economic conditions of the market in which they are made, so a pure monopoly is quite rare, it is usually present in local markets rather than in national (world) markets. So, if in a small town there can only be one single dentist, then he thereby becomes a monopolist. An organization does not have to be a pure monopoly to have monopoly power, to be the only seller in the market. An organization with monopoly power can set the price of its products at its own discretion, rather than taking price for granted, which is characteristic of a perfectly competitive market. As a result, the monopolist, by setting prices higher than competitive ones, receives additional (monopoly) profit, thereby benefiting from price control. A monopoly market is characterized by the fact that the supply of products is often much less than in conditions of perfect competition, and the price is much higher than the competitive price. This is disadvantageous for society, since fewer consumers than in conditions of perfect competition buy the monopolist's product.

In the market of a pure monopoly, satisfying demand is more effective in the absence of competition due to a decrease in production costs per unit of goods as production volume increases, since the products produced by pure monopoly entities cannot be replaced by other products. As a rule, market demand for products produced by pure monopolies does not always depend on changes in the price of these products (for example, in the electric power industry). Therefore, the larger the scale of an enterprise in pure monopoly industries, the more efficient it is.

The operation of a pure monopoly market assumes that products that are produced by one enterprise at low production costs are treated as if they were produced by more than one enterprise. This means that prices in pure monopoly markets are uncontrolled by antitrust laws, and the state only regulates monopoly prices.

As a rule, a monopolist organization receives high profits, so other organizations have a desire to enter this industry in order to open their production there.

The use of leading technologies in production reduces individual costs for manufactured products and makes them cheaper by increasing labor productivity. Thanks to such actions, monopolists receive maximum (monopoly) profit in the form of the difference between social and individual costs of production. A monopoly organization seeks to monopolize low individual costs and maintain this position for as long as possible, setting barriers to entry into the industry for new organizations, such as:

1) exclusive rights obtained from the government or local authorities, which grant the organization the status of the sole seller;

3) the possibility of using sources of production resources (raw materials).

Monopoly barriers prevent, limit or eliminate competition in the market. Therefore, Federal Law No. 135-FZ of July 26, 2006 “On the Protection of Competition” prohibits monopolistic activities in two forms:

1) abuse of a dominant position in the market (Article 10);

2) a ban on agreements or concerted actions of economic entities that restrict competition (Article 11).

1.4. State price regulation

Of particular importance for the formation of prices is state regulation of pricing, for example, certain products (baby food products, medical goods, own-produced products sold at public catering establishments at educational institutions and others, for which, in accordance with the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of 03/07/1995 No. 239 “On measures to streamline state regulation of prices (tariffs)”, local authorities have the right to regulate the size of trade margins). State authorities, local self-government and pricing authorities regulate prices in markets using pricing policy, which allows you to maintain a fairly high and stable level of budget expenditures and corresponds to the goal of creating a National Welfare Fund, which ensures the stability of budget policy and allows you to maintain the Reserve Fund in case of sudden price changes, and under favorable conditions, accumulate funds in the National Welfare Fund. The state influences the pricing process through administrative measures, such as “freezing” free market prices, fixing monopoly prices, setting price ceilings, banning dumping, and banning low-quality price advertising.

The influence of the state on pricing can be exercised using price fixing– maintaining prices for products and securities at a certain specified fixed level. Fixation is possible using:

1) list prices– a collection of prices and tariffs for products approved by ministries, departments, and government pricing bodies. In conditions of strict total state control over the price level, the number of prices set using price lists can be 100% and insignificant in cases of market pricing. With the help of price lists, the prices of monopolistic enterprises (electricity, gas, oil, utilities, transport) are mainly regulated. Prices for these products are fixed by the state, this makes it possible to stabilize the economic situation for a short period and determine the degree of price stability in all other areas. If there is no agreement to maintain a minimum price, the retailer may discount the list price to attract customers;

2) fixing prices of monopolistic organizations– fixation occurs when the state needs to fix the prices of enterprises that occupy a dominant position in the market in order to somehow influence competition and the price level in the market. However, these actions ultimately limit the price freedom of all other market participants. For information, according to the Federal Law on the Protection of Competition, an organization occupies a dominant (monopoly) position if its market share is more than 50%;

3) price freeze- this process of conditionally constant prices, most often tied to prices of a certain period, year. This approach is used in the event of crisis situations in the economy and is carried out solely for the purpose of stabilizing the situation. The use of price freezes can only be applied in the short term.

There is also a method like price regulation by establishing price limits and upper (lower) price limits. Prices for products fixed in special price lists are set without specifying a validity period (for at least five years). Price regulation occurs through the process of direct (indirect) influence on price levels and ratios or other pricing policies. Price regulation can be direct (directive) in nature if the state sets fixed prices for products and exercises the right to change these prices in the future. Price regulation directly depends on the amount of production costs, taking into account the required amount of savings, and the reduction (elimination) of subsidies.

Price regulation is an instrument of pricing policy, which is associated with the determination of rational intra-industry and inter-industry price relationships. The state needs to support:

1) correct price ratios within the parametric series of products of the same name, these ratios are maintained using a system of appropriate coefficients;

2) reasonable price ratios for interchangeable products.

Sometimes price regulation is carried out by indirect methods, for example, through the administrative establishment of profitability standards included in prices, or various kinds of markups and discounts.

Price liberalization- this is the right to freely set prices by the manufacturer (intermediary), which makes it possible to remove these prices from the sphere of administrative regulation.

The state’s influence on the pricing process lies in legislative regulation of the activities of market participants, limiting unfair competition and introducing a number of prohibitions, such as:

1) ban on dumping– in this case, it is impossible to sell products below cost in order to eliminate competitors. This practice is applicable if there is a leader in the market who can drive its competitors out of the market or prevent them from entering the market. Such a ban is applicable in international trade in order to prevent aggressive importers of products from entering the market;

2) prohibition on unfair price advertising applicable when advertising is structured in such a way that it creates the illusion of lower prices among consumers in order to attract their attention to the product;

3) ban on vertical price fixing applicable in the case when the manufacturer begins to dictate its prices to intermediaries (wholesale and retail trade);

4) ban on horizontal price fixing applicable when an agreement between several producers comes into force to maintain product prices at a certain level if the combined market share of these producers occupies a dominant position in the market; such a restriction is applied in an oligopolistic market. This prohibition is easy to ignore if oligopolistic enterprises agree not on a single price, but on a single method of calculating costs when determining the price of final products.

State price regulation- this is an attempt by the state, through legislative, administrative and budgetary and financial influences, to influence the market (prices) in such a way as to contribute to the stable development of the economy as a whole. For example, at the subject level Russian Federation Legislative and executive bodies of the constituent entities of the Federation, local government bodies deal with issues of regulation of pricing; in the executive bodies of the constituent entities of the Federation there are special units for regulating price policy - departments (committees) for price policy, and under the government - a department for price and tax policy.

Currently, state influence on the level and structure of prices (both free and regulated), which are mainly established by commodity producers, is carried out through methodological unity in their establishment and application.

The Constitution of the Russian Federation guarantees state support for competition and freedom of economic activity. The basic law is the Federal Law “On the Protection of Competition”, which states that:

1) dominant position– an exceptional position in the market, which makes it possible to exert a decisive influence on the general conditions of circulation of goods (products, services) in the relevant market or to impede access to the market for other economic entities;

2) monopoly high price– the price of a product (service) established by an entity occupying a dominant position in the market in order to compensate for unreasonable costs caused by underutilization production capacity, or receiving additional profit as a result of a decrease in the quality of the product;

3) monopoly low price– the price of a product (service) established by an entity occupying a dominant position in the product market as a buyer, in order to obtain additional profit and compensate for unreasonable costs at the expense of the seller.

A market economy presupposes freedom of prices, which are the result of the relationship between supply and demand. Despite the fact that free prices are not regulated by the state, even in the most liberal market system the state is not completely removed from the pricing process, especially in relation to products of natural monopolies.

In judicial practice, the most common disputes are over regulated prices for electricity and heat, gas, as well as for transportation and work on railway transport. When establishing violations of antimonopoly legislation, commercial organizations (their officials) and individual entrepreneurs bear responsibility under the legislation of the Russian Federation. The law specifies organizational and legal basis protection of competition, for example, such as preventing and suppressing monopolistic activities.

Such activities are recognized as abuse by an economic entity (group of persons) of its dominant position, agreements or concerted actions prohibited by antimonopoly legislation, as well as other actions (inactions) recognized in accordance with federal laws as monopolistic activities (Article 4 of the Federal Law “On the Protection of Competition”). .

Article 10 of the Federal Law “On Protection of Competition” introduces a ban on the abuse of a dominant position by an economic entity, and the position of an economic entity (group of persons) in the market for a certain product is recognized as dominant if it makes it possible:

1) exercise a decisive influence on the general conditions of circulation of goods on the relevant product market;

2) eliminate other economic entities from this product market;

3) make it difficult to access this commodity market other business entities.

For example, a dominant business entity is considered to be one whose market share of a certain product exceeds 50% (Part 1, Article 5 of the Federal Law “On Protection of Competition”). Only the fulfillment of this condition is not always decisive: when considering a case of violation of antimonopoly legislation or when exercising state control over economic concentration, it may be established that the position of an economic entity in the product market is not dominant.

The position of an economic entity cannot be recognized as dominant (except financial organization), the share of which on the market for a certain product does not exceed 35%, with the exception of those specified in Parts 3, 6 of Art. 5 Federal Law “On Protection of Competition”. If the market share is from 35 to 50%, the position will be considered dominant if it is established by the antimonopoly authority based on the unchanged or subject to minor changes the share of the business entity in the product market, the relative size of the shares in this market owned by competitors, the possibility of access to this product the market of new competitors or based on other criteria characterizing the product market.

Abuse is expressed in restricting or eliminating competition, otherwise - infringing on the interests of other persons (including individuals), the result of which is the actions (inaction) of a person occupying a dominant position, such as:

1) establishing a monopolistically high (low) price for a product. To be recognized as such, it must exceed:

– the price set by business entities that are not included in the same group of persons with buyers or sellers of goods and do not occupy a dominant position in a comparable product market,

– the amount of expenses and profits necessary for the production and sale of such goods;

2) withdrawal of a product from circulation, due to which its price has increased;

3) imposing contract terms on the buyer that are unfavorable for him;

4) economically (technologically) unjustified reduction

(cessation of) production of products that are in demand, if this production is profitable or such actions are not provided for by law;

5) economically (technologically) unjustified establishment of incomparable prices (tariffs) for the same product.

For abuse of a dominant position on the product market, Art. 14.31 of the Code of Administrative Offenses of the Russian Federation provides for administrative liability:

1) fines are imposed on officials in the amount of 15,000 to 20,000 rubles;

2) from legal entities “negotiable” fines are collected in the amount of 1/100 to 15/100 of the amount of the offender’s proceeds from the sale of goods (work, services) on the market in which the offense was committed, but not more than 1/50 of the amount of the offender’s proceeds from the sale of all goods (works, services).

To calculate the amount of the fine, tax revenue is taken, determined according to the rules of Art. 248, 249 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation. Administrative liability under Art. 14.31 of the Code of Administrative Offenses of the Russian Federation is attracted only if the actions violating antimonopoly legislation do not contain a criminal offense.

Criminal liability is provided for restricting (preventing) or eliminating competition by establishing or maintaining monopolistically high or monopolistically low prices, dividing the market, restricting access to the market, eliminating other economic entities from it, establishing or maintaining uniform prices, if these acts resulted in a large-scale injury. damage – more than 1,000,000 rubles. (Article 178 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation).

Antimonopoly legislation has introduced a ban not only on the abuse of a dominant position, but also on agreements (concerted actions) of business entities that limit competition. Moreover, the performance of actions by business entities under an agreement does not apply to concerted actions (Part 2 of Article 8 of the Federal Law “On Protection of Competition”). An agreement is an agreement in writing, contained in one or more documents, as well as an oral agreement (Clause 18, Article 4 of the Federal Law “On Protection of Competition”). The actions of economic entities on the product market are coordinated if they simultaneously satisfy two conditions specified in Part 1 of Art. 8 Federal Law “On Protection of Competition”:

1) the result of such actions must meet the interests of each economic entity; this is possible only if it is known in advance to each entity;

2) the actions of each economic entity must be caused by the actions of other economic entities and not be a consequence of circumstances that equally affect all economic entities in the relevant product market.

Provisions efficient work all parts of the organization can be achieved through proper leadership, as well as through performance monitoring and an effective reward system, this concept is called coordination of economic activities. The actions of a self-regulatory organization to establish conditions for its members to access the product market (exit from the product market) are not considered as coordination of economic activity.

This concept refers to the innovations of the Federal Law “On Protection of Competition”.

A criminal encroachment on competition infringes not only on the interests of competing organizations, but also on the interests of consumers, since the possibility of choice is reduced (disappeared), which can only exist if producers of goods, works or services compete. After all, social relations that ensure the interests of consumers are considered fundamental along with public relations, ensuring the interests of competing organizations.

Clause 17 art. 4 Federal Law “On Protection of Competition” establishes signs of restriction of competition:

1) reduction in the number of organizations on the market that are not part of the same group;

2) an increase (decrease) in product prices that is not associated with changes in other general conditions for the circulation of products on the market;

3) refusal of organizations from the same group to act independently in the market;

4) determination of the general conditions for the circulation of products on the market by agreement between organizations that are not members of the same group;

5) other conditions that create the opportunity to unilaterally influence the general conditions of circulation of products on the market.

Commercial organizations do not have the right to coordinate the economic activities of business entities if the result of such actions will or may result in the consequences specified in Part 1 of Art. 11 Federal Law “On Protection of Competition”.

For example, the Krasnoyarsk Antimonopoly Department accused a branch of the main dairy product manufacturer in Russia, UniMilk LLC, which was found to have concluded distribution agreements for the supply of dairy products containing conditions that contradict the norms of antimonopoly legislation, for example, that distributors must agree on prices with the supplier , under which dairy products will be sold to other market operators. Moreover, not only UniMilk LLC, but also its distributors were found to have violated the requirements of antimonopoly legislation. The inspection authorities issued an order to exclude the discovered contradictions from the distribution agreements. Along with the issuance of orders, commercial organizations and their officials, including individual entrepreneurs, may be held liable under the legislation of the Russian Federation (Part 1 of Article 37 of the Federal Law “On Protection of Competition”), and bringing to liability does not relieve these persons from their obligation comply with decisions and orders of the antimonopoly authority.

An economic entity that restricts competition by agreement or by carrying out concerted actions limiting competition may be brought to administrative liability under Art. 14.32 of the Code of Administrative Offenses of the Russian Federation, in the form of a fine in the amount of:

1) from 17,000 to 20,000 rubles. (for officials);

2) from 1/100 to 15/100 of the amount of the offender’s proceeds from the sale of goods (work, services) on the market in which the offense was committed (for legal entities).

For officials, the fine may be replaced by disqualification for up to three years. According to Part 2 of Art. 32.11 of the Code of Administrative Offenses of the Russian Federation, the execution of the disqualification resolution is carried out by terminating the agreement (contract) with the disqualified person for the activities of managing the legal entity.

However, administrative liability can be avoided if the enterprise:

1) refuses to participate or further participate in the agreement, to carry out or further carry out concerted actions that restrict competition and are unacceptable under the antimonopoly legislation of the Russian Federation;

2) voluntarily notify the federal antimonopoly authority and its territorial body about the violation of the requirements of Art. 11 Federal Law “On Protection of Competition”;

3) will present available information (information) in order to establish the fact of concluding an agreement or concerted actions that have been vetoed.

This possibility is spelled out in the note to Art. 14.32 of the Code of Administrative Offenses of the Russian Federation, and all three conditions must be met.

The executive bodies of state power of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation had the right, for a certain period, until April 31, 2008, to conclude agreements with business entities - producers of food products and organizations trading in these goods, aimed at reducing and maintaining prices for certain types of socially important food products essentials. This opportunity was provided by the Government of the Russian Federation (Resolution of the Government of the Russian Federation dated November 10, 2007 No. 769 “On agreements between executive bodies of state power of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation and business entities on reducing and maintaining prices for certain types of socially important food products of essential necessity”) on the basis Art. 16 Federal Law “On Protection of Competition”. This article prohibits agreements between federal executive authorities, state authorities of constituent entities of the Russian Federation, local governments and business entities if such agreements lead or may lead to the prevention, restriction, elimination of competition, or to an increase, decrease or maintenance of prices (tariffs). The most important thing is that there is an exception to this requirement: it is possible to agree if such agreements are provided for by federal laws or regulatory legal acts of the President of the Russian Federation, regulatory legal acts of the Government of the Russian Federation. So a regulatory legal act of the Government of the Russian Federation has appeared, aimed at ensuring compliance with antimonopoly legislation when concluding agreements. These agreements must not contain provisions that lead or may lead to:

End of introductory fragment.

Introduction

1. Theoretical foundations for the study of pricing in trade

1.1 The essence of price and pricing

1.2 Features of pricing at trading enterprises

1.3 Methods of regulating prices in the consumer market

2. Analysis and assessment of the pricing system at Vostok LLC

2.1 General characteristics of the enterprise

2.2 Pricing system at Vostok LLC

Conclusion

List of sources used

Applications

Introduction

Price and pricing system are the second essential element of marketing activity after the product. That is why the development of a pricing strategy and prices should be given the closest attention by the management of any enterprise that wants to most effectively and long-term develop its activities in the market, since any false or insufficiently thought-out step immediately affects the dynamics of sales and profitability. Making a pricing decision involves taking into account numerous factors.

Small business enterprises in trade have a small number of employees, and therefore there are some pricing peculiarities for such enterprises. Firstly, often a small enterprise does not have a separate department that would deal with problems of economic analysis and pricing, and this work has to be done by the manager (owner) of the enterprise, therefore, it is necessary to save time on complex mathematical calculations. Secondly, the range of products of such enterprises, as a rule, is not large.

At the same time, a correct assessment of all market conditions and the capabilities of an enterprise in determining prices for the factors and means of production it sells is the key to survival in a competitive trading enterprise, prosperity and success, stability of the financial situation, of course, with efficient and mobile production and economic activity.

At a trading enterprise, in the conditions of working on the market and obtaining all the initial factors of production from the market, special, systematic work must be organized to monitor, study, develop strategies and tactics in the field of prices for both products, services, works sold by the enterprise, and for factors of production , purchased by the enterprise on the market (in market conditions): means of production, natural resources, labor. A correctly implemented pricing policy can significantly increase the efficiency of the company. Errors in determining the price level often lead to negative consequences. All this makes pricing an important part of a company's marketing strategy.

Pricing is an important element of the management accounting system. It involves not only setting prices for products, goods, services and works, but also the process of managing prices of a trading enterprise in various market situations.

The relevance of the topic of the work lies in the fact that the pricing system of a trading enterprise should aim to determine in the most effective way the price that the buyer is willing to pay, and also to explore the possibilities of selling products at a price that includes a certain profit

The purpose of the work is to study the pricing system at a trading enterprise and methods of regulating prices in the consumer market.

To achieve the goal, the following tasks are set in the work:

– study the theoretical foundations of pricing: the essence and features of pricing at trading enterprises, methods of regulating prices in the consumer market;

– analyze and evaluate the effectiveness of pricing at a trading enterprise and its impact on the results of the enterprise’s activities;

– suggest directions for price regulation at the trade enterprise under study.

The subject of the study is the enterprise pricing system.

The object of the study is Vostok LLC.

1. Theoretical foundations for the study of pricing in trade

1.1 The essence of price and pricing

Price is the most important criterion for making consumer decisions. Determining price is one of the most difficult tasks facing any enterprise. And it is the price that determines the success of the enterprise - sales volumes, income, profit received.

Setting a certain price for a product or service serves to subsequently sell it and make a profit. It is very important to set the price so that it is not too high or too low.

The efficiency of an enterprise's trading activities and the operation of the enterprise as a whole is largely determined by a reasonable pricing system. To help users solve this problem, pricing functionality is included in the configuration.

The entire pricing process can be schematically represented as follows (Table 1.1):

Table 1.1. The pricing process at a trading company

It is easy to see that each subsequent type of price includes the previous one.

For the convenience of the pricing policy, the following categories of selling prices are provided.

Basic prices. These prices are set for each item only manually. These prices are determined by the user and stored in the system. When accessing these prices, the system takes the most recent value.

Estimated prices. Just like base prices, calculated prices are specified by the user and their value is stored in the system. The difference is that these prices have an automatic way of calculating them based on the base price data. That is, calculated prices are obtained from the base prices through a certain procedure: increasing the base price values by a certain markup percentage or when the base price enters the range. Regardless of how the calculated price is ultimately obtained, the system stores only the resulting price value itself and the type of base prices on the basis of which the calculation was made. Estimated prices can be wholesale and retail prices obtained on the basis of the planned cost of production.

Dynamic prices. The values of these prices are not stored in the system; only the method for calculating them is stored. These prices, like calculated prices, are obtained from base prices using special mechanisms. However, the calculation results are not stored in the system; the calculation is performed directly at the time of accessing these prices. This allows you to use prices if selling prices are strictly linked to the base price, which changes quite often.

For dynamic prices, the percentage of discount or markup must be indicated by which the base prices will be adjusted during calculation. For settlement prices, the discount percentage will act as a default value that can be overridden during the pricing process.

The planned cost price type is not intended for buyers, but for internal control of the enterprise's selling prices in order to eliminate cases of unprofitable sales when, as a result of the application of discounts, the selling price falls below the cost level.

In conditions market relations The role of price for any commercial organization increases sharply. This circumstance is due to many reasons.

The price level depends on:

– the amount of profit of a commercial organization;

– competitiveness of the organization and its products;

– financial stability of the enterprise.

Choosing the right pricing system when forming a market price is quite a difficult task and requires the creation of marketing services.

In a market economy, prices for goods fluctuate constantly. The direction of changes in market prices for specific types of goods of trading enterprises and in specific periods may be different. However, there are also general trends that are characteristic both for individual groups of consumer goods and for their entire range as a whole.

Price in a market economy is one of the most important factors determining the profitability of an enterprise. Therefore, pricing, i.e. the general goals that the enterprise intends to achieve with the help of prices for its products, and the system of measures aimed at this, must be well thought out and justified.

Currently, pricing in the trade sector is becoming increasingly important for an enterprise, since consumers have begun to pay increasing attention to the ratio of price and utility (value) of products, which has led to an increasing role of price in the marketing mix. It should be borne in mind that an improvement in this ratio is not always directly determined by a reduction in price. In this sense, increased competitiveness can be achieved not by reducing costs, but through a well-thought-out system of measures aimed at increasing the price sensitivity of potential buyers.

However, unlike in the past, when the pricing system was mainly associated with horizontal competition and enterprises competed with interchangeable types of products, now fierce vertical competition makes a significant contribution to the choice of pricing system. The latter largely determines the actions of enterprises involved in the manufacture of final products, aimed at increasing their share of the cost paid by the end consumer. This leads to strengthening of corporate pricing policy and the search for ways of effective pricing.

At the same time, the position of customized pricing is strengthening, i.e. There is a shift from product-centric marketing to customer-centric marketing. In pricing, the prospects for the subjective perception of the product by the consumer and the achievement of its target effect are increasingly taken into account. In this regard, the creation of a “price image” becomes of great importance.

Pricing plays an important role in operating profitably in retail. What important components influence pricing and what strategy to choose so as not to lose profit.

Smart pricing plays an important role in working for profit in retail. Profit in retail trade can be when a correctly carried out sale of goods at a retail price below the purchase price gives the expected positive result. The components of the retail price are: the cost of the product, the ratio of demand to the number of supply of the product on the market, funds for delivering the product from the manufacturer to the consumer, value added tax (VAT), exclusivity of supply and the ability of the population to buy this product.

All of the listed elements must be taken into account in pricing in retail, because a 100% markup on the purchase price, as is done in markets, does not cover such amounts for the product as: delivery, space rental, utility costs, exclusivity of the product for a given territory, competitiveness of the product. Here it is also necessary to calculate the amount of VAT that the seller pays to the budget and is calculated by him as the difference between the amount of tax calculated when selling goods (work, services, property rights) to the buyer and the amount of tax charged to this seller when he purchased goods (work, services) , property rights) used for taxable transactions. For retail trade, you still need to draw up a sales plan for the future, study the type of buyer in the store’s area, and only after these basic procedures can you set a price on the price tag of the product.

The effectiveness of the work done can and should be assessed. This especially applies in the year of crisis, when it is difficult to predict in advance the consequences of inflation in the country. But as soon as a product sits on the shelves in a store, you should first of all study the reasons for this, and only then change the price of the product. The reasons can be very different. People do not necessarily visit the store where this or that product is cheaper. A huge percentage of buyers value the quality of the service provided much more than cheap product. Often, consumer demand for a particular product may increase only because there is little of it left, and the shortage scares the customer more than the price. It is noticed in the retail trade that sometimes a cheap price tag scares off buyers because they begin to doubt its quality.

This is especially true for trading during the holidays, when a maneuver to reduce the price of your competitors’ popular goods will lure a lot of your customers to your stores. Here, according to experts, you need to monitor the slightest movements in the prices of producers of raw materials for consumer goods in your stores.

It is well known that pricing is a change in pricing policy. There are two main pricing strategies in retail: EDLP (every day low price) and H/LP (high/low price), which are used by professional retailers.

EDLP is the setting of a consistently low price (between the constant prices of competitors and average market prices). This strategy is characterized by: low prices on any day; limited number of measures to stimulate demand; reduction of investments in marketing, since there is no constant need to organize events aimed at stimulating demand; lack of a discount program (loyalty program); reducing the difference between price and cost; requirements for high-quality planning of sales and balances. In Russia, this strategy is used by retail stores with a huge, changing flow of customers.

H/LP is a mixed approach to pricing, in which set prices can be either lower or higher than EDLP. Features of the H/LP strategy: profit maximization through price discrimination; the ability to market products to both price-sensitive and price-insensitive buyers; price wars; high level of communication costs. An example of such a strategy can be called “single price stores”: “Everything for 47”, “FIX Price”, where at first glance everything seems to have low prices, but in fact - certain types the prices of goods are twice or more inflated. This is what brings profit to this chain of stores.

In addition to basic strategies, there are many pricing methods that vary by type of retailer. In retail centers of household chemicals and products, price tags are compiled according to costs - these are the costs of transporting the goods and storing them. In shoe and clothing stores, sports goods and automobile stores, it is more expedient to change price tags based on consumer demand. For all types of retail, it is important to focus on the market when working with price tags. This means that we carry out pricing in comparison with the prices of substitute goods and related products. According to expert Eduard Saifullin, such an example is: “The chain of grocery supermarkets “Magnit” operates according to the H/LP strategy. While maintaining a single low price for the main groups of goods, the retailer offers a number of goods with a lower level of demand, but higher prices. A competent focus on demand is obvious, which is also proven by the location of retail outlets (most often in residential areas, in places of average traffic).”

The conclusion suggests itself. There is no single recipe for setting prices in retail. It will always depend on objective and subjective circumstances and factors. There are many of them and they all need to be taken into account as much as possible when forming a retail pricing strategy in order to remain successful in business.

Elena Egorova