Existing models of student-centered pedagogy can be divided into three main groups: socio-pedagogical, subject-didactic, psychological.

Technology of student-centered learning The main principle of developing a person-oriented learning system is the recognition of the student’s individuality, the creation of necessary and sufficient conditions for his development. INDIVIDUALITY is considered by us as the unique identity of each person who carries out his life activity as a subject of development throughout his life. This originality is determined by a set of traits and properties of the psyche, formed under the influence of various factors that ensure the anatomical, physiological, mental organization of any person. Individuality is a generalized characteristic of a person’s characteristics, the stable manifestation of which, their effective implementation in play, learning, work, sports determines the individual style of activity as personal education. A person’s individuality is formed on the basis of inherited natural inclinations in the process of upbringing and at the same time - and this is the main thing for a person - in the course of self-development, self-knowledge, self-realization in various types of activities. In teaching, taking into account individuality means revealing the possibility of maximum development of each student, creating a socio-cultural development situation based on the recognition of the uniqueness and inimitability of the student’s psychological characteristics. But in order to work individually with each student, taking into account his psychological characteristics, it is necessary to structure the entire educational process differently. Technologization of the student-oriented educational process involves the special design of educational text, didactic material, methodological recommendations for its use, types of educational dialogue, forms of control over the student’s personal development in the course of mastering knowledge. Only if there is didactic support that implements the principle of subjectivity in education, can we talk about building a student-oriented process. Let us briefly formulate the basic requirements for the development of didactic support for a student-oriented process:

educational material (the nature of its presentation) must ensure the identification of the content of the student’s subjective experience, including the experience of his previous learning;

the presentation of knowledge in a textbook (by the teacher) should be aimed not only at expanding its volume, structuring, integrating, generalizing the subject content, but also at transforming the existing experience of each student;

during training, it is necessary to constantly coordinate the student’s experience with the scientific content of the given knowledge;

active stimulation of the student to self-valued educational activities should provide him with the opportunity for self-education, self-development, self-expression in the course of mastering knowledge;

educational material should be organized in such a way that the student has the opportunity to choose when completing assignments and solving problems;

it is necessary to encourage students to independently choose and use the most meaningful ways for them to study educational material;

when introducing knowledge about techniques for performing educational actions, it is necessary to distinguish general logical and specific subject techniques academic work taking into account their functions in personal development;

it is necessary to ensure control and evaluation not only of the result, but mainly of the learning process, i.e. those transformations that a student carries out while mastering educational material;

The educational process must ensure the construction, implementation, reflection, and evaluation of learning as a subjective activity. To do this, it is necessary to identify units of teaching, their description, and use by the teacher in the classroom and in individual work (various forms of correction, tutoring).

It can be concluded that student-centered learning plays an important role in the education system. Modern education should be aimed at developing a person’s personality, revealing his capabilities, talents, developing self-awareness, and self-realization. The development of a student as an individual (his socialization) occurs not only through his mastery of normative activities, but also through constant enrichment and transformation of subjective experience as an important source of his own development; learning as a subjective activity of the student, ensuring knowledge (assimilation) should unfold as a process, described in appropriate terms that reflect its nature and psychological content; The main result of the study should be the formation of cognitive abilities based on the mastery of relevant knowledge and skills. Since in the process of such learning there is an active participation in self-valued educational activities, the content and forms of which should provide the student with the opportunity for self-education and self-development in the course of mastering knowledge.

27. Technologies for effective management of the learning process. Alternative technologies in a foreign school.

Originating more than three decades ago in the United States, the term “educational technology” quickly entered the lexicon of all developed countries. In foreign pedagogical literature, the concept of “pedagogical technology” or “teaching technology” was initially correlated with the idea of ​​technization of the educational process, whose supporters saw the widespread use of technical teaching aids as the main way to increase the efficiency of the educational process. This interpretation remained until the 70s. last century. In the 70s In pedagogy, the idea of ​​complete controllability of the educational process was sufficiently formed, which soon led to the following attitude in pedagogical practice: the solution of didactic problems is possible through the management of the educational process with precisely defined goals, the achievement of which should be amenable to clear description and definition. Accordingly, a new interpretation of the essence of educational technology appears in many international publications: educational technology is “not just research in the field of using technical teaching aids or computers; This is research to identify principles and develop techniques for optimizing the educational process by analyzing factors that increase educational effectiveness, through the design" and application of techniques and materials, and through the evaluation of the methods used" (International Yearbook of Educational and Training Technology, 1978/79. - - London - New York, 1978).It should be noted that currently in foreign literature one can find both an initial understanding of the essence of pedagogical technology (pedagogical technology as the maximum use of TSO capabilities in teaching), and an understanding of pedagogical technology associated with the idea of ​​process management learning (i.e., purposeful design of learning goals in accordance with the goals of designing the entire course of the learning process, checking and evaluating the effectiveness of selected forms, methods, means, evaluating current results, corrective measures. Revealing the essence of pedagogical technology associated with the idea of ​​​​managing the learning process, Japanese scientist T. Sakamoto wrote that pedagogical technology is the introduction into pedagogy of a systematic way of thinking, which can otherwise be called “systematization of education” or “systematization of classroom teaching.”

A systematic approach to learning as an essential characteristic of the concept of “educational technology” is reflected in the UNESCO definition, according to which educational technology is a systematic method of creating, applying and defining the entire process of teaching and learning, taking into account technical and human resources and their interaction, which aims to optimize forms of education. In the domestic pedagogical literature, as many authors rightly note, there are discrepancies in the understanding and use of the term “pedagogical technology”

Monodidactic technologies are used very rarely. Usually educational process is constructed in such a way that some polydidactic technology is constructed, which unites and integrates a number of elements of various monotechnologies on the basis of some priority original author's idea. It is important that a combined didactic technology can have qualities that exceed the qualities of each of the technologies included in it. Typically, combined technology is called by the idea (monotechnology) that characterizes the main modernization and makes the greatest contribution to achieving learning goals. In the direction of modernization of the traditional system, the following groups of technologies can be distinguished: a) Pedagogical technologies based on humanization and democratization of pedagogical relations. These are technologies with a procedural orientation, a priority of personal relationships, an individual approach, non-rigid democratic management and a strong humanistic orientation of the content. b) Pedagogical technologies based on the activation and intensification of students’ activities. Examples: gaming technologies, problem-based learning, learning technology based on notes on reference signals by V.F. Shatalova, communicative training E.I. Passova, etc. c) Pedagogical technologies based on the effectiveness of organizing and managing the learning process. Examples: programmed learning, differentiated learning technologies (V.V. Firsov, N.P. Guzik), technologies for individualization of learning (A.S. Granitskaya, I. Unt, V.D. Shadrikov), promising advanced learning using supporting schemes with commented management (S.N. Lysenkova), group and collective methods of teaching (I.D. Pervin, V.K. Dyachenko), computer (information) technologies, etc. d) Pedagogical technologies based on methodological improvement and didactic reconstruction educational material: consolidation of didactic units (UDE) P.M. Erdnieva, technology “Dialogue of Cultures” B.C. Bibler and S.Yu. Kurganova, system “Ecology and dialectics” L.V. Tarasova, technology for implementing the theory of stage-by-stage formation of mental actions by M.B. Volovich, etc. e) Nature-appropriate, using methods of folk pedagogy, based on the natural processes of child development; training according to L.N. Tolstoy, literacy education according to A. Kushnir, M. Montessori technology, etc. f) Alternative: Waldorf pedagogy by R. Steiner, free labor technology by S. Frenet, technology of probabilistic education by A.M. Pubis. g) Finally, examples of complex polytechnologies are many of the existing systems of copyright schools (of the most famous - “School of Self-Determination” by A. N. Tubelsky, “Russian School” by I.F. Goncharova, “School for everyone” E.A. Yamburg, “School Park” by M. Balaban, etc.

28. Humanistic educational systems and technologies.

The educational system of a school can be authoritarian or humanistic. ^ Humanistic educational system- an educational system focused on the student’s personality, on the development of his abilities, on creating conditions for his self-development, self-realization in an atmosphere of security and pedagogical support. Researchers have identified the characteristics of humanistic educational systems: the presence of a holistic image of their own school shared and accepted by both adults and children, an idea of ​​its past, present and future, its place in the world around it, its specific features; event-based nature in the organization of the life of children and adults, integration of educational influences through their inclusion in collective creative activities; the formation of a healthy lifestyle of an educational institution, in which order, positive values, a major tone, and the dynamism of alternating various life phases (eventfulness and everyday life, holidays and everyday life) predominate; pedagogically appropriate organization of the internal environment of an educational institution - subject-aesthetic, spatial, spiritual, the use of educational opportunities of the external (natural, social, architectural) environment and participation in its pedagogization; implementation of the protective function of the school in relation to the personality of each student and teacher, transformation of the school into a unique community, the life of which is built on the basis of humanistic values. The educational system of the school is created by the efforts of all participants in the pedagogical process: teachers, students, parents, scientists, industry representatives, sponsors, etc.

An important aspect of the problem of educational systems is the idea of ​​​​creating a single educational space, that is, the purposeful development of the environment by the school. This makes the school an “open” educational system. Environmental approach in the theory of educational systems, it is defined as a set of theoretical provisions and actions with the environment, turning it into a means of managing the processes of formation and development of the child’s personality (M.B. Chernova). Each educational system finds its characteristic connection with the surrounding social and natural environment, expanding the range of possibilities for educational influence on the individual. An effective educational system can become the center of education in school and society. The process of formation and functioning of the educational system occurs thanks to targeted management actions for its development. Management activities are impossible without studying and assessing the effectiveness of the educational system.

29. School management and management of educational work. Direction of development of innovative activities in education.

. Intra-school control represents the activity of school leaders together with representatives of public organizations to establish compliance of the school’s educational work system with national requirements and school development plans. Monitoring is conveniently carried out using diagnostic tools.

To assess a school’s progress in its development, the following indicators are usually assessed:

1. Innovative activities of the school: updating the content of education (knowledge of the updated basic and additional components, training and education programs); updating methods and forms of work (reflexive methods of mastering programs, modular and cycloblock system of organizing the educational program; the predominance of group and individual forms of organizing cognitive activity over general class ones); a combination of self-analysis, self-control with self-esteem and assessment of a joint partner cognitive activity.

2. Method of organizing the educational process (ETP): self-government, cooperation of teachers, students, parents in achieving the goals of training, education and development; joint planning and organization of activities of teacher and student as equal partners; high level of motivation of participants in the pedagogical process; a comfortable material-spatial and psychological-pedagogical environment for all participants in the holistic pedagogical process; the right to choose the content of the profile, forms of education for students.

3. The effectiveness of the educational program, the compliance of the final results with the planned ones: a high positive level of education and training of students (above 75%) (readiness and deep knowledge of any field of science, attitude to social norms and the law, attitude to beauty, attitude to oneself).

Along with constant intra-school control (self-control), to ensure a unified state basic level of knowledge, abilities, skills and level of education of schoolchildren, state control of school activities is also carried out. This control is carried out by educational authorities. The object of their inspection (examination) is the management activities of school leaders, and not the work of the teacher. Monitoring the quality of the teacher’s work, the quality of students’ knowledge, and their upbringing is carried out and assessed by the in-school management of the pedagogical process.

Teaching experience - this is a practice that contains elements of creative search, novelty, originality, this is the high skill of the teacher, i.e. such work that gives the best pedagogical result.

Pedagogical innovation – purposeful pedagogical activity based on understanding one’s own pedagogical experience through comparison and study, change and development of the teaching and educational process in order to achieve better results, obtain new knowledge, and introduce different pedagogical practices. Innovation, innovation, aimed at transforming existing forms and methods of education, creating new goals and means of their implementation.

Main difference The difference between innovative education and traditional education is to create conditions for the development of the full potential of the individual, so that the student is ready for any, even unforeseen, future, and is able to adapt to new situations.

Sources the emergence of innovative processes in the practice of an educational institution are:

1) teacher’s intuition;

2) experience born in this school;

3) teaching experience of other schools;

4) regulatory documents;

5) opinion of the consumer of educational services;

6) the needs of the teaching staff to work in a new way, etc.

Innovation acts as a way to solve problems that arise in non-standard situations of the functioning and development of educational processes.

Types of innovation:

On educational technology;

According to the form of organization of the educational process;

In pedagogical practice, the following stages of innovation development are distinguished:

Formation of an idea, development of ways of implementation.

Approbation - testing of what has been invented; confirmation of advantages and correction.

Diffusion of new practices.

Obsolescence of innovation.

Difficulty of assessing innovation : innovation processes are programmed for the future and assessed in the present, i.e. What is assessed is what is not presented, what does not yet exist.

Innovative teaching experience – innovations in teaching activities, changes in the content and technology of training and education, aimed at increasing their effectiveness.

30. The teaching profession and its features. Leaders of the teaching profession.

The uniqueness of the teaching profession. The teaching profession is distinguished from many others primarily by the way of thinking of its representatives, heightened feeling duty and responsibility. In this regard, the teaching profession stands apart, standing out as a separate group. Its main difference from other professions of the “person-to-person” type is that it belongs to both the class of transformative and the class of management professions at the same time. Having the formation and transformation of personality as the goal of his activity, the teacher is called upon to manage the process of his intellectual, emotional and physical development, the formation of her spiritual world. The main content of the teaching profession is relationships with people. In the teaching profession, the leading task is to understand social goals and direct the efforts of other people to achieve them. The peculiarity of training and education as an activity of social management is that it has, as it were, a double subject of labor. On the one hand, its main content is relationships with people: if a leader (and a teacher is one) does not have proper relationships with those people whom he leads or whom he convinces, then the most important thing in his activities is missing. On the other hand, professions of this type always require a person to have special knowledge, skills and abilities in some area (depending on who or what he supervises). A teacher, like any other leader, must know well and imagine the activities of the students whose development process he leads. Thus, the teaching profession requires dual training - human science and special. The uniqueness of the teaching profession lies in the fact that by its nature it has a humanistic, collective and creative character. Humanistic function of the teaching profession. The teaching profession has historically been assigned two social functions - adaptive and humanistic (“human-forming”). The adaptive function is associated with the adaptation of the student to the specific requirements of the modern sociocultural situation, and the humanistic function is associated with the development of his personality and creative individuality. The work of a teacher always contains a humanistic, universal principle. Conscious bringing it to the fore, the desire to serve the future characterized progressive teachers of all times. Thus, a famous teacher and figure in the field of education of the mid-19th century. Friedrich Adolf Wilhelm Diesterweg, who was called the teacher of German teachers, put forward a universal goal of education: service to truth, goodness, beauty. “In every individual, in every nation, a way of thinking called humanity must be instilled: this is the desire for noble universal goals.” In realizing this goal, he believed, a special role belongs to the teacher, who is a living instructive example for the student. His personality earns him respect, spiritual strength and spiritual influence. The value of a school is equal to the value of a teacher. The history of the teaching profession shows that the struggle of advanced teachers to liberate its humanistic, social mission from the pressure of class domination, formalism and bureaucracy, and the conservative professional structure adds drama to the fate of the teacher. This struggle becomes more intense as the social role of the teacher in society becomes more complex. The purely adaptive orientation of a teacher’s activity has an extremely negative impact on himself, since he gradually loses his independence of thinking, subordinates his abilities to official and unofficial instructions, ultimately losing his individuality. The more a teacher subordinates his activities to the formation of the student’s personality, adapted to specific needs, the less he acts as a humanist and moral mentor. And vice versa, even in the conditions of an inhumane class society, the desire of advanced teachers to contrast the world of violence and lies with human care and kindness inevitably resonates in the hearts of students. The collective nature of pedagogical activity. If in other professions of the “person-to-person” group the result, as a rule, is the product of the activity of one person - a representative of the profession (for example, a salesman, doctor, librarian, etc.), then in the teaching profession it is very difficult to isolate the contribution of each teacher, family and other sources of influence in the qualitative transformation of the subject of activity - the student. With the awareness of the natural strengthening of collectivist principles in the teaching profession, the concept of a collective subject of pedagogical activity is increasingly coming into use. The collective subject in a broad sense is understood as the teaching staff of a school or other educational institution, and in a narrower sense - the circle of those teachers who are directly related to a group of students or an individual student. Certain traits of a team are manifested primarily in the mood of its members, their performance, mental and physical well-being. This phenomenon is called the psychological climate of the team. The creative nature of a teacher's work. Pedagogical activity, like any other, has not only a quantitative measure, but also qualitative characteristics. The content and organization of a teacher’s work can be correctly assessed only by determining the level of his creative attitude towards his activities. The level of creativity in a teacher’s activities reflects the degree to which he uses his capabilities to achieve his goals. The creative nature of pedagogical activity is therefore its most important feature. But unlike creativity in other areas (science, technology, art), the teacher’s creativity does not have as its goal the creation of a socially valuable new, original, since its product always remains the development of the individual. Of course, a creative teacher, and even more so an innovative teacher, creates his own pedagogical system, but it is only a means to obtain the best result under given conditions. The creative potential of a teacher’s personality is formed on the basis of his accumulated social experience, psychological, pedagogical and subject knowledge, new ideas, abilities and skills that allow him to find and apply original solutions, innovative forms and methods and thereby improve the performance of his professional functions. Only an erudite and specially trained teacher, based on a deep analysis of emerging situations and awareness of the essence of the problem through creative imagination and thought experiment, is able to find new, original ways and means of solving it. But experience convinces us that creativity comes only then and only to those who work conscientiously and constantly strive to improve their professional qualifications, expand their knowledge and study the experience of the best schools and teachers. The area of ​​manifestation of pedagogical creativity is determined by the structure of the main components of pedagogical activity and covers almost all its aspects: planning, organization, implementation and analysis of results. In modern scientific literature, pedagogical creativity is understood as a process of solving pedagogical problems in changing circumstances. Addressing the solution of an innumerable set of standard and non-standard problems, the teacher, like any researcher, organizes his activities in accordance with the general rules of heuristic search: analysis of the pedagogical situation; designing the result in accordance with the initial data; analysis of the available means necessary to test the assumption and achieve the desired result; evaluation of the received data; formulation of new tasks. However, the creative nature of pedagogical activity cannot be reduced only to the solution of pedagogical problems, because in creative activity the cognitive, emotional-volitional and motivational-need components of the personality are manifested in unity. However, solving specially selected problems aimed at developing any structural components creative thinking(goal setting, analysis that requires overcoming barriers, attitudes, stereotypes, enumeration of options, classification and evaluation, etc.) is the main factor and most important condition for the development of the creative potential of the teacher’s personality. The experience of creative activity does not introduce fundamentally new knowledge and skills into the content of teacher professional training. But this does not mean that creativity cannot be taught. It is possible - by ensuring constant intellectual activity of future teachers and specific creative cognitive motivation, which acts as a regulating factor in the processes of solving pedagogical problems. These can be tasks to transfer knowledge and skills to a new situation, to identify new problems in familiar (typical) situations, to identify new functions, methods and techniques, to combine new methods of activity from known ones, etc. Exercises in analysis also contribute to this. pedagogical facts and phenomena, identifying their components, identifying the rational basis of certain decisions and recommendations. Often teachers involuntarily narrow the scope of creativity, reducing it to non-standard, original solution pedagogical tasks. Meanwhile, the teacher’s creativity is no less evident when solving communicative problems, which serve as a kind of background and basis for pedagogical activity. V. A. Kan-Kalik, highlighting, along with the logical and pedagogical aspect of the teacher’s creative activity, the subjective-emotional one, specifies in detail communication skills, especially manifested when solving situational problems. Among such skills, first of all, one should include the ability to manage one’s mental and emotional state, act in a public setting (assess a communication situation, attract the attention of an audience or individual students, using a variety of techniques, etc.), etc. A creative personality is distinguished by a special combination of personal and business qualities that characterize her creativity. E. S. Gromov and V. A. Molyako name seven signs of creativity: originality, heuristics, imagination, activity, concentration, clarity, sensitivity. A creative teacher is also characterized by such qualities as initiative, independence, the ability to overcome the inertia of thinking, a sense of what is truly new and the desire to understand it, purposefulness, breadth of associations, observation, and developed professional memory. Each teacher continues the work of his predecessors, but the creative teacher sees wider and much further. Every teacher, in one way or another, transforms pedagogical reality, but only the creative teacher actively fights for radical changes and himself is a clear example in this matter.

In Russian psychology and pedagogy today the words “personal self-realization”, “self-actualization”, “personal growth”, etc. have become very common, even fashionable. The ideas of self-realization, personal growth and many others did not arise on their own.

In addition to our innate biological pattern of growth and development, humans have a tendency toward psychological growth and development. This tendency has been described by many psychologists as a person's desire for self-actualization: the desire to understand oneself and the need to realize one's abilities to the fullest.

Personality theory

Classical Freudianism is pessimistic in its view of human nature, proceeding from the fact that human nature is negative - asocial and destructive. Moreover, the person himself cannot cope with this, and this problem can only be solved with the help of a psychoanalyst. Accordingly, within the framework of psychoanalysis, the concept of “personal growth” is impossible and does not exist.

The existential approach of W. Frankl and J. Bugental takes a more cautious view of man, which proceeds from the fact that initially a person does not possess an essence, but acquires it as a result of self-creation, and positive actualization is not guaranteed, but is the result of a person’s own free and responsible choice .

A fairly common position (behaviorism and most approaches in Soviet psychology) is that a person does not have a natural essence, initially he is a neutral object of formative external influences, on which the “essence” acquired by a person depends. In this approach about personal growth in the exact sense it is difficult to speak, we can rather talk about the possibility personal development.

According to the views of Christian anthropology, the nature of human nature after the Fall of Adam is in a perverted state, and his “self” is not a personal potential, but a barrier between man and God, as well as between people. The Christian ideal of a simple, humble and chaste person is infinitely far from the humanistic ideal of a self-realizing, self-sufficient person successfully adapting in this world, enjoying the current moment, believing in the “power of human capabilities.”

According to Orthodox teaching, the human soul not only strives for the highest, but is also subject to an inclination towards sin, which does not lie on the periphery of spiritual life, but strikes its very depth, perverting all movements of the spirit.

In NLP, the concept of “personal growth” is not used, since this approach only models successful technologies and fundamentally refuses to solve the questions “what really is in human nature.”

At one time, Max Otto argued: “The deepest source of human philosophy, the source that nourishes and shapes it, is faith or lack of faith in humanity. If a person has confidence in people and believes that with their help he can achieve something meaningful, then he will acquire such views on life and on the world that will be in harmony with his trust.

Lack of trust will give rise to corresponding ideas" (cited from: Horney K., 1993, p. 235). From this, in particular, it follows that in any concept, in addition to the usually identified theoretical and practical components, there is always (but not always realized and stated ) another one - value component. It is this axiomatic credo that is the real foundation of conceptual constructions.

If we apply the criterion of faith and disbelief in a person to the main psychological theories, then they will be quite clearly divided into two groups (alas - unequal): those who “trust” human nature (i.e., humanistically oriented) and those who “distrust.” However, within each group, in turn, very significant differences can be found, so it makes sense to introduce another division:

1. In the group of “distrusters” (pessimists) there is a tougher position, asserting that human nature is negative - asocial and destructive, and that a person himself cannot cope with this; and there is a softer one, according to which a person, in general, does not have a natural essence and initially he is a neutral object of formative external influences, on which the “essence” acquired by a person depends;

2. In the group of “trusters” (optimists) there is also a more radical point of view, which affirms the unconditionally positive, kind and constructive essence of a person, inherent in the form of potential, which is revealed under appropriate conditions; and there is a more cautious view of a person, which proceeds from the fact that initially a person does not possess an essence, but acquires it as a result of self-creation, and positive actualization is not guaranteed, but is the result of a person’s own free and responsible choice; this position can be called conditionally positive .

In accordance with the basic setting and solution to the problem of a person’s essence, the question of “what to do” with this essence is resolved so that a person becomes “better”, how to properly develop and educate him (this, of course, is what all psychologists are concerned with, although this itself “ "better" is understood very differently). This question about the meaning of education is fundamentally resolved as follows:

If a person’s essence is negative, then it must be corrected; if it does not exist, it must be created, constructed and “invested” in a person (in both cases, the main guideline is the so-called interests of society); if she is positive, she needs to be helped to open up; if the essence is acquired through free choice, then it should be helped to make this choice (in the last two cases, the interests of the person himself are put at the forefront).

More schematically, the typology of basic implicit attitudes in the world of psychological concepts can be presented in the form of a table:

So it's obvious that the concept of personal growth and self-realization is a logical continuation of the view of man in humanistic psychology and is inherently incompatible with approaches that do not trust a person, correct, form, etc. IN Lately Several approaches to human nature and functioning become more significant:

Cognitive psychology

The human potential movement

Women's psychology

Eastern ideas

Cognitive psychology

Cognitive psychology analyzes how the mind functions and appreciates the variety and complexity of human behavior. If we can better understand how we think, observe, focus, and remember, we will gain a clearer understanding of how these cognitive building blocks contribute to fears and illusions, creativity, and all the behaviors and mental expressions that make us by what we are.

The first cognitive psychologist, George Kelly, pointed out the importance of making intellectual sense of our experiences. According to Kelly, all people are scientists. They formulate theories and hypotheses about themselves and others and, like professional scientists, sometimes cling to a favorite theory despite mounting evidence indicating its failure.

Because people construct meaning in their lives from the earliest stages of individual development, they often do not later realize that there are many ways to change themselves and the way they relate to the world. Reality is not as immutable as we tend to believe, if only we can find ways to bring a little freedom into it. People can reconstruct (reinterpret, reconstrue) reality.

We are not at all forced to accept the color of the corner into which their lives are driven, and this discovery often brings a feeling of freedom. Kelly offers a view of man as being in a constant process of change, and according to which the root of all problems is the obstacle to changing oneself. Thus, Kelly created a theory of action with the goal of opening up a constantly changing world for man, presenting him with both difficulties to overcome and opportunities for growth.

Eastern personality theories

This trend can be traced throughout the development of psychology, but recently it has increasingly become a field of international research, less dependent on American and Western European intellectual and philosophical hypotheses. These Eastern theories were created in societies and value systems that are often sharply different from Europe and the United States. The beliefs and ideals of these cultures enrich our understanding of what it means to be a human being.

Since the 1960s. Americans began to show increasing interest in Eastern thought. Many courses, books and organizations have appeared based on various Eastern teachings. Many Westerners, in search of new values, striving for personal and spiritual growth, devote their time to intensive study and practice of one or another Eastern system.

Eastern theories include powerful concepts and effective techniques for personal and spiritual development. In the West, these teachings become the object of both scientific research and practical application.

Asian types of psychology emphasize mainly existential and transpersonal levels, paying little attention to pathology. They contain detailed descriptions of various states of consciousness, levels of development and stages of enlightenment that go beyond traditional Western psychological frameworks. Moreover, they claim to possess techniques with which to induce these states.

The common origin of yoga, Zen and Sufism is the need to explain the relationship between religious practice and everyday life. Spiritual guides were among the first psychologists, both in the West and in the East. They wanted to understand the emotional and personal dynamics of their students, as well as their spiritual needs. In order to understand the issues that their students faced, they first turned to their own experience - a principle that, as we see, is still revered today in the educational psychoanalysis that many psychotherapists undergo.

These systems do differ from most Western personality theories in their increased interest in values ​​and moral issues and their emphasis on the purpose of living in accordance with certain spiritual norms. They argue that we must live according to a certain moral law because a morally regulated life has a direct, visible and beneficial effect on our consciousness and general well-being.

However, all three of these psychological systems take a practical, even “iconoclastic” approach to morality and values. Each of these traditions points out the futility and foolishness of placing more emphasis on outer form than on inner function. At the core of these types of psychology, like their Western counterparts, is a careful study of human experience. Over the centuries, they have compiled empirical observations of the psychological, physiological, and spiritual effects of a variety of ideas, attitudes, behaviors, and exercises.

The credo of each system is based on personal experience and the insights of its founders. The vitality and relevance of these traditional psychological systems is maintained by the constant testing, refinement, and modification of those primary insights to suit new contexts and interpersonal situations, as well as different cultural environments. In other words, these centuries-old psychological systems remain relevant while continuing to change and develop.

Carl Jung wrote: “Knowledge of Eastern psychology... forms the necessary basis for a critical and objective examination of Western psychology” (in: Shamdasani, 1996, p. XLXI). Thus, the comprehensive development of psychology requires the study and understanding of Eastern thinking.

All of these systems emphasize transpersonal growth, or growth beyond the ego and personality. They share in common with transpersonal psychology the idea that through meditation or other mind-altering exercises, one can achieve deep states of awareness that go beyond (trans) our everyday, personal experience.

In contrast, Western psychologists tend to view growth from the point of view of strengthening the ego: achieving greater independence, independence, self-realization, getting rid of neurotic processes and improving the psyche. However, the concepts of transpersonal growth and ego strengthening may be complementary rather than contradictory.

Human Development Movement

The human development movement emerged in the 1950s and 1960s. primarily at the Esalen Institute in California and at the National Training Laboratories in Maine and relied largely on the theories of Rogers and Maslow. At the moment it is a widespread cultural phenomenon.

Growth or training centers exist in most major cities, typically offering intensive, often truly immersive weekend or weeklong workshops that include various types of group psychotherapy, physical exercise, meditation and spiritual practices.

The understanding of personal growth presented later in this section is mainly based on the concept of one of the leaders of the “movement for the development of human potential” Carl Rogers - his person-centered approach. (It is important to keep in mind that one of the distinctive features of this direction in psychology is the absence of a rigid conceptual scheme, strict definitions and unambiguous interpretations; its representatives recognize the inexhaustibility of the mystery of man, the relativity and a priori incompleteness of our ideas about him and do not pretend to be the completeness of the theory ).

Personality structure and levels of development

In the very general view personality is a person as a subject of his own life, responsible for interaction both with the outside world, including other people, and with the inner world, with himself. Personality is internal system human self-regulation. Personality is formed on the basis of innate biological prerequisites and social experience acquired in the process of life, as well as active objective activity. Personality is relatively stable, but at the same time it changes as a result of adaptation to a constantly changing environment.

Since both biological prerequisites and individual experience are unique, each personality is also individual and unique. It has a unique structure that combines all the psychological properties of a given person. However, there are also general patterns that make it possible to study, understand and partially change personality. In the personality structure, three components can be distinguished, the content of which indicates its maturity:

Cognitive component - includes a person’s ideas about himself, others and the world; A mature healthy personality is distinguished by:

• Evaluates himself as an active subject of life, making free choices and bearing responsibility for them

  Perceives other people as unique and equal participants in the life process

  Perceives the world as a constantly changing, and therefore always new and interesting space for realizing one’s potential

The emotional component of a mature healthy personality includes:

• The ability to trust one’s feelings and consider them as the basis for choosing behavior, i.e. confidence that the world really is as it seems and the person himself is capable of making and implementing the right decisions

  Acceptance of oneself and others, sincere interest in other people

  Interest in perceiving the world, first of all, its positive sides

  The ability to experience strong positive and negative emotions that correspond to the real situation

The behavioral component consists of actions towards oneself, other people and the world. In a mature healthy person:

• Actions are aimed at self-knowledge, self-development, self-realization

  Behavior towards others is based on goodwill and respect for their personality

  In relation to the world, behavior is aimed at increasing and sometimes restoring its resources through one’s creative activity in the process of self-realization and careful handling of existing ones

The personality structure can be divided into four levels:

The first level is biological basis, which includes age, gender properties of the psyche, innate properties of the nervous system and temperament. This level is almost impossible to conscious self-regulation and training.

The second level of personality organization includes individual characteristics of psychological processes person, i.e. individual manifestations of memory, perception, sensations, thinking, emotions, abilities. This level depends both on congenital factors and on individual experience, on training, development, and improvement of these qualities.

The third level of personality constitutes it individual social experience, which includes the knowledge, skills, abilities and habits acquired by a person. They are social in nature, formed in the process of communication, joint activity, learning and, accordingly, can be changed with the help of targeted training.

The fourth, highest level of personality, the inner core, constitutes it value orientations. The simplest definition of value orientations is ideal ideas about what is good. In a more general sense, value orientations are the basis for a subjective (internal, one’s own) assessment of reality, a way of dividing objects according to their subjective significance. Every thing or phenomenon acquires a personal meaning insofar as it corresponds or does not correspond to the needs and values ​​of a particular person.

Value orientations determine a person’s general approach to the world and himself, and give meaning and direction to the individual’s social position. Their stable and consistent structure determines such personality qualities as integrity, reliability, loyalty to certain principles and ideals, the ability to make volitional efforts in the name of these ideals and values, an active life position, and perseverance in achieving goals. It is obvious that the value orientations of an independent person may not coincide with some of the values ​​existing in the public consciousness.

Inconsistency in the value system gives rise to inconsistency in judgment and behavior. Underdevelopment and uncertainty of value orientations are signs of infantilism, the dominance of external stimuli over internal motivations in the personality structure. It is relatively easy for such individuals to be inspired with anything, and they can be easily persuaded to any behavior under the guise of personal or social benefit.

Value orientations influence a stable system of drives, desires, interests, inclinations, ideals and views, as well as a person’s beliefs, his worldview, self-esteem and character traits. Value orientations are formed on the basis of everything life experience person, but are only partially realized. Their targeted correction is possible as a result of serious training and entails a restructuring of the entire personality.

In society, human behavior does not unfold spontaneously, but within the framework of social roles. Roles are stable places in the system of relationships with other people (for example: student, teacher, wife, buyer, etc.). Ideas about external manifestations of roles are based on socio-cultural norms, restrictions and expectations. In other words, in accordance with the social norms accepted in a given culture, each person in any role receives certain rights, certain restrictions are imposed on him, and certain behavior is expected of him.

For example, a doctor in his office may ask a patient to openly talk about himself, undress, etc. At the same time, he must wear a white coat and behave correctly. He is expected to pay attention to the patient and have a fairly high level of professional knowledge. The same person, after work, entering the store, finds himself in the role of a buyer with completely different rights, restrictions and expectations.

A person may accept roles and meet expectations, or may not accept them - out of principle (teenagers), out of ignorance, or due to character traits. Compliance with role expectations and the ability to accept the role of another form the basis of conflict-free and social adaptation person. The ability to take on a useful role and successfully resist the imposition of an unnecessary role are important social skills that can be developed through training.

Although personality is something holistic, its different traits manifest themselves in different life situations. A trait is a person's predisposition to behave in a similar way under different circumstances. A personality trait is something that determines constant, stable, typical characteristics of human behavior. For example, a person who is shy or has leadership tendencies will only exhibit these traits when around other people, but will display them whenever possible.

A person is not a passive “carrier” of certain traits; he does not simply react in a certain, inherent way to a situation; rather, on the contrary, the situations in which a person finds himself most often are, as a rule, the very situations in which he actively strives to get there (although he may not realize it). For example, talkative person seeks communication and finds it, and a person prone to risk finds himself in “unexpected” adventures. Personality traits “build” an individual’s actions.

Each personality trait is only relatively independent of the others. There is no sharp boundary separating one feature from another. The same person may have contradictory traits that manifest themselves in different situations. For example, a person can be kind, gentle and tactful with loved ones, but tough and rude with other people.

In a person’s behavior, in his relationships with others, certain, most significant and stable features of his personality always come to the fore. These most pronounced, closely interrelated personality qualities are called character. Character is clearly manifested in various types of activities, determined and formed throughout a person’s life.

The character of an adult is very stable. It is difficult to significantly change it with the help of training. But a person can be taught, firstly, to become aware of his character traits, and secondly, to analyze the situation and manifest or restrain certain traits, that is, to make behavior more adaptive. The expression of certain personality traits in a person is manifested not only in everyday communication, but also in professional activity. The presence of professionally important qualities in a person largely determines his success and satisfaction with his profession.

In order to understand a person’s character in everyday life, and even more so the personality as a whole, you need to observe him for a very long time in various situations (“to eat a pound of salt with him”).

Self-image

Observations and testing provide a more or less objective view of a person from the outside. For the person himself, his own view of himself is very important, especially since, as a rule, a person, especially a young person, is poorly aware of his own personality traits and character. Self-awareness is a person’s awareness and assessment of himself as an individual, his interests, values ​​and motives of behavior. Developing self-awareness is one of the goals of personal growth training.

On the basis of self-awareness, a person develops a “I-image” (“I-concept”) - how the individual sees himself and wants to see himself. “I-image” includes the individual’s idea of ​​himself, his physical and psychological characteristics: appearance, abilities, interests, inclinations, self-esteem, self-confidence, etc. Based on the “I-image,” a person distinguishes himself from the outside world and from other people.

In addition, the “I-image” includes ideas about one’s capabilities and self-esteem of one’s personality. The “I-image” can be adequate (i.e., more or less correspond to reality) or significantly distorted, which is very difficult for a person to determine. In any case, a person strives for stability of his “I-image”. People tend to ignore or consider information false if it does not correspond to their self-image and agree with erroneous or even false data that corresponds to the “I-image”.

The enormous significance of the “I-image” in a person’s life is that it is the center of his inner world, the “starting point” from which a person perceives and evaluates everything. the world and plans his own behavior.

For example, it is well known that the same color can be “bright and cheerful” to one person and “dull and dull” to another; The sounds of your favorite music may seem too quiet, but a person who does not like the same music may find it too loud; this or that event can be assessed as good or bad depending on whether it is useful to a person or harmful, etc. “Objective judgment” is, as a rule, a myth, a delusion. Any judgment of a person is refracted through his “I-concept”.

The “I-image” as a whole includes three main dimensions: the present “I” (how a person sees himself at the moment), the desired “I” (how he would like to see himself), the imagined “I” (how he shows himself to others). All three dimensions coexist in the personality, ensuring its integrity and development. Complete coincidence between them is impossible, but too strong a discrepancy leads to severe intrapersonal conflict, disagreement with oneself.

The person with the greatest success and pleasure performs that social role, in which he can bring these three dimensions of the “I-image” together to the greatest extent. In particular, love for a profession and a craving for a professional role arise if a person is convinced that he can successfully fulfill his duties, sees prospects for professional growth, and his actions are positively assessed by others. If at least one of their components is missing, the person does not experience psychological satisfaction and seeks to change the situation - change his place of work or profession.

In psychology, it is customary to distinguish two forms of “I-image” - real and ideal. IN in this case“real form” does not mean that this image corresponds to reality. This is a person’s idea of ​​himself, of “what I am here and now.” The ideal “I-image” is a person’s idea of ​​himself in accordance with his desires, “what I would like to be.” These forms are different in most cases.

The discrepancy between real and ideal “I-images” can have various consequences. It can become a source of serious intrapersonal conflicts, but, on the other hand, it is also a stimulus for personal self-improvement and the desire for development. It all depends on how the person himself evaluates this discrepancy: as a prospect, hope or a pipe dream.

Despite the fact that the “I-image” is quite stable, it does not remain constant throughout life. Its formation, development and change can be associated with both internal causes and external influences of the social environment.

Internal factor - a person’s desire for self-development.

Self-development is a person’s conscious activity aimed at achieving the fullest possible realization of oneself as an individual. It presupposes the presence of clearly realized life goals, ideals and personal attitudes.

External influence on changing the “I-image” provided by numerous formal and informal groups in which the individual is included. The source of information on the basis of which a person forms his “I-image” is, to a large extent, the perception of how others think about him and how he is assessed by others. A person, as it were, looks at his behavior and his inner world through the eyes of others.

However, not all people with whom a person communicates have the same influence on him. A special role belongs to “significant others”. A “significant other” is that person whose attention and approval or disapproval is important to a person. The most clearly noticeable influence is the positive “significant other” whom a person wants to imitate, whose instructions and roles he is ready to accept. But there are also negative “significant others” - people with whom a person tries to avoid resemblance.

“Significant others” can be parents, mentors, some participants in children’s games and, possibly, popular personalities. Thus, the process of socialization through a “significant other” occurs. (Note that some “significant others” may not be physically present, but may be characters from books or films, historical figures, famous athletes, etc. Then their reactions are imaginary, but no less effective.)

Personal qualities are nothing more than components of character, its characteristics. The development of personal qualities contributes to the fulfillment of a person, making him versatile. Personal qualities allow you to react correctly to external stimuli and, despite everything, succeed in your activities. This is a way to effectively use internal resources.

Level of development of personal qualities

Each person is born with a certain character and set of personal qualities that determine behavioral characteristics and life priorities. Throughout life, some qualities change under the influence of various factors, some remain for life.

Psychologists say that the main stages of character formation occur in the first five years of life, then they are slightly adjusted based on life circumstances.

The main indicators and criteria that form the level of personal development include: the ability to take an active life position, the level of responsibility, the direction of the way of life, the level of culture and intelligence, the ability to manage emotions.

Many aspects of life depend on personal qualities, starting with the choice and ending with the priority of activities for. If a person realizes the need for a higher quality standard of living, he will try to achieve what he wants. Personal qualities such as the ability to adequately assess reality and one’s capabilities help with this. Even if a person’s innate characteristics are not at the highest level, but with awareness of one’s individuality, there is always the opportunity to decide on an activity that will most fully reveal a person’s abilities. Moreover, if desired, there is always the opportunity to develop personal qualities.

The development of a child begins with his birth. This is a multilateral process of interaction between parents, society and self-development. The main responsibility, of course, rests with the family. Here begins the knowledge of oneself as a separate individual, learns different options for interaction with other people and options for responses.

Today, the opinion has become established that all manifestations of human character are acquired in early childhood. At this time, three key groups of personality traits are formed. Depending on the period of life, the formation of methods, styles of behavior and tools for interaction with other people occurs.

Factors in the development of personal qualities

As soon as a child begins to perceive himself as a separate individual, begins to realize his place in the world around him, the process of developing basic qualities begins, including this is influenced by the development of the sensory sphere of life. There are several key factors that indicate the beginning of the process:

• active and appropriate use of personal pronouns;

• possession of self-care and self-control skills;

• the ability to describe one’s experiences and explain the motivation for actions.

Age of onset of personality development

Based on the above, the age of onset of personality formation becomes clear. Psychologists indicate an age of two to three years. However, it cannot be said that nothing happens until this moment. There is active preparation and formation of individual preferences, communication abilities, and temperament. By the age of five, the child fully perceives himself as a separate person with individual characteristics, who is in an active relationship with the surrounding reality.

A person is influenced not only by his family, but also by society, school, and friends. This environment certainly leaves its mark on the behavior and formation of the child. However, only close people can lay the foundation. They are the ones who set guidelines and show ways of interaction within the family and with other people. Since the child is not yet familiar with the rules of behavior in society, he focuses on his relatives and takes an example from them. Therefore, very often there are many common features in children with their parents. Often the child completely copies the behavioral model of the parents.

For the successful functioning of the pedagogical system, a carefully thought-out “debugging” of all its components is necessary. Any modern pedagogical technology is a synthesis of the achievements of pedagogical science and practice, a combination of traditional elements of past experience and what is born of social progress, humanization and democratization of society

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"Personal development educational technologies»

Peregudova Ekaterina Eduardovna

Saint Petersburg

2015

The concept of “teaching technology” is not generally accepted in traditional pedagogy today. In UNESCO documents, educational technology is considered as a systematic method of creating, applying and defining the entire process of teaching and learning, taking into account technical and human resources and their interaction, with the goal of optimizing forms of education.

On the one hand, teaching technology is a set of methods and means of processing, presenting, changing and presenting educational information; on the other hand, it is the science of the ways in which a teacher influences students during the learning process using the necessary technical or information means. In teaching technology, the content, methods and means of teaching are interconnected and interdependent. The pedagogical skill of the teacher is to select the necessary content, apply best practices and teaching aids in accordance with the program and assigned educational objectives. Educational technology is a system category, the structural components of which are:

ü learning objectives;

ü means of pedagogical interaction;

ü organization of the educational process;

ü student, teacher;

ü result of activity.

The sources of pedagogical technology are the achievements of pedagogical, psychological and social sciences, advanced pedagogical experience, folk pedagogy, all the best that has been accumulated in domestic and foreign pedagogy of past years.

For the successful functioning of the pedagogical system, a carefully thought-out “debugging” of all its components is necessary. Any modern pedagogical technology is a synthesis of the achievements of pedagogical science and practice, a combination of traditional elements of past experience and what is born of social progress, humanization and democratization of society.

The same technology in the hands of different performers can look different each time: here the presence of the personal component of the master, the characteristics of the student population, their general mood and the psychological climate in the class is inevitable. The results achieved by different teachers using the same technology will be different, but close to a certain average index characterizing the technology in question. That is, pedagogical technology is mediated by personality properties, but is not determined by them.

The concept of “pedagogical technology” is broader than the concept of “teaching methodology”. Technology answers the question - how the best way achieve irradiation goals and control this process. The technology is aimed at consistently putting into practice a pre-planned learning process.

Designing educational technology involves choosing the optimal system of educational technologies for specific conditions. It requires the study of individual personality characteristics and the selection of activities that are adequate to the age stage of students’ development and their level of preparedness.

Classification of educational technologies

Several classifications of pedagogical technologies are presented in the pedagogical literature - V. G. Gulchevskaya, V. T. Fomenko, T. I. Shamova and T. M. Davydenko. In the most generalized form, all technologies known in pedagogical science and practice were systematized by G. K. Selevko. Below is a brief description of the classification groups compiled by the author of the system.

By level of applicationgeneral pedagogical, specific-total (subject) and local (modular) technologies are distinguished.

On a philosophical basis:materialistic and idealistic, dialectical and metaphysical, scientific (scientist) and religious, humanistic and inhumane, anthroposophical and theosophical, pragmatic and existentialist, free education and coercion, and other varieties.

According to the leading factor of mental development:biogenic, sociogenic, psychogenic idealistic technologies. Today it is generally accepted that personality is the result of the combined influence of biogenic, sociogenic and psychogenic factors, but a specific technology can take into account or rely on any of them, consider it the main one.

In principle, there are no such monotechnologies that would use only one single factor, method, principle - pedagogical technology is always complex. However, due to its emphasis on one or another aspect of the learning process, technology becomes characteristic and gets its name.

According to the scientific concept of learning experienceThe following are distinguished: associative-reflexive, behavioristic, gestalt technologies, interiorization, developmental. We can also mention the less common technologies of neurolinguistic programming and suggestive ones.

By orientation to personal structures:information technologies (formation of school knowledge, abilities, skills in subjects - ZUN); operational (formation of methods of mental action - SUD); emotional-artistic and emotional-moral (formation of the sphere of aesthetic and moral relations - SEN), technologies of self-development (formation of self-governing mechanisms of personality - SUM); heuristic (development of creative abilities) and income (formation of an effective practical sphere - SDP).

By the nature of the content and structuretechnologies are called: teaching and educational, secular and religious, general education and professionally oriented, humanitarian and technocratic, various industry-specific, private-subject, as well as mono-technologies, complex (polytechnologies) and penetrating technologies.

In monotechnologies, the entire educational process is built on any one priority, dominant idea or concept; in complex technologies, it is combined from elements of various monotechnologies. Technologies, the elements of which are most often included in other technologies and play the role of catalysts and activators for them, are called penetrating.

By type of organization and management of cognitive activityV. P. Bespalko proposed such a classification of pedagogical systems (technologies). The interaction of a teacher with a student (control) can be open (uncontrolled and uncorrected activity of students), cyclical (with control, self-control and mutual control), scattered (frontal) or directed (individual) and, finally, manual (verbal) or automated (with the help of teaching aids). The combination of these features determines the following types of technologies (according to V.P. Bespalko - didactic systems):

ü classical lecture training (control - open-loop, scattered, manual);

ü training with the help of audiovisual technical means (open-ended, dispersed, automated);

ü “consultant” system (open-loop, directional, manual);

ü training with the help of a textbook (open-ended, directed, automated) - independent work;

ü system of “small groups” (cyclical, scattered, manual) - group, differentiated teaching methods;

ü computer training (cyclical, scattered, automated);

ü “tutor” system (cyclical, directed, manual) ~ individual training;

ü “programmed training” (cyclical, directed, automated), for which there is a pre-compiled program.

ü In practice, various combinations of these “monodidactic” systems are usually used, the most common of which are:

ü the traditional classical classroom-lesson system of Ya. A. Komensky, representing a combination of the lecture method of presentation and independent work with the book (didachography);

ü modern traditional teaching using didachography in combination with technical means;

ü group and differentiated teaching methods, when the teacher has the opportunity to exchange information with the entire group, as well as pay attention to individual students as a tutor;

ü programmed training based on adaptive program control with partial use of all other types.

A fundamentally important aspect in educational technology isthe child’s position in the educational process, the attitude of adults towards the child. There are several types of technologies here.

a) Authoritarian technologies, in which the teacher is the sole subject of the educational process, and the student is only an “object”, a “cog”. They are distinguished by the rigid organization of school life, the suppression of initiative and independence of students, and the use of demands and coercion.

b) They are characterized by a high degree of inattention to the child’s personalitydidactocentric technologies, in which the subject-object relationship of teacher and student also dominates, the priority of teaching over upbringing, and didactic means are considered the most important factors in the formation of personality. Didactocentric technologies are called technocratic in a number of sources; however, the latter term, unlike the first, refers more to the nature of the content rather than to the style of pedagogical relations.

V) Personality-oriented technologiesThey place the child’s personality at the center of the entire school educational system, ensuring comfortable, conflict-free and safe conditions for its development, and the realization of its natural potential. The personality of the child in this technology is not only a subject, but a priority subject; it is the goal of the educational system, and not a means of achieving any abstract goal (which is the case in authoritarian and didactocentric technologies). Such technologies are also called anthropocentric.

Thus, personality-oriented technologies are characterized by anthropocentricity, humanistic and psychotherapeutic orientation and have the goal of versatile, free and creative development child.

Within the framework of personality-oriented technologies, humane-personal technologies, technologies of cooperation and technologies of free education are distinguished as independent directions.

G) Humane-personal technologiesThey are distinguished primarily by their humanistic essence, psychotherapeutic focus on supporting the individual and helping her. They, rejecting coercion, “confess” the ideas of comprehensive respect and love for the child, an optimistic faith in his creative powers.

d) Collaboration Technologiesimplement democracy, equality, partnership in the subjective relations of the teacher and the child. The teacher and students jointly develop goals, the content of the lesson, and give assessments, being in a state of cooperation and co-creation.

e) Technologies of free educationThey focus on providing the child with freedom of choice and independence in more or less areas of his life. When making a choice, the child realizes the position of the subject in the best way, going to the result from internal motivation, and not from external influence.

and) Esoteric technologiesbased on the doctrine of esoteric ("unconscious", subconscious) knowledge - Truth and the paths leading to it. The pedagogical process is not a message, not communication, but an introduction to the Truth. In the esoteric paradigm, the person himself (the child) becomes the center of information interaction with the Universe.

The method, method, and means of teaching determine the names of many existing technologies: dogmatic, reproductive, explanatory and illustrative, programmed learning, problem-based learning, developmental learning, self-development learning, dialogical, communicative, gaming, creative, etc.

• mass (traditional) school technology, designed for the average student;
• advanced level technologies (in-depth study of subjects, gymnasium, lyceum, special education, etc.);
• technologies of compensatory education (pedagogical correction, support, alignment, etc.);
• various victimological technologies (surdo-, ortho-, typhlo-, oligophrenopedagogy);
• technologies for working with deviant (difficult and gifted) children within the framework of a public school.

And finally, the names of the large class modern technologies are determined by the content of those modernizations and modifications to which the existing traditional system is subjected.

In the direction of modernizationIn the traditional system, the following groups of technologies can be distinguished.

a) Pedagogical technologies based on humanization and democratization of pedagogical relations. These are technologies with a procedural orientation, a priority of personal relationships, an individual approach, non-rigid democratic management and a strong humanistic orientation of the content. These include the pedagogy of cooperation, the humane-personal technology of Sh. A. Amonashvili, the system of teaching literature as a subject that shapes a person, E. N. Ilyin, etc.

b) Pedagogical technologies based on the activation and intensification of students’ activities. Examples: gaming technologies, problem-based learning, learning technology based on notes of reference signals by V. F. Shatalova, communicative learning by E. I. Passova, etc.

c) Pedagogical technologies based on the efficiency of organization and management of the learning process. Examples: programmed learning, differentiated learning technologies (V.V. Firsov, N.P. Guzik), technologies for individualization of learning (A.S. Granitskaya, I. Unt, V.D. Shadrikov), promising advanced learning using supporting schemes with commented control (S. N. Lysenkova), group and collective teaching methods (I. D. Pervin, V. K. Dyachenko), computer (information) technologies, etc.

d) Pedagogical technologies based on methodological improvement and didactic reconstruction" of educational material: consolidation of didactic units (UDE) by P. M. Erdniev, technology "Dialogue of Cultures" by V. S. Bibler and S. Yu. Kurganov, system "Ecology and Dialectics" L. V. Tarasova, technology for implementing the theory of stage-by-stage formation of mental actions by M. B. Volovich, etc.

e) Nature-appropriate, using methods of folk pedagogy, based on the natural processes of child development: teaching according to L. N. Tolstoy, literacy education according to A. Kushnir, M. Montessori technology, etc.

f) Alternative: Waldorf pedagogy by R. Steiner, technology of free labor S: Frenet, technology of probabilistic education by A. M. Lobka.

g) Finally, examples of complex polytechnologies are many of the existing systems of copyright schools (the most famous are “School of Self-Determination” by A. N. Tubelsky, “Russian School” by I. F. Goncharov, “School for All” by E. A. Yamburg, "School Park" by M. Balaban and others).

Technology that involves building the educational process on a conceptual basis

The conceptual framework assumes:

Isolation of a single basis;

Isolation of cross-cutting ideas of the course;

Isolation of interdisciplinary ideas.

Technology that involves building the educational process on a large-block basis

This technology is an alternative to those technologies that focus on the sequential construction of learning. The latter is well illustrated by such an example as the sequential study of personal, definitely personal, generalized personal, indefinitely personal, impersonal sentences in the Russian language course. It is carried out over a number of lessons. Since a pattern can be seen between sentences - an increase in certainty, this allows all sentences to be studied in one lesson, which will give better results.

Large-block technology (scientific development by N. Erdniev and V. Shatalov) involves a number of didactically interesting techniques; for example, combining several rules, definitions, characteristics in one definition, one characteristic, which increases their information capacity.

This technology has its own requirements for the use of visual aids in teaching. We are talking about saving in time and space associatively related diagrams, drawings, diagrams. The widely used reference signals are based on this (symmetry, semi-symmetry, asymmetry). Combining material into very large blocks (instead of 80-100 educational topics - 7-8 blocks) can lead to a new organizational structure of the educational process. Instead of a lesson, the main organizational unit can be a school day (biological, literary). This creates the opportunity for students to become more deeply immersed in the subject being studied. Four lessons, for example, literature, 30 minutes each. M. Shchetinin repeats subject weeks three or four times during the school year.

Technology that involves building the educational process on a proactive basis

Classical didactics is focused on learning from the known to the unknown: go forward, so to speak, while looking back. The new didactics, without denying the path of movement from the known to the unknown, at the same time substantiates the principle of cross-activity of the teacher, on the line of which there are anticipatory tasks, anticipatory observations and anticipatory experiments as varieties of anticipatory tasks set out with elements of anticipatory action. The above together is called advance; it contributes effective preparation students to perceive new material, activates their cognitive activity, increases learning motivation, and performs other pedagogical functions.

The idea of ​​advance, which formed the basis of S. Lysenkova’s training, was called genius by S. Soloveichik. In contrast to the two-line logical structure of a lesson, characteristic of large-block teaching, advanced technology has a three-line lesson structure. A lesson built on an anticipatory basis includes both studied and completed material, as well as future material. A new system of concepts for didactics is emerging that reveals the essence of advance: frequency of advance, length or range of advance (near advance - within a lesson, average - within a system of lessons, distant - within a training course, interdisciplinary advances).

A capable and experienced teacher sees the future, knows not only his subject, feels with some sixth sense how his students are inclined, and strives to work according to a proactive system.

Technology that involves building the educational process on a problem-based basis

Personal development pedagogical technologies

Common explanatory and reproductive technologies are not able to ensure the development and self-development of students. They can provide an increase in knowledge, skills, and abilities, but not an increase in development. To ensure development, it is necessary to introduce the educational process “into the zone of proximal development” (L. Vygotsky, L. Zankov). This is what problem-based learning does. It presupposes the presence of special, internally contradictory, problematic content; But this is not enough for learning to become problematic.

Problems with objective necessity must arise in the minds of students through a problem situation.

Problematic technology involves revealing the method that will lead to problematic knowledge. Therefore, the student should leave the lesson with a problem.

Let us only pay attention to the fact that the logical structure of the problem lesson is not linear in nature (one-, two-, three-linear), but more complex - a spiral-shaped, “curvilinear” form. The logic of the educational process is very visible here. If at the beginning of the lesson, suppose, a problem is posed, and the subsequent course of the lesson is aimed at solving the problem, then the teacher and students will periodically have to return to the beginning of the lesson, to how the problem was posed.

A technology that involves building the educational process on a situational, primarily game basis

There is too much of a gap between academic and practical activities, which imitate reality and thereby help to fit the educational process into the context of children’s real life activities.

Technology that involves building the educational process on a dialogue basis

Dialogue, as we know, is opposed to the teacher's monologue, which is still widespread. The value of dialogue is that the teacher’s question evokes in students not only and not so much an answer, but, in turn, a question. The teacher and students act on equal terms. The meaning of the dialogue, therefore, is that subject-subject relations are realized in the lesson not only in the cognitive, but also in the moral and ethical sphere.

A technology that involves building the educational process on a mutual basis.

These are collective ways of learning, which will be discussed in detail below.

Technologies built on an algorithmic basis (M. Landa).

Technologies built on a programmed basis (V. Bespalko).

This entire “fan” of technologies can unfold and develop in the hands of an experienced teacher, because the conditions for their applicability depend on many factors; Moreover, technologies are closely interconnected.

Next, we will consider the technologies most often used at the first stage of education. Their range is defined age characteristics the child, the nature of his thinking and perception, the level of general development.

Review of educational technologies

Most best person the one who lives primarily by his own thoughts and other people's feelings, the worst - who lives by other people's thoughts and his own feelings.

L. N. Tolstoy

Traditional pedagogical technology

The term “traditional education” implies, first of all, the classroom-based organization of education that developed in the 17th century. on the principles of didactics formulated by J. A. Komensky, which is still prevalent in schools around the world.

The distinctive features of traditional classroom technology are the following:

Students of approximately the same age and level of preparation form a class, which remains largely constant for the entire period of schooling;

The class operates according to a single annual plan and program according to the schedule. As a consequence, children must come to school at the same time of year and at predetermined times of the day;

The main unit of classes is the lesson;

A lesson, as a rule, is devoted to one academic subject, topic, due to which students in the class work with the same material;

The work of students in the lesson is supervised by the teacher: he evaluates the results of studies in his subject, the level of learning of each student individually, and at the end of the school year makes a decision on transferring students to the next grade;

Educational books (textbooks) are used mainly for homework.

The academic year, the school day, the lesson schedule, school holidays, breaks, or, more precisely, breaks between lessons are attributes of the class-lesson system.

In Soviet pedagogy, learning goals were formulated as follows:

Formation of a knowledge system, mastery of the basics of science;

Formation of the foundations of a scientific worldview;

Comprehensive and harmonious development of each student;

Education of ideologically convinced fighters for communism, for the bright future of all humanity;

Raising conscious and highly educated people capable of both physical and mental work.

Thus, by its nature, the goal of learning technologies (TE) is the education of an individual with given properties.

In the modern mass Russian school, the goals have changed somewhat - ideologization has been eliminated, the slogan of comprehensive harmonious development has been removed, changes have occurred in the nature of moral education, but the paradigm of presenting the goal in the form of a set of planned qualities (learning standards) has remained the same.

A mass school with traditional technology is still a “school of knowledge”; it retains the primacy of the individual’s awareness over his culture, the predominance of the rational-logical side of cognition over the sensory-emotional side.

Conceptual provisions.

The conceptual basis of TO is the principles of pedagogy formulated by Y. A. Komensky:

Scientificity (there can be no false knowledge, only incomplete knowledge);

Conformity with nature (learning is determined by development and is not forced);

Consistency and systematicity (sequential linear logic of the process, from particular to general);

Accessibility (from the known to the unknown, from easy to difficult, mastering ready-made knowledge);

Strength (repetition is the mother of learning);

Consciousness and activity (know the task set by the teacher and be active in following commands);

Visibility (attracting various organs feelings to perception);

The connection between theory and practice (a certain part of the educational process is allocated to the application of knowledge);

Taking into account age and individual characteristics.

Education is the process of transferring knowledge, skills, and social experience from older generations to the younger generation. This holistic process includes goals, content, methods and means.

Features of the content.

The content of education in a traditional mass school was formed during the years of Soviet power (it was determined by the tasks of industrialization of the country, the pursuit of the level of education of technically developed capitalist countries, the general role of scientific and technological progress) and to this day is technocratic. Knowledge is addressed mainly to the rational principle of the individual, and not to his spirituality and morality. - 75% of school subjects are aimed at developing the left hemisphere, only 3% is allocated to aesthetic subjects, and very little attention was paid to spiritual education in the Soviet school.

The traditional system remains uniform and non-variable, despite the declaration of freedom of choice and variability. Planning of training content is centralized. Basic curricula are based on uniform standards for the country. Academic disciplines(fundamentals of science) determine the “corridors” within which (and only within) the child is given the right to move.

Education has an overwhelming priority over education. Academic and educational subjects are not interconnected. Club forms of work account for 3% of academic funding. In educational work, the pedagogy of events and the negativism of educational influences flourish.

Features of the technique.

Traditional technology is primarily an authoritarian pedagogy of demands, teaching is very loosely connected with inner life The student, with his diverse requests and needs, does not have the conditions for the disclosure of individual abilities and creative manifestations of personality.

The authoritarianism of the learning process is manifested in: regulation of activities, compulsory teaching procedures (“the school rapes the individual”); centralization of control; targeting the average student (“school kills talent”).

The position of the student: the student is a subordinate object of teaching influences, the student “must”, the student is not yet a full-fledged person, a soulless “cog”.

The position of the teacher: the teacher is the commander, the only initiative person, the judge (“always right”); the elder (parent) teaches; "with an object for children", style "striking arrows".

Methods of knowledge acquisition are based on:

Communicating ready-made knowledge;

Model training;

Inductive logic from the particular to the general;

Mechanical memory;

Verbal presentation;

Reproductive reproduction.

The learning process as an activity in technical education is characterized by a lack of independence and weak motivation for the student’s educational work.

As part of the child’s educational activities:

There is no independent goal setting; learning goals are set by the teacher;

Planning of activities is carried out from the outside, imposed on the student against his wishes;

The final analysis and assessment of the child’s activities is carried out not by him, but by the teacher or another adult.

Under these conditions, the stage of realizing educational goals turns into work “under pressure” with all its negative consequences (alienation of the child from school, education of laziness, deceit, conformism - “school disfigures the personality”).

Assessment of student activities. Traditional pedagogy has developed criteria for a quantitative five-point assessment of students' knowledge, skills and abilities in academic subjects; requirements for assessment: individual character, differentiated approach, systematic control and evaluation, comprehensiveness, variety of forms, unity of requirements, objectivity, motivation, publicity.

However, in school practice, TOs are found negative sides traditional rating system.

Quantitative assessment - a mark - often becomes a means of coercion, an instrument of the teacher’s power over the student, psychological and social pressure on the student.

A grade as a result of cognitive activity is often identified with the personality as a whole and sorts students into “good” and “bad.”

The names “C” and “B” evoke a feeling of inferiority, humiliation, or lead to indifference and indifference to learning. Based on his mediocre or satisfactory grades, the student first makes a conclusion about the inferiority of his knowledge, abilities, and then his personality (Self-concept).

There is a special problem of two. It is a non-transferable assessment, the basis for repeated grades and dropouts, i.e., it largely decides the fate of the individual, and in general represents a big social problem. The current bad grade causes negative emotions, gives rise to a psychological conflict of the student with himself, with the teacher, the subject, the school, and the family .

Traditional technologies also include the lecture-seminar-credit system (form) of education: first, the educational material is presented to the class using the lecture method, and then it is studied (learned, applied) in seminars, practical and laboratory classes, and the results of assimilation are checked in the form of tests.

Technologies for student-centered education

A fundamentally important point for understanding the essence of pedagogical technology is to determine the child’s position in the educational process and the attitude of adults towards the child. There are several types of technologies here.

Authoritarian technologies, in which the teacher is the sole subject of the educational process, and the student is only an “object”, a “cog”. They are distinguished by the rigid organization of school life, the suppression of initiative and independence of students, and the use of demands and coercion.

Didactocentric technologies are distinguished by a high degree of inattention to the child’s personality, in which the subject-object relationship of the teacher and the student also dominates, the priority of teaching over upbringing, and didactic means are considered the most important factors in the formation of personality. Didactocentric technologies are called technocratic in a number of sources; however, the latter term, unlike the first, refers more to the nature of the content rather than to the style of pedagogical relations.

Personality-oriented technologies place the child’s personality at the center of the entire school educational system, providing comfortable, conflict-free and safe conditions for its development, and the realization of its natural potentials. The child’s personality in this technology is not only a subject, but also a priority subject; it is the goal of the educational system, and not a means of achieving any abstract goal (which is the case in authoritarian and didactocentric technologies). Such technologies are also called anthropocentric.

Let us immediately note the inaccuracy of the term “person-centered education.” It would be more correct to say “individually oriented education”, because all pedagogical technologies are person-oriented, as they are aimed at developing and improving the child’s personality. However, following the established tradition, from now on we will also call individually oriented ones person-oriented.

Person-centered technology is the embodiment of humanistic philosophy, psychology and pedagogy. The focus of the teacher is on the unique, holistic personality of the child, striving for maximum realization of his capabilities (self-actualization), open to the perception of new experiences, capable of making conscious and responsible choices in a variety of life situations. In contrast to the formalized transfer of knowledge and social norms to the pupil in traditional technologies, here the achievement by an individual of the qualities listed above is proclaimed as the main goal of training and education.

Personality-oriented technologies are characterized by:

Anthropocentricity;

Humanistic essence;

Psychotherapeutic orientation;

They set a goal for the versatile, free and creative development of the child.

Within the framework of person-oriented technologies, independent areas are distinguished:

Humane-personal technologies;

Technologies of cooperation;

Technologies of free education;

Esoteric technologies.

Humane-personal technologies are distinguished primarily by their humanistic essence, psychotherapeutic focus on supporting the individual and helping her. They “profess” the ideas of respect and love for the child, optimistic faith in his creative powers, rejecting coercion.

Collaboration technologies implement democracy, equality, and partnership in the subject-subject relationship between teacher and child. The teacher and students jointly develop goals, content, and give assessments, being in a state of cooperation and co-creation.

Technologies of free education place emphasis on providing the child with freedom of choice and independence in a greater or lesser area of ​​his life. When making a choice, the child realizes the position of the subject in the best way, going to the result from internal motivation, and not from external influence.

Esoteric technologies are based on the doctrine of esoteric ("unconscious", subconscious) knowledge - Truth and the paths leading to it. The pedagogical process is not a message, not communication, but an introduction to the Truth. In the esoteric paradigm, the person himself (the child) becomes the center of information interaction with the Universe.

The origins of the development of personality-oriented pedagogical technology are contained in the provisions of Bakhtin-Bibler's dialogue concept of culture, where it substantiates the idea of ​​the universality of dialogue as the basis of human consciousness. “Dialogical relationships... are an almost universal phenomenon that permeates all human speech and all relationships and manifestations of human life, in general, everything that has meaning and significance... Where consciousness begins, dialogue begins” (V.S. Bibler).

In traditional didactic systems, the basis of any pedagogical technology is explanation, and in student-centered education - understanding and mutual understanding. V. S. Bibler explains the difference between these two phenomena as follows: when explaining - only one consciousness, one subject, monologue; with understanding - two subjects, two consciousnesses, mutual understanding, dialogue. An explanation is always a top-down view, always edifying. Understanding is communication, cooperation, equality in mutual understanding.

The fundamental idea is to move from explanation to understanding, from monologue to dialogue, from social control- to development, from management -~ to self-government. The main focus of the teacher is not on knowledge of the “subject,” but on communication, mutual understanding with students, on their “liberation” (K. N. Ventzel) for creativity. Creativity and research are the main way of a child’s existence in the space of personality-oriented education. But the spiritual, physical, and intellectual capabilities of children are still too small to independently cope with the creative tasks of learning and life problems. The child needs pedagogical help and support.

These are the key words in characterizing technologies for student-centered education.

Support expresses the essence of the teacher’s humanistic position towards children. This is a response to the natural trust of children who seek help and protection from the teacher, this is an understanding of their defenselessness, and an awareness of their own responsibility for a child’s life, health, emotional well-being, and development. The support is based on three principles of Sh. Amonashvili’s activities:

Love the child;

Humanize the environment in which he lives;

Live your childhood in a child.

In order to support the child, V. A. Sukhomlinsky believed, the teacher must retain a sense of childhood; develop the ability to understand the child and everything that happens to him; treat children's actions wisely; believe that the child is making mistakes and not intentionally violating them; protect the child; do not think badly about him, unfairly and, most importantly, do not break the child’s individuality, but correct and direct its development, remembering that the child is in a state of self-knowledge, self-affirmation, self-education.

The uniqueness of the paradigm of the goals of person-oriented technologies lies in the focus on the properties of the individual, its formation and development not according to someone’s order, but in accordance with natural abilities. The content of education represents the environment in which the formation and development of a child’s personality occurs. It is characterized by a humanistic orientation, appeal to people, humanistic norms and ideals.

Child support technology

Personal orientation technologies try to find methods and means of teaching and upbringing that correspond to the individual characteristics of each child: they use psychodiagnostic methods, change the relationships and organization of children’s activities, use a variety of teaching aids (including technical ones), and adjust the content of education. Individual support technologies have been most fully developed in foreign research on humanistic psychology. K. Rogers considers the main task of a teacher to be helping a child in his personal growth. Pedagogy, in his opinion, is akin to therapy: it should always return the child to his physical and mental health. K. Rogers argues that a teacher can create the right atmosphere in the classroom for individual development if he is guided by the following principles:

Throughout the educational process, the teacher must demonstrate to the children his complete confidence in them;

The teacher must help students in forming and clarifying the goals and objectives facing both the class as a whole and each student individually;

The teacher must assume that children have internal motivation to learn;

The teacher should be a source of varied experience for students, to whom they can always turn for help;

It is important that he acts in this role for each student;

The teacher must develop the ability to sense the national mood of the group and accept it;

The teacher must be an active participant in group interaction;

He should express his feelings openly in class;

Must strive to achieve empathy, allowing us to understand the feelings and experiences of each student;

A teacher must know himself and his capabilities well.

Academician of the Russian Academy of Education E. V. Bondarevskaya identifies a number of essential requirements for the technology of student-centered education:

Dialogue,

Active and creative character,

Supporting the individual development of the child,

Providing him with the necessary space of freedom to make independent decisions, creativity, choice of content and methods of learning and behavior.

According to E. V. Bondarevskaya, the teacher that a student-oriented school needs must meet the following requirements:

• have a value-based attitude towards the child, culture, creativity;
• demonstrate a humane pedagogical position;
• take care of the ecology of childhood, preserving the mental and physical health of children;
• be able to create and constantly enrich a cultural, informational and subject-developing educational environment;
• be able to work with the content of training, giving it a personal and semantic orientation;
• master a variety of pedagogical technologies, knows how to give them a personal developmental orientation;
• show concern for the development and support of the individuality of each child.

Finally, the question remains open: what are the means of supporting a child in learning? The teaching staff of Rostov Secondary School No. 77 (the laboratory school of the Russian Academy of Education), as a result of a thorough discussion, differentiated the means of supporting the child into 2 groups.

The first group of means provides general pedagogical support for all students and creates the necessary tone of goodwill, mutual understanding and cooperation. This is the teacher’s attentive, friendly attitude towards students, trust in them, involvement in lesson planning, creation of mutual learning situations, use of activity content, games, various forms dramatization, creative works, positive assessment of achievements, dialogical communication, etc.

The second group of funds is aimed at individual personal support and involves diagnosing individual development, training, education, identifying personal problems of children, tracking the development processes of each child. In this case, the dosage of pedagogical assistance, based on knowledge and understanding of the physical (physical) and spiritual nature of the child, the circumstances of his life and fate, is important. Features of the soul and character, language and behavior, as well as the characteristic pace of educational work. Teachers attach a special role in individual support to situations of success, creating conditions for personal self-realization, increasing the student’s status, and the significance of his personal “contributions” to solving common problems.

Pedagogy of cooperation

The pedagogy of cooperation is one of the most comprehensive pedagogical generalizations of the 80s, which gave rise to numerous innovative processes in education. The name of this technology was given by a group of innovative teachers, whose generalized experience combined the best traditions of the Russian school (K. D. Ushinsky, N. P. Pirogov, L. N. Tolstoy), the school of the Soviet period (S. T. Shatsky, V. A. Sukhomlinsky, A. S. Makarenko) and foreign teachers (J. J. Rousseau, J. Korczak, K. Rogers, E. Bern) in the field of psychological and pedagogical practice and science.

As an integral technology, cooperation pedagogy has not yet been embodied in a specific model and does not have normative and executive tools; her ideas were included in almost all modern pedagogical technologies and formed the basis of the “Concept of Secondary Education Russian Federation". Therefore, cooperation pedagogy should be considered as a special type of “penetrating” technology, which is the embodiment of new pedagogical thinking, a source of progressive ideas and, to one degree or another, included in many modern pedagogical technologies as their component part.

The pedagogy of cooperation has the following classification characteristics:

By level of application - general pedagogical technology;

The philosophical basis is humanistic;

According to the main development factor - complex biosocio- and psychogenic;

According to the concept of assimilation: associative-reflex step-by-step internalization;

In terms of orientation towards personal structures - comprehensively harmonious;

By the nature of the content: teaching + educational, secular, humanistic, general education, penetrating;

By type of management: small group system;

By organizational forms: academic + club, individual + group, differentiated;

According to the approach to the child: humane-personal, subject-subjective;

According to the predominant method: problem-search, creative, dialogical, game;

Transition from pedagogy of demands to pedagogy of relationships;

Humane and personal approach to the child;

Unity of training and education.

In the “Concept of Secondary Education of the Russian Federation,” cooperation is interpreted as the idea of ​​joint developmental activities of adults and children, cemented by mutual understanding, penetration into each other’s spiritual world, and joint analysis of the progress and results of this activity. As a system of relationships, cooperation is multidimensional; but the most important place in it is occupied by the teacher-student relationship. In the concept of cooperation, the student is presented as the subject of his learning activity. Therefore, two subjects of the same process must act together; neither of them should stand above the other.

Within the team, cooperative relationships are established between teachers, administration, student and teacher organizations; the principle of cooperation extends to all types of relationships between students, teachers and leaders with the surrounding social environment (parents, family, public and labor organizations).

There are four areas of cooperation pedagogy:

Humane and personal approach to the child. The development of the entire holistic set of personality qualities is placed at the center of the school educational system.

The goal of the school is to awaken and bring to life internal strengths and capabilities, to use them for a more complete and free development of the individual. The humane-personal approach combines the following ideas:

ü a new look at personality as the goal of education, the personal orientation of the educational process;

ü humanization and democratization of pedagogical relations;

ü rejection of direct coercion as a method that does not produce results in modern conditions;

ü a new interpretation of the individual approach;

ü the formation of a positive self-concept, i.e., a system of a person’s conscious and unconscious ideas about himself, on the basis of which he builds his behavior.

Didactic activating and developing complex. New fundamental approaches and trends are opening up in resolving the issues of “what” and “how” to teach children; the content of education is considered as a means of personal development, and not as a self-sufficient goal of the school; training is conducted in generalized knowledge, skills and ways of thinking; integration, variability; positive stimulation is used.

Improving the methods and forms of the educational process is revealed in a number of didactic ideas used in the original systems of innovative teachers: the reference signals of V. F. Shatalov, the idea of ​​free choice of R. Steiner, the advance of S. N. Lysenkova, the idea of ​​large blocks by P. M. Erdnieva, in the intellectual background of the class of V. A. Sukhomlinsky, personality development according to L. V. Zankov, in the creative and performing abilities of I. P. Volkov, in the zone of proximal development of L. S. Vygotsky, etc.

Education concept. The conceptual provisions of cooperation pedagogy reflect the most important trends according to which education in modern school:

• turning the school of Knowledge into a school of Education;
• placing the student’s personality at the center of the entire educational system;
• humanistic orientation of education, formation of universal human values;
• development of the child’s creative abilities;
• revival of Russian national and cultural traditions;
• combination of individual and collective education;
• setting a difficult goal.

The ideology and technology of cooperation pedagogy determines the content of education.

Pedagogization of the environment. The pedagogy of cooperation puts the school in a leading, responsible position in relation to other educational institutions, the activities of which must be considered and organized from the standpoint of pedagogical expediency. The most important social institutions that shape a growing personality are school, family and social environment. The results are determined by the joint action of all three sources of education. Therefore, the ideas of competent management, cooperation with parents, influence on public and state institutions child protection.

Humane-personal technology Sh. A. Amonashvili

Give yourself to children!

Sh. A. Amonashvili

Academician of the Russian Academy of Education Shalva Aleksandrovich Amonashvili developed and implemented the pedagogy of cooperation in his experimental school. A unique result of his pedagogical activity is the “School of Life” technology.

The target orientations of Sh. A. Amonashvili’s technology are determined by the following:

Contributing to the formation, development and upbringing of a noble person in a child by revealing his personal qualities;

Ennobling the soul and heart of a child;

Development and formation of the child’s cognitive powers;

Providing conditions for an expanded and in-depth scope of knowledge and skills;

The ideal of education is self-education.

Basic conceptual provisions:

• All provisions personal approach pedagogy of cooperation.
• The child as a phenomenon carries within himself a life line that he must serve.
• A child is the highest creation of Nature and the Cosmos and carries their features - power and limitlessness.
• The holistic psyche of a child includes three passions: passion for development, for growing up, for freedom.

The most important skills and abilities and the corresponding disciplines or lessons: cognitive reading; written and speech activities; linguistic flair; mathematical imagination; comprehension of high mathematical concepts; comprehension of beauty, planning of activities; courage and endurance; communication: foreign language speech, chess; spiritual life, comprehension of the beauty of everything around.

The listed knowledge and skills are formed using the special content of methods and methodological techniques, including:

• humanism: the art of loving children, children's happiness, freedom of choice, the joy of learning;
• individual approach: personality study, development of abilities, deepening into oneself, pedagogy of success;
• mastery of communication: the law of reciprocity, publicity, His Majesty “The Question”, the atmosphere of romance;
• reserves of family pedagogy, parents' Saturdays, gerontology, cult of parents;
• educational activities: quasi-reading and quasi-writing, techniques for materializing the processes of reading and writing, children's literary creativity.

A special role in Sh. A. Amonashvili’s technology is played by the assessment of the child’s activity. The use of marks is very limited, because marks are “the crutches of lame pedagogy”; instead of quantitative assessment - qualitative assessment: characteristics, package of results, training in self-analysis, self-assessment.

The lesson is the leading form of children's lives (and not just the learning process), absorbing the entire spontaneous and organized life of children (lesson - creativity, lesson - play).

Gaming technologies

Origin and socio-pedagogical significance of the game

Attempts to unravel the “mystery” of the origin of the game were made by scientists from different scientific directions for more than one hundred years. The range of proposed answers about the origins of the game is very wide.

The problem of the game, according to one concept, arose as a component of the problem of free time and leisure of people due to many trends in the religious, socio-economic and cultural development of society. In the ancient world, games were the center of social life; they were given religious and political significance. The ancient Greeks believed that the gods patronized players, and therefore F. Schiller, for example, argued that ancient games are divine and can serve as an ideal for any subsequent types of human leisure. In Ancient China, festive games were opened by the emperor and he himself participated in them.

In Soviet times, the preservation and development of the traditions of the gaming culture of the people, very deformed by the totalitarian regime, began with the practice of summer country camps that stored the gaming wealth of society.

In world pedagogy, a game is considered as any competition or contest between players, whose actions are limited by certain conditions (rules) and aimed at achieving a certain goal (winning, winning, prize).

First of all, it should be taken into account that the game as a means of communication, learning and accumulation of life experience is a complex sociocultural phenomenon.

The complexity is determined by the variety of forms of the game, the ways in which partners can participate in them, and the algorithms for conducting the game. The sociocultural nature of the game is obvious, which makes it an indispensable element of learning. During the game:

The rules of behavior and roles of the social group of the class (mini-model of society) are mastered, then transferred to the “big life”;

The possibilities of the groups themselves, collectives - analogues of enterprises, firms, various types of economic and social institutions in miniature are considered;

Skills of joint collective activity are acquired and practiced individual characteristics students necessary to achieve their game goals;

Cultural traditions are accumulated, brought into the game by participants, teachers, attracted by additional means - visual aids, textbooks, computer technologies.

Game theories

Play is one of the wonderful phenomena of life, an activity that seems useless and at the same time necessary. Unwittingly charming and attracting people as a vital phenomenon, the game turned out to be a very serious and difficult problem for scientific thought.

In domestic pedagogy and psychology, the problem of play activity was developed by K. D. Ushinsky, P. P. Blonsky, S. L. Rubinstein, D. B. Elkonin. Various researchers and thinkers abroad pile one theory of play on top of another - K. Gross, F. Schiller, G. Spencer, K. Bühler, Z. Freud, J. Piaget, etc. “Each of them seems to reflect one of the manifestations of a multifaceted phenomenon games, and none seem to capture its true essence.

The theory of K. Gross is especially famous. He sees the essence of the game in the fact that it serves as preparation for serious further activity; In a game, a person, by practicing, improves his abilities. The main advantage of this theory, which has gained particular popularity, is that it connects play with development and seeks its meaning in the role it plays in development. The main drawback is that this theory only indicates the “meaning” of the game, and not its source, and does not reveal the reasons that cause the game, the motives that motivate it. The explanation of the game, based on the result to which it leads, which is transformed into the goal towards which it is directed, takes on a purely teleological character in Gross; teleology in it eliminates causality. And since Gross tries to indicate the sources of play, he, while explaining human games in the same way as animal games, mistakenly reduces them entirely to a biological factor, to instinct. Revealing the significance of play for development, Gross's theory is essentially ahistorical.

In the theory of the game, formulated by G. Spencer, who in turn developed the thought of F. Schiller, the source of the game is seen in an excess of forces: excess forces not spent in life, in work, find an outlet in the game. But the presence of a reserve of unspent forces cannot explain the direction in which they are spent, why they pour out into the game, and not into some other activity; Moreover, a tired person also plays, turning to the game as a form of relaxation.

The interpretation of the game as the expenditure or realization of accumulated forces, according to S. L. Rubinstein, is formalist, since it takes the dynamic aspect of the game in isolation from its content. That is why such a theory is not able to explain the game.

In an effort to reveal the motives of the game, K. Bühler put forward the theory of functional pleasure (i.e., pleasure from the action itself, regardless of the result) as the main motive of the game. The theory of play as an activity generated by pleasure is a particular expression of the hedonic theory of activity, that is, a theory that believes that human activity is generated by the principle of pleasure or enjoyment. The motives of human activity are as diverse as it itself; this or that emotional coloring is only a reflection and derivative side of real, genuine motivation. Like the dynamic theory of Schiller-Spencer, the hedonistic theory loses sight of the real content of the action, which contains its true motive, reflected in one or another emotionally effective coloring. Recognizing functional pleasure, or pleasure from functioning, as the determining factor for play, this theory sees in play only a functional function of the organism. This understanding of play is actually unsatisfactory because it could only be applied to the earliest "functional" games and inevitably excludes its higher forms.

Finally, Freudian theories of play see in it the realization of desires repressed from life, since in play they often play out and experience what cannot be realized in life. Adler's understanding of the game comes from the fact that the game reveals the inferiority of the subject, running away from a life with which he is unable to cope. Thus, the circle is closed: from a manifestation of creative activity that embodies the beauty and charm of life, the game turns into a dump for what is repressed from life; from a product and a factor of development, it becomes an expression of insufficiency and inferiority; from a preparation for life, it turns into an escape from it.

L. S. Vygotsky and his students consider the initial thing that determines the game to be that a person, while playing, creates for himself an imaginary situation instead of a real one and acts in it, fulfilling a certain role, in accordance with the transferable meanings that he attaches to surrounding objects.

The transition of action into an imaginary situation is indeed characteristic of the development of specific forms of play. However, the creation of an imaginary situation and the transfer of meaning cannot be the basis for understanding the game.

The main disadvantages of this interpretation are:

It focuses on the structure of the game situation without revealing the sources of the game. The transfer of meanings, the transition to an imaginary situation is not the source of the game. An attempt to interpret the transition from a real situation to an imaginary one as a source of play could only be understood as an echo of the psychoanalytic theory of play.

The interpretation of the game situation as arising as a result of the transfer of meaning, and even more so the attempt to derive the game from the need to play with meanings, is purely intellectualistic.

Transforming, although essential for high forms of play, the derivative fact of acting in an imaginary (imaginary) situation into the initial and therefore obligatory for any game, the theory of L. S. Vygotsky arbitrarily excludes from it those early forms of play in which the child does not create any imaginary situations. By excluding such early forms of play, this theory does not allow us to describe play as it developed. D. N. Uznadze sees in the game the result of a tendency of action functions that have already matured and have not yet received application in real life. Again, as in the theory of the game of excess strength, the game acts as a plus, not a minus. It is presented as a product of development, moreover, outstripping the needs of practical life. This is wonderful, but a serious defect of the theory is that it considers play as actions from within mature functions, as a function of the body, and not as an activity born in relationships with the outside world. The game thus turns into a formal activity, unrelated to the real content with which it is somehow externally filled. This explanation of the “essence” of the game cannot explain the real game in its specific manifestations.

Game as a teaching method

The value of the game cannot be exhausted and assessed by its entertainment and recreational opportunities. This is its phenomenon that, being entertainment and relaxation, it can develop into learning, creativity, therapy, a model of the type of human relationships and manifestations in work.

People have used games as a method of learning and transferring the experience of older generations to younger ones since ancient times. The game is widely used in folk pedagogy, in preschool and out-of-school institutions. In a modern school that relies on the activation and intensification of the educational process, gaming activities are used in the following cases:

As independent technologies for mastering a concept, topic, or even a section of an academic subject;

As an element of a more general technology;

As a lesson or part of it (introduction, control);

As a technology for extracurricular activities.

The concept of “game pedagogical technologies” includes a fairly extensive group of methods and techniques for organizing the pedagogical process in the form of various pedagogical games. Unlike games in general, a pedagogical game has an essential feature - clear learning and a corresponding pedagogical result, which can be explicitly justified and are characterized by an educational-cognitive orientation. The game form of classes is created in lessons with the help of game techniques and situations that act as a means of inducing and stimulating learning activities.

The implementation of game techniques and situations during the lesson form of classes occurs in the following main areas:

• a didactic goal is set for students in the form of a game task;
• educational activities are subject to the rules of the game;
• educational material is used in. the quality of its means;
• an element of competition is introduced into educational activities, which transforms a didactic task into a game one;
• successful completion of a didactic task is associated with the game result.

The game is a school of professional and family life, a school of human relations. But it differs from a regular school in that a person, while learning through the game, does not even suspect that he is learning something. In a regular school it is not difficult to indicate the source of knowledge. This is a teacher - a teaching person. The learning process can be conducted in the form of a monologue (the teacher explains, the student listens) and in the form of dialogue (either the student asks the teacher a question if he does not understand something and is able to record his understanding, or the teacher interviews students for the purpose of control). There is no easily identifiable source of knowledge in the game, no learner. The learning process develops in the language of actions; all participants in the game learn and learn as a result of active contacts with each other. Game-based learning unobtrusively. Play is mostly voluntary and desired.

The place and role of gaming technology in the educational process, the combination of game elements and scientists largely depend on the teacher’s understanding of the functions of pedagogical games. The function of the game is its varied utility. Each type of game has its own usefulness. Let's highlight the most important functions games as a pedagogical cultural phenomenon.

Sociocultural purpose of the game. Play is the strongest means of socialization of a child, which includes both socially controlled processes of their purposeful influence on the formation of personality, the acquisition of knowledge, spiritual values ​​and norms inherent in society or a peer group, and spontaneous processes that influence the formation of a person. The sociocultural purpose of the game can mean the synthesis of a person’s assimilation of the wealth of culture, the potential of education and the formation of him as an individual, allowing him to function as a full member of the team.

Function of interethnic communication. I. Kant considered humanity itself to be sociable. Games are national and at the same time international, interethnic, universal. Games provide the opportunity to simulate different situations life, to look for a way out of conflicts without resorting to aggressiveness, they teach a variety of emotions in the perception of everything that exists in life.

The function of human self-realization in the game. This is one of the main functions of the game. For a person, play is important as a sphere of self-realization as an individual. It is in this regard that the process of the game itself is important to him, and not its result, competitiveness or achievement of any goal. The game process is a space of self-realization. Human practice is constantly introduced into a game situation in order to reveal possible or even existing problems for a person and simulate their removal.

Communication game. A game is a communicative activity, although according to purely game rules it is specific.

It introduces the student to the real context of the most complex human relationships. Any gaming society is a collective that acts in relation to each player as an organization and a communicative principle that has many communicative connections. If a game is a form of communication between people, then without contacts of interaction, mutual understanding, and mutual concessions, there can be no game between them.

Diagnostic function of the game. Diagnostics - the ability to recognize, the process of making a diagnosis. The game is predictive; it is more diagnostic than any other human activity, firstly, because the individual behaves in the game at the maximum of manifestations (intelligence, creativity); secondly, the game itself is a special “field of self-expression”.

Game therapy function of the game. The game can and should be used to overcome various difficulties that arise in a person’s behavior, communication with others, and learning. Assessing the therapeutic value of play techniques, D. B. Elkonin wrote that the effect of play therapy is determined by the practice of new social relationships that the child receives in role-playing play. It is the practice of new real relationships in which role play puts the child both with adults and with peers, relationships of freedom and cooperation instead of relationships of coercion and aggression, that ultimately leads to a therapeutic effect.

In-game correction function. Psychological correction in the game occurs naturally if all students have mastered the rules and plot of the game, if each participant in the game knows well not only his role, but also the roles of his partners, if the process and goal of the game unite them. Corrective games can help students with deviant behavior, help them cope with experiences that interfere with their normal well-being and communication with peers in the group.

Entertainment function of the game. Entertainment is an attraction to different things. The entertainment function of the game is associated with the creation of a certain comfort in a favorable atmosphere, spiritual joy as protective mechanisms, i.e., stabilization of the individual, the realization of the levels of his aspirations. Entertainment in games - search The game has magic that can give writing fantasy leading to entertainment.

Game motives and organization of games

Game forms of learning, like no other technology, promote the use of in various ways motivation:

Motives for communication:

Students, solving problems together and participating in games, learn to communicate and take into account the opinions of their comrades.

When solving collective problems, different abilities of students are used; In practical activities, children realize through experience the usefulness of fast-thinking, critically evaluating, carefully working, prudent, and risk-taking partners.

Shared emotional experiences during the game help strengthen interpersonal relationships.

Moral motives. In the game, each student can express himself, his knowledge, skills, his character, volitional qualities, his attitude towards activities, towards people.

Cognitive motives:

Each game has a close result (the end of the game), stimulates the student to achieve the goal (victory) and understand the path to achieving the goal (you need to know more than others).

In the game, teams or individual students are initially equal (there are no A students or C students, there are players). The result depends on the player himself, his level of preparedness, abilities, endurance, skill, character.

The impersonal learning process in the game takes on personal meanings. Students try on social masks, immerse themselves in the historical setting and feel like they are part of the historical process being studied.

A situation of success creates a favorable emotional background for development cognitive interest. Failure is perceived not as a personal defeat, but as a defeat in the game and stimulates cognitive activity (revenge).

Competitiveness, an integral part of the game, is attractive to children. The pleasure gained from the game creates a comfortable state in the classroom and increases the desire to study the subject.

There is always a certain mystery in the game - an unreceived answer, which activates the student’s mental activity and pushes him to search for an answer.

In gaming activity, in the process of achieving a common goal, mental activity is activated. Thought is looking for a way out, it is aimed at solving cognitive problems. Controlling many games is necessary to activate the child’s self-education process. From our point of view, it is necessary to include a number of the following points in pedagogical approaches to organizing children's games.

Game selection. The choice of game, first of all, depends on what the child is like, what he needs, what educational tasks require resolution. If the game is collective, do you need to know well? what is the composition of the players, their intellectual development, physical fitness, age characteristics, interests, levels of communication and compatibility, etc. The choice of game depends on the time of its implementation, natural and climatic conditions, length of time, daylight hours and month of its implementation, on the availability of game accessories, on the specific situation in the children's team. The goal of the game is outside the game situation, and the result of the game can be expressed in the form of external objects and all kinds of products (models, layouts, toys, construction sets, dolls, etc.), “products” of artistic creativity, new knowledge. In play, the substitution of motives is natural: children act in games out of a desire to have fun, and the result can be constructive. A game can act as a means of obtaining something, although the source of its activity is tasks voluntarily undertaken by an individual, playful creativity and the spirit of competition. In games, the child achieves goals at several levels that are interconnected.

The first goal is to enjoy the game itself. This goal reflects the attitude that determines readiness for any activity if it brings joy.

The goal of the second level is functional, it is associated with following the rules of the game, playing out plots and roles.

The goal of the third level reflects the creative tasks of the game - to solve, guess, unravel, achieve results, etc.

Offering games to children. The main task in offering a game is to arouse interest in it, to pose the question in such a way that the goals of education and the desires of the child coincide. Game proposal techniques can be oral or written. Of interest are toys or objects for play that excite the desire to play, game posters, game radio advertisements, etc. The offer of the game includes an explanation of its rules and techniques. Explaining the game is a very important moment. The game should be explained briefly and precisely, just before it starts. The explanation includes the name of the game, a story about its contents and an explanation of the main and secondary rules, including distinguishing between players and an explanation of the meaning of game accessories.

Equipment and equipment of the playing area, its architecture. The location of the game must correspond to its plot, content, and be suitable in size for the number of players; be safe, hygienically compliant, comfortable for children; have no distractions (not be a passing place for strangers, or a place for other activities for adults and children). Any microcosm of play in the yard - at school requires its own architectural and semantic solution. By architectural play area we mean such a development that corresponds to the constructive principles of children's games, has a play aesthetic plan that meets the requirements of the age of children, their desire for the bright, vast, heroic, romantic, fairy-tale.

Breakdown into teams, groups, distribution of roles in the game. A play group is usually called a group of children created for playing games. As you know, there are games that do not require division into groups, and team games. Breaking down into a team requires compliance with ethics, taking into account attachments, likes, and dislikes. Children's gaming practice has accumulated many democratic gaming-technical examples of dividing players into micro-collectives, in particular, drawing lots and counting cards.

One of the important moments in children's games is the distribution of roles. They can be active and passive, main and secondary. Distributing children to roles in the game is a difficult and scrupulous matter. The distribution should not depend on the child’s gender, age, or physical characteristics. Many games are built on equal roles. Some games require captains, drivers, i.e. command roles in the game's plot. Considering which role is especially useful for the child, the teacher uses the following techniques:

Assignment to the role directly by an adult;

Assignment to a role through a senior (captain, driver);

Selection for the role based on the results of gaming competitions (best project, costume, script);

Voluntary acceptance of the role by the child, at his request;

The order of playing a role in the game.

When distributing team roles, it should be done so that the role helps non-authoritative ones to strengthen their authority, inactive ones to show activity, undisciplined ones to become organized, children who have compromised themselves in some way - to regain lost authority; for newcomers and children who shy away from the children's group - to prove themselves and make friends with everyone.

In the game, it is necessary to ensure that arrogance and excess of power of team roles over secondary ones do not appear. Insubordination in a game can ruin the game. It is necessary to ensure that the role has an action; a role without action is dead; the child will leave the game if he has nothing to do. Negative roles cannot be used in the game; they are acceptable only in humorous situations.

Development of the game situation. Development means a change in the position of the players, a complication of the rules of the game, a change of environment, and the emotional saturation of game actions. The participants in the game are socially active insofar as none of them fully knows all the ways and actions of performing their functional tasks in the game. This is the mechanism for ensuring interest and pleasure from the game.

Basic principles of organizing the game:

• absence of any form of coercion when involving children in the game;
• principle of development of game dynamics;
• the principle of maintaining a playful atmosphere (maintaining children’s real feelings);
• the principle of the relationship between gaming and non-gaming activities; It is important for teachers to transfer the main meaning of game actions into the real life experience of children;
• principles of transition from simple games to complex game forms; The logic of the transition from simple games to complex ones is associated with a gradual deepening of the varied content of game tasks and rules - from game states to game situations, from imitation - to game initiative, from local games - to complex games, from age-related games - to ageless, "eternal" games. ".

One thing is certain - the educational value of intellectual games depends on the participation of teachers in them.

The teacher faces the following tasks:

• build on the achievements of the previous age;
• strive to mobilize the potential capabilities of a particular age;
• prepare the “soil” for subsequent years, i.e., focus not only on the current level, but also on the zone of proximal development of motives for learning activities.

A lesson conducted in a playful way requires certain rules.

Preliminary preparation. It is necessary to discuss the range of issues and the format of the meeting. Roles must be assigned in advance. This stimulates cognitive activity.

Mandatory attributes of the game: design, city map, crown for the king, appropriate rearrangement of furniture, which creates a novelty, surprise effect and will help increase the emotional background of the lesson.

Mandatory statement of the game result.

Competent jury.

Playful moments of a non-educational nature are required (sing a serenade, ride a horse, etc.) to switch attention and relieve tension.

The main thing is respect for the student’s personality, not to kill interest in work, but to strive to develop it, without leaving a feeling of anxiety and self-doubt.

Confucius wrote: “Teacher and student grow together.” Game forms of lessons allow both students and teachers to grow.

Developmental learning technologies

In the psychological and pedagogical literature of the last quarter of the 20th century. Many pedagogical approaches and principles are described, the implementation of which affects the effectiveness of teaching. Often, one of these principles attracted the attention of one or another teaching staff, who made a lot of effort to implement it. For example, in schools in Tatarstan it was the individualization of education, and schools in the Rostov region became famous throughout the country for “education without failing grades.” The results of such one-sided hobbies in pedagogy are well known: “innovations” turned out to be “seasonal.” Therefore, Z. I. Kalmykova quite rightly notes that the study of individual ways to increase the effectiveness of teaching and their impact on the level of mental development of students is necessary, but not sufficient. It is equally important to reveal the relationship between these approaches and principles, highlight the main ones, and present them in the system.

The concept of “mental development” is used very widely, but there is no clear answer to the question of what signs can be used to judge a person’s intelligence and the level of his mental development. All domestic psychologists recognize that learning plays a leading, determining role in mental development. This follows from social nature person: him mental development determined by the socio-historical conditions in which he lives. From the first days of his life, a child, under the influence of adults, begins to master the experience accumulated by previous generations and actively “appropriate” it, that is, makes it his personal property. In the process of mastering this experience, the child’s mental development and the formation of his human abilities occur.

A clear confirmation of this are far from isolated cases in history (more than 30 of them are described) when small children were raised by animals. Such children learned the habits of the animals they lived among (monkeys, sheep, wolves) and in the form of their behavior were closer to animals than to humans. They ran on all fours, lapping up food with their tongues, tearing meat with their teeth, howling, biting; were speechless. Once again in the human environment, such children, despite all the efforts of the adults around them, had great difficulty mastering only the elements of human speech and forms of behavior, and in their mental development they usually approached mentally retarded children, although they were physically quite healthy and developed. Such children have already passed the most favorable (sensitive) period for mastering speech and elementary forms of human behavior, and other mental mechanisms have formed that correspond to the conditions in which they grew up.

Some disagreement among scientists arises on the question of what role knowledge plays in mental development. For example, in the works of A. N. Leontyev, in fact, an equal sign is put between knowledge and mental development, since development, in his opinion, is completely determined by the nature of the generic experience “appropriated” by a person, acquired in those social conditions, in which the child lives and develops. Other scientists (E.N. Kabanova-Meller, V.A. Krutetsky) do not deny the importance of knowledge, but do not absolutize it either. They believe that knowledge is a condition for mental development, but is not part of its structure. This is argued, in particular, by the fact that some people amaze with the large amount of knowledge they have accumulated, without being distinguished by high mental development. According to these authors, mental development does not include knowledge itself, but a person’s ability to acquire and apply it, to transfer existing knowledge to relatively new conditions.

3. I. Kalmykova offers the following definition. Mental development is a complex dynamic system of quantitative and qualitative changes that occur in a person’s intellectual activity in connection with his age and the enrichment of life experience in accordance with the socio-historical conditions in which he lives and with the individual characteristics of his psyche.

Since mastering human experience is a decisive factor in mental development, knowledge should be considered as one of the components included in the structure of mental development.

In accordance with this, age-inappropriate poverty of knowledge may indicate a low level of mental development. However, mental development is evidenced not so much by the presence of knowledge, but by the ability to operate with it and apply it in practice. Knowledge acquired formally can be applied by a person only in identical cases, in a very narrow sphere, i.e., it does not have effective force. That is why the fund of effective knowledge should be considered a component of mental development, thereby emphasizing the conscious nature of its acquisition.

Along with the fund of effective knowledge, the structure of mental development includes learning ability. Learning ability is a system of intellectual properties of a person, emerging qualities of the mind, on which the productivity of educational activities depends, all other things being equal: the presence of an initial minimum of knowledge, positive motivation, etc.

The depth of the mind is manifested in the degree of significance of the features that a person can abstract when mastering new material, and in the level of their generalization. This quality of thinking appears most clearly in the discovery of new knowledge for a person, and such that cannot be obtained as a direct consequence of the logically sound application of existing knowledge and methods of action.

Inertia of the mind manifests itself in the opposite: in a tendency to a pattern, to a habitual train of thought, in the difficulty of switching from one system of actions to another.

Flexibility of thinking presupposes expedient variability that meets the changing conditions of the situations being analyzed, and inertia, on the contrary, is associated with an unreasonable delay in what no longer meets the changed conditions.

To successfully master new knowledge and operate with it, it is important not only to identify the essential features required by the situation, but also, keeping their entirety in mind, to act in accordance with these features, without succumbing to the “provoking” influence of random features that can lead one astray. the right path and lead to wrong decisions. This demonstrates the stability of the mind, which allows a person to mentally solve problems, keeping in memory a number of their characteristics. This quality is very clearly manifested when solving classification problems, when it is necessary to divide the proposed set of objects (pictures, words) into groups according to several criteria.

Awareness of mental activity is a quality of the mind that reveals itself in the ability to express in words both its product, the result - the essential features of a newly formed concept, pattern, etc., as well as the methods and techniques by which this result was obtained.

The independence of the mind is manifested in the active search for new knowledge, new ways to solve problems, in the special ease of accepting help where a person cannot find a solution himself, in taking into account mistakes. At a high level of manifestation of this quality of mind, a person seeks not only the correct, but also the optimal solution, without external stimulation going beyond the immediate task at hand. D. B. Bogoyavlenskaya called such a high level of thinking creativity.

The overall quantitative indicator of learning ability can be the economy of thinking. It is measured by the amount of specific material, based on the analysis of which a solution to the problem is achieved, by the number of steps to independent decision or "portions" of assistance in which a solution can be reached, or time spent in the "discovery" of new knowledge. An approximate estimate of the economy of thinking, quite sufficient for the individualization of teaching, can be obtained by any teacher on the basis of a fairly simple collective experiment. Before it is carried out, it is necessary to find out whether each student has the minimum knowledge and skills that are necessary to understand the new material, and to organize work with the class that would ensure the availability of this knowledge. The level of knowledge achieved by each student with a uniform explanation of the new material for everyone (and relying on the required minimum knowledge) serves as an indicator of the economy of thinking (the “pace of progress”).

The basic psychological principles of developmental education are:

Problem-based learning;

Optimal development of various types of mental activity (from visual-effective, practical, visual-figurative, abstract, abstract-theoretical);

Individualization and differentiation of training;

Special formation of both algorithmic and heuristic techniques of mental activity;

Special organization of anemic activities.

Under the influence of increasing demands on school education, Soviet psychologists began to study the “zone of proximal development” of children four decades ago. The task was set to find out what the thinking capabilities of children are if the content and methods of teaching are changed in such a way that they intensify the development of abstract, abstract theoretical thinking. The experiments brilliantly confirmed the hypothesis that children are much more capable than previously thought. It turned out that first-graders can operate with abstract symbols, solve problems based on formulas, and master grammatical concepts.

Similar data were obtained abroad. The famous psychologist J. Bruner, carried away by the success of the experiments, even formulated an extreme point of view, opposite to the previously dominant ideas about very disabilities intelligence of children. He wrote that any child at any stage of his development has access to any knowledge provided there are adequate methods of presenting it.

Of course, children's possibilities are not limitless. But research has shown that with appropriate organization of educational activities, they can be implemented to a greater extent than with the previously existing training system. Thus, the team led by V.V. Davydov and D.B. Elkonin proved the possibility of forming elements of theoretical thinking already at primary school age, increasing its share in the cognitive activity of children, and moving in learning from the “abstract to the concrete.”

The solution to a problem often occurs intuitively, and in this process both practical and imaginative thinking, directly related to sensory support, play a significant role. The solution to a pedagogical problem in verbal terms, on the basis of theoretical reasoning, should be carried out gradually, link by link. It is impossible for a person to cover all the necessary links, which makes it difficult to establish the relationship between them. The inclusion of visual-figurative thinking in this process makes it possible to immediately, “at one glance,” cover all the components included in a problem situation, and practical actions make it possible to establish the relationship between them, reveal the dynamics of the phenomenon being studied, and thereby facilitate the search for a solution.

The predominance of practical, figurative or conceptual types of mental activity is determined not only by the specifics of the problem being solved, but also by the individual characteristics of the children themselves. That is why one of the important principles of developmental training is optimal (meeting the learning goals and mental characteristics child) development of different types of mental activity: abstract-theoretical, and visual-figurative, and visual-effective, practical thinking.

Educational activities require mastery of different techniques for creating images using different materials (based on descriptive text, drawings, paintings). Methods of educational work can have varying degrees of complexity, which is associated with to varying degrees their generality. Mastering the techniques of educational work serves as the basis on which children develop educational skills. Skill and technique are not identical to each other. If a student develops his skill without first mastering a rational technique, then he often masters the wrong skill. For example, a student has mastered the ability to show natural zones with a pointer on a map of natural zones and on various physical maps where the boundaries of the zones are not marked. However, when mentally “overlaying” boundaries, such as the tundra, onto a physical map, he does not use the landmarks available on the map (mountain ranges, river mouths); instead, he constantly turns his head from the map of natural areas to physical map and back, stopping the movement of the pointer. This student is a “copyist.” He mastered the skill based on an irrational technique.

There is a system of teaching techniques that contribute to the development of students’ personality:

Transferring learned techniques from a learning task to a new one;

Search for new methods of educational work;

Managing your educational activities;

Generalization techniques.

Many years of practice in developmental training have proven its validity and effectiveness. In our experience, we introduced developmental education in a regular provincial school with a regular student population.

Radical changes have been made to the 5th grade curriculum. First of all, physics was taken from the 7th grade curriculum and “rejuvenated”. The introduction of this course entailed serious changes in the content of mathematics and other natural disciplines. For the 8th grade, a course “Man and Cosmology” was prepared for this contingent as a regional discipline, and many sections of mathematics were strengthened. As a result, most of the graduates entered universities in natural sciences and engineering.

In another case, at a school operating under the patronage of the Academy of Architecture and Arts, a geometry course was introduced from the 5th grade, and was supplemented with an “architectural component.” Three years later, in the same school, already in the 1st grade, the course “Architectural Geometry” was introduced. Interestingly, the students understood the unusual nature of the curriculum, but were very proud of the school's innovation and mastered the basics of geometry very well. After graduating from school, the vast majority of them became students of the art and graphic faculty of the Pedagogical University, the Academy of Architecture and Arts and the local art school.

It should be emphasized that any pedagogical innovations, including developmental education technologies, must be based on the results of preliminary psychological and pedagogical diagnostics, and the teacher must always be guided by the principle: “The main thing is to do no harm!”

Unfortunately, the technologies used in our education are generally closer to summative knowledge than to “intellectual development”. And shifting the center of gravity from the first technologies to the second is an urgent task of education at all levels. Among other things, this will contribute to the improvement of society.

So, with the term “developmental education” we do not associate any specific systems developmental education and understand it as an educational process in which, along with the transfer of specific knowledge, due attention is paid to the process of human intellectual development; such an educational process is aimed at the formation of knowledge in the form of a well-organized system

The development of developmental learning technologies requires, first of all, an answer to two questions:

What is the system that should be “built” in the learning process?

How should the “construction” itself be carried out? The answers to the first question constitute the structural foundations of developmental education and ultimately come down to the construction of a certain, let’s call it rational, model of intelligence. They define the goals, the final image of what should be created.

The answers to the second question are the technological foundations of developmental education, which determine how the educational process should be organized to most effectively obtain the desired result.

Personality - is an individual endowed with mental inclinations that develop in the process of life, learning, activity, communication, make it possible to form a certain worldview of the student (student), to develop the ability to defend it in various situations.

Factor condition, driving force, reason for the movement of a process.

The technology of personality formation is understood as the development of those qualities and properties that arise in the process of life-cognitive activity. The main role in the technology of personality formation is played by such factors:

1. Biological, Man belongs to the class of mammals, the most organized and harmoniously developed creatures of nature, and is its integral part. A person can exist by protecting and enriching nature itself. An important aspect in considering the biological factor is heredity. It is thanks to heredity that man is preserved as a natural being. After all, even in the embryo, the future of a person is already encoded, programmed in genes, therefore it is heredity that determines 50 percent of the real personality, and the remaining 50 percent falls on training and education and the educational potential of society.

2. Wednesday. The main characteristic of the environment is its physical data, including air, water, food, and the surrounding nature. Those. The environment determines the optimal level of development of the organism according to climatic conditions.

Another condition for the influence of the environment on the technology of personality formation is the possibility communication. If the hardening of the body is associated with the activity of the first signal system, then communication is based on the work of the second signal system. The most common forms of communication are oral and written. The science that studies the specifics of language is called linguistics. V. O. Sukhomlinsky wrote: “In order to normally form the personality of a student, it is necessary that a child at the age of five knows 3-5 thousand words (a normal rural child, when going to school, knows 300 words, an urban one - 400). The outstanding French writer Antoine de Saint-Exupéry very rightly noted: the only true luxury is the luxury of human communication.

3. Activity. V.O. Sukhomlinsky emphasized that intelligence (intelligence) of every child lies at the tips of his fingers, that is, activity is one of the most important links in the formation of personality. Human activity is divided into:

a) gaming - A. S. Makarenko wrote: “What a child is in a child’s game, so she will be in adulthood.” Most attention is paid to the use of play activities in families and schools in England and

Japan. Is it better to educate children in primary school in France and South Korea;

b) educational and cognitive;

c) creative activity of the individual;

d) artistic and aesthetic;

e) sports activities.

Personality socialization technology

What is the meaning of the technological concept of “socialization”? At first, this term was considered as a process of assimilation of social norms and values, as a process of entering the social environment (I. S. Kon, B. D. Parygin). On modern stage development of the technology of personality formation, it is generally accepted that the technology of socialization is a two-way process, including, on the one hand, the assimilation by an individual of social experience through entering the social environment, a system of social connections, on the other hand, it is a process of active reproduction of the system of social connections by the individual through his active work, active participation in the social environment (Andreeva G.M. Social pedagogy. - M.: MSU, 1980).

Close to the concept of "socialization" are the concepts of "developed", "training", "upbringing". But this closeness does not mean identity. Thus, opinions have been expressed that socialization acts as an essential characteristic of the processes of education and training, or that socialization and education in a broad sense words (the totality of all purposeful influences carried out by society) are identical in content. Neither one nor the other thought is sufficient. Socialization cannot be reduced to the concept of education, since simultaneously with the most diverse organized influences of society on the formation of personality, this process also includes elements of spontaneous , unorganized influence of the environment, as well as one’s own activity or its self-determination (self-restraint).

Thus, personality formation technology - a complex dynamic process that occurs in time and space and provides for: the development of high intellectual powers, morality based on positive universal qualities, preparation for creative work in society and the performance of the functions of a citizen of an independent state.